Understanding Coal Analysis

by Michael Hutagalung on 02/06/08

How to understand a coal sample analysis? What is the
difference between proximate and ultimate analysis? What is AR
(as-received) basis? Is is the same with DAF (dry, ash free)
basis? How about AD (air-dried) basis? And what coal ash
analysis is all about?
Well, it is indeed a long list of questions to answer but the
explanation is actually not as twisted as it seems. The main
purpose of coal sample analysis is to determine the rank of
the coal along with its intrinsic characteristics. Furthermore,
these data will be used as the fundamental consideration for
future concerns, for instance: coal trading and its utilizations.
Coal Properties
Coal comes in four main types or ranks: lignite or brown coal, bituminous coal or black coal,
anthracite and graphite. Each type of coal has a certain set of physical parameters which are
mostly controlled by moisture, volatile content (in terms of aliphatic or aromatic hydrocarbons)
and carbon content.
1. Moisture
Moisture is an important property of coal, as all coals are mined wet. Groundwater and
other extraneous moisture is known as adventitious moisture and is readily evaporated.
Moisture held within the coal itself is known as inherent moisture and is analyzed.
Moisture may occur in four possible forms within coal:
o Surface moisture: water held on the surface of coal particles or macerals
o Hydroscopic moisture: water held by capillary action within the microfractures of
the coal
o Decomposition moisture: water held within the coals decomposed organic
compounds
o Mineral moisture: water which comprises part of the crystal structure of hydrous
silicates such as clays.
2. Volatile matter
Volatile matter in coal refers to the components of coal, except for moisture, which are
liberated at high temperature in the absence of air. This is usually a mixture of short and
long chain hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons and some sulfur. The volatile matter of
coal is determined under rigidly controlled standards. In Australian and British
laboratories this involves heating the coal sample to 900 5 C (1650 10 F) for 7
minutes in a cylindrical silica crucible in a muffle furnace. American Standard procedures
involve heating to 950 25 C (1740 45 F) in a vertical platinum crucible.
3. Ash
Ash content of coal is the non-combustible residue left after coal is burnt. It represents
the bulk mineral matter after carbon, oxygen, sulfur and water (including from clays) has
been driven off during combustion. Analysis is fairly straightforward, with the coal
thoroughly burnt and the ash material expressed as a percentage of the original weight.
4. Fixed carbon
The fixed carbon content of the coal is the carbon found in the material which is left after
volatile materials are driven off. This differs from the ultimate carbon content of the coal
because some carbon is lost in hydrocarbons with the volatiles. Fixed carbon is used as
an estimate of the amount of coke that will be yielded from a sample of coal. Fixed
carbon is determined by removing the mass of volatiles determined by the volatility test,
above, from the original mass of the coal sample.
Coal Proximate Analysis
The objective of coal ultimate analysis is to determine the amount of fixed carbon (FC),
volatile matters (VM), moisture, and ash within the coal sample. The variables are
measured in weight percent (wt. %) and are calculated in several different bases. AR (as-
received) basis is the most widely used basis in industrial applications. AR basis puts all
variables into consideration and uses the total weight as the basis of measurement. AD (air-
dried) basis neglect the presence of moistures other than inherent moisture while DB (dry-basis)
leaves out all moistures, including surface moisture, inherent moisture, and other moistures.
DAF (dry, ash free) basis neglect all moisture and ash constituent in coal while DMMF (dry,
mineral-matter-free) basis leaves out the presence of moisture and mineral matters in coal, for
example: quartz, pyrite, calcite, etc. Mineral matter is not directly measured but may be obtained
by one of a number of empirical formula based on the ultimate and proximate analysis.
Proximate Analysis unit (ar) (ad) (db) (daf)
Moisture (wt. %) 3.3 2.7

Ash (wt. %) 22.1 22.2 22.8

Volatile Matter (wt. %) 27.3 27.5 28.3 36.6
Fixed Carbon (wt. %) 47.3 47.6 48.9 63.4
Gross Calorific Value (MJ/kg) 24.73 24.88 25.57 33.13
A table is shown above containing an example of proximate analysis data of coal. Conversion
from one basis to another can be performed using mass balance equations. The standard
practice for proximate analysis of coal may be referred to ASTM D3172-07a or ISO 17246:2005.
Coal Ultimate Analysis
Similar to coal proximate analysis, the objective of coal ultimate analysis is to determine the
constituent of coal, but rather in a form of its basic chemical elements. The ultimate
analysis determines the amount of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), sulfur (S), and other
elements within the coal sample. These variables are also measured in weight percent (wt. %)
and are calculated in the bases explained above.
Ultimate Analysis unit (ar) (ad) (db) (daf)
Carbon (C) (wt. %) 61.1 61.5 63.2 81.9
Hydrogen (H) (wt. %) 3.00 3.02 3.10 4.02
Nitrogen (N) (wt. %) 1.35 1.36 1.40 1.81
Total Sulfur (S) (wt. %) 0.4 0.39 0.39

