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Chapter 1.

Introduction and Mathematical Preliminaries


1. Scope
Behavior of structures deals with
(a) Micro

state of stresses, strains, and displacements at a point


(b) Macro

global behavior, collapse mechanism, etc


Theory of elasticity is concerned with
(a) Equilibrium of forces (although equations may be expressed in terms of stress, a state
of equilibrium must be established by forces)
(b) inematics and compatibility

examine strain!displacement relationship


(c) "onstitutive equations

stress!strain relationship
(d) Boundary conditions

domain
(e) #niqueness

applicability of solutions
2. Vector Algebra
$ $ % % & &


x x y y z z
i j k
A A e A e A e
Ae A e A e
Ai A j A k
+ +
+ +
+ +
% % % %
% % %
% %
%
where
% x k
A , A , A
are scalar components of the vector and
% x
e ,e ,k
% % %
are unit vectors' #nit vectors
are mutually orthogonal only in the right!hand "artesian coordinate system' #nless specifically
mentioned the coordinate system adopted, the coordinate system is assumed to be the right!hand
"artesian coordinate system in all subsequent discussions herein'
( )
$ %
% % %
$ % &
/
A A A A + + length of a vector
$ $ % % & &
cos
AB
C A B A B A B A B A B + +
% %
scalar quantity
termed to be dot product or scalar product
$
$ ( ( cos
x x x y z A x
A A e A A A A A + +
% %
vector pro)ection on to the x!axis
*articularly, if
A
%
is a unit vector,
x
e
%
, then the dot product of two unit vectors is equal to the
direction cosine of the angle between these two unit vectors'
( )
cos ,
i j i j ij
e e e e
% % % %
These are procedures frequently used in elementary mechanics introduced in statics and
mechanics of materials'
$ % &
$ % &
$ % &
e e e
C A B A A A
B B B

% % %
vector+ referred to as vector product or cross product
sin
AB
C A B
area of a parallelogram
3. Scalar and Vector Fields
( )
$ % &
f x , x , x
temperature, potential, etc'
( )
$ % &
A x , x , x
%
vector fields, velocity, etc'
$ % &
$ % & $ % &
f f f f f f
grad f f e e e , ,
x x x x x x
_
+ +


,
% % % %
vector
grad f f
& $ %
$ % &
A A A
div A A
x x x

+ +
% %
scalar
( ) ( ) ( )
$ % &
$ % &
i j k
curl A A
x x x
A A A



% %
%
% % %
vector
%
$ ,ntegral Theorem
Two integral theorems relating vector fields are particularly useful in structural
mechanics for transforming between contour, area, and volume integral'
-reen.s theorem/ "onsider two functions ( ) P x, y
and ( ) Q x, y
which are continuous
and have continuous first partial derivatives (
$
C continuity) in a domain D, -reen.s
theorem states that
( ) ( )
,x ,y
C A
Pdx Qdy Q P dxdy +

where A is a closed region of D bounded by C' ,t should be noted that A should not have any
holes in it' This -reen.s theorem is the basis of an old instrument, planimeter, measuring the
area enclosed by a closed contour'
0ivergence theorem/ "onsider a continuously differentiable vector point function - in
0' The divergence theorem states that
v A
Gdv n GdA

% % % %
where v is the volume bounded by the oriented surface A and n is the positive (outward) normal
to A' ,t should be noted that v should not have any void in it'
Extra handout1
4. Indicial otation
2 mathematical agreement to simplify write!ups'
$ !ree inde"/ unrepeated indices are 3nown as free indices' Tensorial ran3 of a given term
is equal to the number of free indices appearing in that term'
$ dumm# inde"/ when an index appears twice in a term, that index is understood to ta3e
on all the values of its range, and the resulting terms summed unless otherwise noted' ,n
&
this so!called summation convention, repeated indices are referred to as dummy indices,
since their replacement by any other letter not appearing as a free index does not change
the meaning of the term in which they appear'
Example
The component of a first order tensor (vector) in three!space (range) may be shown as
( )
$
$ % & %
&
i i
a
a a ,a ,a or a a
a



' )


The %nd order tensor may be shown as
$$ $% $&
%$ %% %&
&$ &% &&
ij
A A A
A A A A
A A A
_