Oxygen (O) (wt. %) 8.8 8.8 9.1

A table is shown above containing an example of coal ultimate analysis data and showing
significant elements only. Conversion from one basis to another can be performed using mass
balance equations. The standard practice for ultimate analysis of coal may be referred to ASTM
D3176-89(2002) or ISO 17247:2005.
Ash Analysis
Oxides
wt.% of ash
(Calculated)
Elements
wt.% of
ash
(Measured)
Na
2
O 0.35 Na 0.26
MgO 0.48 Mg 0.29
Al
2
O
3
20.0 Al 10.6
SiO 74.1 Si 34.6
P
2
O
5
0.05 P 0.05
K
2
O 1.1 K 0.92
CaO 0.68 Ca 0.49
TiO
2
0.80 Ti 0.48
Mn
3
O
4
0.06 Mn 0.05
Fe
2
O
3
3.25 Fe 2.28
An analysis of coal ash may also be carried out to determine not only the composition of
coal ash, but also to determine the levels at which trace elements occur in ash. These
data are useful for environmental impact modelling, and may be obtained by spectroscopic
methods such as ICP-OES or AAS. An example of coal ash composition is shown on the right.
Beside composition of coal ash, ash fusion point is also one significant parameter in ash
analysis. The optimum operating temperature of coal processing will depend on the gas
temperature and also the ash fusion point. Melting of the ashes may cause them to stick to the
walls of the reactor and result in a build-up.
You might be interested to read an article of coal characterization equipments here, illustrated
with photos, including coal proximate analysis, ultimate analysis, and ash fusion point analysis
equipments.


Coal Analysis for Boiler Designers
written by: Dr V T Sathyanathan edited by: Lamar Stonecypher updated: 7/3/2009
Hydrocarbon fuels are the major source of energy for power and process steam generation, and
coal takes a major share in this. Boiler furnace design will depend more on fuel characteristics,
and further heat transfer surface sizing will depend on furnace outlet temperature.
The world's thermal power is mainly dependent on coal as its fuel. When designing a boiler, fuel
analysis plays a major role. The performance of the boiler, and ultimately the entire unit, can
change considerably if the coal being used is substantially different from that for which the boiler
was designed.
What is fuel?
Any combination of organics and inorganic material which during chemical reaction or
transformation gives out large amount of heat is called fuel
Fuel can be hydrocarbon fuel and non-hydrocarbon
Industrial fuels have heat values from as low as 500 kcal/kg to as high as 11000 kcals/kg
Heat generated by fuel is used a boiler to generate steam for process, power generation, and a
variety of other applications. The chemical characteristics of the fuel decide many aspects of
boiler design. The boiler designed for gas fuel will have the smallest furnace size, and the boiler
designed for coal will have the biggest size.
Why is coal different?
All fuels are hydrocarbons
Gas and oil have defined hydrocarbons and structure, which means C & H in fuel does not
vary much
Coal is a heterogeneous fuel and has only an assumed structure C & H vary highly
C & H in Coal can be only be known if you do an ultimate analysis, and the way in which
these hydrocarbon behave can be different from one coal to the other. This will depend on
its reactivity and formation.
Formation of coal has vast impact on boiler design; the Gondwana coals are different from
American and European. (Coal formation theories).
Why is consistency in hydrocarbon important for boiler performance?
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It starts from combustion air calculation; the carbon hydrogen ratio decides the quantity of
combustion air.
Flame temperature is dictated by the chemical composition of the fuel, and this changes the
furnace behavior.
The completion of combustion is another very important factor in boiler design. This will
depend on how the hydrocarbon rings are formed and bonded. If the coal burns slowly
requiring more residence time then the SH and RH (superheater and reheater) behavior
changes when compared to the fast burning coal. This will lead to large injection in SH
and/or RH which will reduce the life of the tubes and also reduce boiler efficiency.
The amount of unburned material in fly ash and bottom ash of the boiler can change, and, if
it increases will increase fuel requirement, maybe only marginally.
Lack of consistency can lead to loss of the capability to generate when the ash level
increases beyond a threshold of the fuel preparation system capacity. This can also lead to
limitations on the fuel handling system.
Major effects of fuel on boiler design
A wide range of coal properties can lead to oversized pulverizing/firing equipment which will
in turn lead to a limitation on turn down and a possible increase in auxiliary power
consumption. This will also increase the furnace size and the SH and RH will need to be
sized properly, which can be difficult at times, to get the rated outlet temperature.
Oversizing of pulverizers and air heaters to handle occasionally high moisture coals will
require excessive tempering air when handling normal moisture coals. Ultimately all these
will result in higher gas outlet temperature, reducing the boiler efficiency.
The behavior of the ash during the combustion process and managing the coal-ash are the
major issues in boiler design. Deposition and slagging, heat transfer upsets, and fouling in
convection passages are some of the major issues to be dealt during operation of the boiler.
Steam generator performance is greatly influenced by the coal/ash properties. Changes in coal
property result in efficiency variation and the designer may not be able to demonstrate the
guarantees. This can also result in changes in power consumption, load limitations, boiler
availability loss due to slagging and fouling, tube failure increases, and plant heat rate reduction.
There are known and unknowns with coal during combustion. The known are the coal
Proximate, Ultimate, Calorific Value, HGI, and Ash analysis. The unknown are Petrographic
analysis, Reactivity, Slagging and fouling analysis, etc. All unknown become known only after
the combustion of coal in the boiler furnace and at the cost of boiler performance.


Furnace Size Varies for Gas, Oil and Coal Firing
written by: Dr V T Sathyanathan edited by: Lamar Stonecypher updated: 3/29/2011
Furnace sizing is a very important for a successful boiler design. The variation in boiler furnace
size can upset the performance drastically. Oil and gas fired units have more uniform sizes, but
the coal fired units have large variation. Chemical recovery boiler furnace is sized for drying fuel.
Boilers designed to generate steam for both industrial and power generation applications use
fuels like coal, oil and gas. Fuel characteristics have a great impact on boiler design. The
furnace designed in a boiler must be so sized that the furnace outlet temperature is predicted
and achieved within reasonable limits. The furnace outlet temperature is the basis for further
heat transfer surface design. It is seen that the furnace size varies considerably between coal
fired boilers and oil and gas. The variation between oil and gas fired boiler furnace size is to a
smaller extent only.
Design criteria for boilers
To understand why the furnace size varies between different fuels, we have to have a broad
idea about the design criteria for boilers.
First we should know the energy input level, this will depend on steam flow, feed water
temperature, pressure and temperature of steam, and an assumed efficiency of boiler based
on experience.
The energy absorption level needed in boiler and other heat transfer system will have to be
defined or worked out.
Based on the fuel given, for design calculate the fuel quantity, air and flue gas flow required.
Now determine the size and shape of furnace which will require knowledge of burner size,
other combustion systems, emission requirements, ash handling, furnace outlet temperature
limitation, etc.
Design superheaters, reheaters, ecomomisers, and air heaters so that the second pass can
be finalized. Care must be taken to size the heat transfer areas such that any requirement
due to fouling and the erosive nature of fuel is addressed.
Design the desuperheating requirement, location and number of equipment for cleaning of
pressure parts.
Boiler enclosures, supports, piping, expansion guides, and movements are all to be
designed and checked.
The code to which the boiler is designed is very important and has to be adhered.
Coal fired boiler furnace
The coal fired boiler furnace size is generally higher in volume by 20 to 35 %, depending on coal
types, when compared to an oil fired boiler. The factors that increase the furnace size are many.
The reactivity of coal is much lower than oil and hence need more residence time.
Even though the adiabatic flame temperature is higher than oil, the practically obtained
flame temperature is much lower around 1700 degree Celsius.
The lower flame temperature needs more radiant surface to be provided.
The ash in coal needs to be addressed and hence the rule of thumb is to keep the furnace
outlet temperature lower than initial deformation temperature of ash by 50 degree Celsius.
The ash deposits on the walls reduce the effectiveness of heat transfer and this is lower in
the case of coal fired boilers.
As it is not possible to have an accurate analytical solution for heat transfer in a steam
generator furnace, this leads to conservative sizing by designers.
There are three furnace heat loading adopted by designers, the EPRS (Effective Projected
Radiant Surface), the plan area and the volumetric. By virtue of experience and field results
from boilers, these loadings are much lower for coal fired boilers.
Being a solid fuel, the burner size and numbers go up when compared to oil or gas burners;
this factor also influence the furnace size to the higher side.
The bottom ash handling requirement increase the size of coal fired boiler. Normally about
20 % ash is collected as bottom ash in coal fired boiler. The oil and gas fired boilers have
nearly flat furnace bottoms.
It is to be remembered that among coal fired boilers themselves, the furnace sizes will vary
considerably depending on the age of the coal, ash characteristics, the reactivity, etc.
Oil fired boiler furnace
Oil flame emissivity is higher than coal flame and so results in higher furnace absorption. The
furnace heat loadings can also be maintained much higher due to near zero % ash. The very
low % of oil ash needs to be addressed from point of view of high temperature corrosion in heat
transfer surface. As a very general rule the volume of oil fired boiler furnace will have only 65 %
of volume of a coal fired boiler furnace.
Gas fired boiler furnace
When compared to oil, gas is a much more reactive and cleaner fuel. This allows still higher
heat loadings in the furnace, higher second pass gas velocity, etc. All these factors reduce the
furnace size further and result in the lowest furnace size for a similar capacity boiler.
Just to give an idea, a size comparison between coal, oil and gas fired boiler furnace is shown.
This is a very rough comparison and is for a specific nature of coal.
Boiler Furnace Size Comparison