,
,n general, for a range on 4, an nth order tensor will have
n
N components' 5ence, for a range
of & on both i and ), the indicial equation
i ij j
x c z
represents in expanded form, the three equations
$ $$ $ $% % $& &
$
% %$ $ %% % %& &
& &$ $ &% % && &
& &
n
x c z c z c z
x c z c z c z N
x c z c z c z
+ +
+ +
+ +
6or a range of % on i and ), the indicial equation
ij ip jq pq
A B C D
represents in expanded form, the 7 equations (
%
% 7
n
N )
7
! ! ! ! ! ! !!
! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !!
p", q" # ! p"!, q" # !
i", j"$ A "B C D % B C D % B C D % B C D
i", j"!$ A "B C D % B C D % B C D % B C
6 44 7 4 48 6 44 7 4 48
!!
! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! !!
!! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! !! !! !!
D
i"!, j"$ A "B C D % B C D % B C D % B C D
i"!, j"!$ A "B C D % B C D % B C D % B C D
$. Coordinate %rans!ormation
6ig' $'$ "artesian coordinate systems
,n the study of deformable body mechanics, there will be many occasions to consider the
coordinate transformation from the original to the deformed configurations, or from the local to
the global coordinate system' "onsider the point P with coordinates ( ) ( )
$ % & i
P x , x , x P x
in the
unprimed system and ( ) ( )
$ % & i
P x , x , x P x
in the primed system' The linear transformation
between the two coordinates of P is given by
&
x
&
x

P
r
%
x
%
x
$
x
$
x
%
x
%
x
$
x
$
x

&
e

&
e
%
e

%
e
$
e
$
e

&
x
&
x

(
8
$ $$ $ $% % $& &
% %$ $ %% % %& &
& &$ $ &% % && &
x x x x
x x x x
x x x x



+ +
+ +
+ +
or in indicial notation
i ij j
x x
where j is the repeated index and hence a dummy index that invo3es a summation convention'
Each of the nine (
%
& )
ij

is the cosine of the angle between the ith primed and the )th unprimed
axis'
( ) ( )
cos , cos ,
j
ij i j i j i j
i
x
x x e e e e
x



% %
0irection cosines are arranged in tabular form for computation/
$
x
%
x
&
x
$
x
$$

$%

$&

%
x
%$

%%

%&

&
x
&$

&%

&&

,t is emphasi9ed that, in general,


ij ji

for
i j
' 2lthough the direction cosine between the
primed and unprimed axes is denoted by
ij

, it is misleading in that a better representation might


be
i j

' 5ence, it can be readily understood that


i j j i

for
i j
' 2ccordingly the angle
between two axes may have the relationship/
(
:(
i j j i



'
6rom a computational standpoint, it is often convenient to carry out the transformations
in matrix form as
{ } [ ] { } x & x
;
where
{ } { } [ ]
$ $ $$ $% $&
% % %$ %% %&
& & &$ &% &&
, , and
x x
x x x x &
x x


1

1

' ) ' )
1

1
]
[ ] &
is called a rotation matrix' ,n "artesian coordinates, the rotation matrix is also an
orthogonal matrix having a property+ [ ] [ ]
$ '
& &

' 6rom the arrangement of the direction
cosines shown above, it is obvious that
$
x
%
x
&
x
$
x
$$

%$

&$

%
x
$%

%%

&%

&
x
$&

%&

&&

{ } [ ] { } { } [ ] { } [ ] { }
$ '
x & x x & x & x


&. Cartesian %ensors
2 tensor of order n is a set of &
n
quantities which transforms from one coordinate to
another by a specified transformation law, as follows/
n order transformation law
(
9ero (scalar)
i i
A A
$
one (vector)

i ij j
A A
% %
%
two (dyadic)

ij ik jl kl
A A
% %
&
three

ijk il j( kn l(n
A A
% %
7
four

ijkl i( jn kp lq (npq
A A
% %
<econd!order tensors (dyadics) are particularly prevalent in elasticity and they are
transformed by
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
$ '
A & A) & & A) &


=
as in the case of following matrix stiffness relationships/
[ ] { } { } [ ] { } { } { } [ ] { } { } [ ] { } A q , A q , & , q & q
5ence,
[ ] [ ] { } [ ] { } [ ] [ ] [ ] { } [ ] [ ] { } { } [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
$ $ $
A) & & q & A) & & & q q A & A) &


[ ] [ ] { } [ ] { } [ ] [ ] [ ] { } [ ] [ ] { } [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
$ $ $ $ $
A & & q & A & & & q A & A &


'. (perational %ensor
$ ronec3er!0elta
$ if
( if i )
ij
ij
i j



$ *ermutation <ymbol (or 2lternating Tensor)
( ) ( ) ( )
$
%
ijk
i j j k k i
Thus
( if any two of i,),3 are equal
$ for an even permutaion such as $,%,& or &,$,%
$ for an odd permutation such as $,&,% or &,%,$
ijk


$ 2pplication
$ $ % % & & ij i j j j j
A A A A A + +
$ $ % % & & ij jk i k i k i k ik
D D D D D + +
$$ $$ %% %% && && ij ijk k k k iik k
C C C C C A + +
contraction+ reducing the order by two
( )
>> cos ,
i j i j i j ij
e e e e e e
( )
>
>>>
j j i i ji i j
e A e e A A A j
th component
?
( ) ( )
>>>>>>
ij i j ik k jl l ik jl k l ik jl kl ik jk il jl
e e e e e e
if i"j
% % %
$ % &
$
ij ii ik ik i i i
+ +
% % %
$$ $% $&
% % %
%$ %% %&
% % %
&$ &% &&
$ $
% $
& $
i *
i *
i *



+ +

+ +
)

+ +

normality property of direction cosines


if i )
$ $ % % & &
(
ik jk i j i j i j
+ +
$$ %$ $% %% $& %&
$$ &$ $% &% $& &&
%$ $$ %% $% %& $&
%$ &$ %% &% %& &&
&$ $$ &% $% && $&
&$ %$ &% %% && %&
$ % (
$ & (
% $ (
% & (
& $ (
& % (
i , j *
i , j *
i , j *
i , j *
i , j *
i , j *






+ +

+ +

+ +

)
+ +

+ +

+ +

orthogonality
$ %
$ % &
$ % &
>>>
> >
>
ijk j k i
e e e
A B e A B A A A
B B B

equivalent statement
). Computational *"amples
($) <how that
ij jk ik

*roof/
$ $ % % & & ij jk i k i k i k ik
+ +
(%) <how that
(
ijk j k
A A
*roof/
:
$ $ % % & &
$$
ijk j k i k k i k k i k k
i
A A A A A A A A

+ +

$ $ $% $ % $& $ &
%$ % $ %%
i i
i i
A A A A A A
A A


+ +
+ +
% % %& % &
&$ & $ &% & % &&
i
i i i
A A A A
A A A A


+
+ + +
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
& &
&$% $ % %$& $ & &%$ % $ $%& % & %&$ & $ $&% & %
&$% &%$ $ % %$& %&$ $ & $%& $&% % &
$ % $ & % &
$ $ $ $ $ $ (
A A
A A A A A A A A A A A A
A A A A A A
A A A A A A


+ + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + +
(&) *rove that the product of two first order tensors is a second order tensor'
*roof/
@et
i
A
and
j
B
be two first order tensors and
ij
C
be their product'
Then
i ik k
j jl l
A A
B B

note k,l are dummy indices


5ence
i j ik jl k l ik jl kl ij
AB A A C C
AE0
Exercises
$'% *rove that if
ij ij

, then
ij

is a second order tensor'


*roof/
( ) ( )
' '
' '
ij ij ik jk ik kj ik kl lj ik lj kl ik jl lk ik jl kl
AE0
$'7 ,f two first order tensors are related by
i ij j
A C B
, prove that
ij
C
is a second order tensor'
*roof/
( )
$
k ik k ik kl l ik kl (l l( l ik kl (l ( ik (l kl ( i( (
A A C B C B C B C B C B


6 7 8
5ence,
ij
C
is a second order tensor'
$(
5BC$ $'$,$'&, and $'8'
$'$ <how that (a)
&
ij ij

and (b)
;
ijk kji
+
(a)
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
$$ $$ $% $% $& $& %$ %$ %% %% %& %& &$ &$ &% &% && &&
$ ( ( ( $ ( ( ( $ &
ij ij

+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
(b)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
$%& &%$ $&% %&$ %$& &$% %&$ $&% &$% %$& &%$ $%&
$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ ;
ijk kji

+ + + + +
+ + + + +
$'& *rove that the product of a first order and second order tensor is a third order tensor'
*roof/
@et
i
A
be a first order tensor,
ij
B
is a second order tensor and
ijk
C
is a third order tensor so
that
ijk i jk
C AB
' Then
i jk il l j( kn (n il j( kn l (n il j( kn l(n ijk
AB A B AB C C
AE0
$'8 <how that if
i
B
is a first order tensor,
i , j
B
is a second order tensor'
*roof/
i ik k
B B
i k l k
i , j ik ik jl ik jl k ,l
j l j l
B B x B
B B
x x x x




5ence,
i , j
B
is a second order tensor'
(ref' Text pp' ;, Eq $!%%)
{ } [ ] { } { } [ ] { } [ ] [ ]
$
since
' '
l
jl
j
x
x & x x & x & &
x




5'B' %
The transformation matrix of a plane frame member is given by
$$
[ ]
cos sin
sin cos &
a a a q q
a a a q q
a a a



= = -



11 12 13
21 22 23
31 32 33
0
0
0 0 1
#sing Maple
D
, symbolic computation program, prove that this rotation matrix is an orthogonal
matrix, i'e', prove[ ] [ ]
'
& &
-
=
1
'
$%

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