Thermodynamics Notes

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ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS
SYSTEM:
-A quantity of matter or region in space, chosen for study.

SYSTEM TYPES:

-closed or control mass: only transfer of energy,
-open or control volume: transfer of both mass and energy,
-isolated: no transfer of mass or energy

SURROUNDING:
-Mass or region other then the system.
BOUNDRY:
- Real or imaginary surface that separate system &
surrounding.
STATE:
-Condition of system at particular time, at this point all
property has fixed value.
STATE POSTULATE:
2013 Mechanical Corporation. www.mechanical.in


-minimum number of independent intensive properties required.

EQUILIBRIUM:
-study of all thermodynamic process must be in equilibrium (includes all
mechanical, thermal, chemical, phase equilibriums etc)
PROPERTY:
-The quantity which characterize the state of the system.
INTENSIVE PROPERTY:
-independent of mass or size of the system e.g. density,
pressure.
EXTENSIVE PROPERTY:
-Dependent upon mass or size e.g. mass, volume.

PROCESS:
-Any change that system undergoes from one equilibrium
state to another equilibrium state e.g. isothermal,
adiabatic, polytrophic process.

PATH:
-A series of states through which the system passes
during process.
QUASI-EQUILIBRIUM/QUASI STATIC PROCESS:
-It is the process that precedes in such manner that system
remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state.
Iso baric- constant pressure . P = constant,


V/T=constant,
iso thermal const temperature T=constant ,PV = constant,
iso choric- const volume.V=constant ,P/T = constant
Isenthalpic- const enthalpy.h=constant
Reversible adiabatic (isentropic) - constant heatQ=0, S=constant, PV
=constant

PATH FUNCTION:
-depends on path of process.
POINT FUNCTION:
-depends on states of process.

WORK and HEAT:
-both are not property, they are path function; it
takes place only at boundary.
- Heat: Form of energy that transfers due
temperature difference.
-Work: other form of energy transfer without
temperature difference.
-Sign conversion: Q in: +ve, Q out: ve, Win: ve,
Wout: +ve



LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Zeroth law of thermodynamics:
when two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with third body. Then they are thermal
equilibrium with each other e.g. thermometer
First law of law thermodynamics-
Energy can neither be created nor can be destroyed, but can be transformed from
one form to another.

Second law of thermodynamics-
KELVIN-It is impossible for a device that operates on a cycles to receive heat from a
single reservoir and produce net work.

CLAUSIUS It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and
produces no effect other than the transfer of heat from a lower temperature body
to a higher temperature body.
THIRD LAW-
Entropy of a pure crystalline substance at absolute zero temperature is zero
ENTROPY:
-It is the measure of molecular randomness or disorderness.
-It is not a conservative property because of entropy generation.



ENTROPY GENERATION:
-Entropy generated during process is due to irreversibility.
INCREASE OF ENTROPY PRINCIPLE:
-The entropy of isolated system during a process always increases or, in limiting case
of a reversible process remains constant.
S
generated
< 0, impossible process
S
generated
>0, irreversible process
S
generated
= 0, reversible process
HEAT ENGINE
-Device which converts heat to work.
REFERIGERATOR-
- a device to transfer heat from low temperature medium to high temperature
medium, coefficient of performance(COP) is ratio b/w Q
L
(heat absorbed at low
temperature refrigerated space) to required W
in
(work input)
HEAT PUMP:
-a device to transfer heat from low temperature medium to high temperature
medium, coefficient of performance(COP) is ratio b/w Q
H
(heat rejected at high
temperature heated space) to required W
in
(work input)
COP
HP
=COP
R
+1

THERMAL ENERGY RESERVOIR:
- a imaginary body which has high thermal energy capacity that can supply or
absorb heat without change in temperature.
SOURCE:
-a reservoir that supply energy in the form of heat. (e.g.): sun, nuclear energy, etc


SINK:
-reservoir that absorb energy in the form of heat. . (e.g.): atmosphere, lakes, etc
REVERSIBLE PROCESS:
-the process that can be reversed without leaving any
trace on the surroundings. (e.g.).frictionless pendulum,
quasi-equilibrium process.

IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS:
- process that is not reversible because of the
irreversibilitys such as friction, heat transfer, etc.

PURE SUBSTANCE:
-substance that has fixed chemical composition
throughout.
MACH NUMBER:
-It is the ratio of actual velocity of fluid to the speed
of the sound in the same fluid and same state Ma= v/c.
M
a
=1 sonic, M
a
<1 sub sonic, Ma>1 supersonic, M
a
>>1 hyper sonic,
M
a approximately
=1 transonic.
ENTHALPY:
-sum of internal energy and flow work h=u+pv.
GIBBS EQUATION:
dh=Tds+vdp.
du=Tds-pdv.
COMMON RELATIONS:
T(k) = T(
.
c)+273.15 (Kelvin to Celsius),


T(R) = T(
.
F)+459.67 (Rankine to Fahrenheit)
T(
.
F) = 1.8T(
.
C)+32 (Fahrenheit to Celsius)
T(R) = 1.8T(K) (Rankine to Kelvin)
P
absolute
= P
gauge
+ P
atmosphere
P
atmosphere
= P
vacuum
+ P
absolute

Specific heat @ const volume C
V =
(du/dt),
Specific heat @ const pressure C
p =
(dh/dt)
C
p
= C
V
+ R, (R =gas constant)
Specific heat ratio :
k = c
p
/c
v

IDEAL GAS:
The gas which obeys the relation PV=RT
STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION :
q-w=h
2
-h
1
+ (v
2
2
-v
1
2
)/2+g (z
2
-z
1
)
TRIPLE POINT:
At a particular temperature and pressure the three phases coexist in equilibrium
For Water P = .617KPa and T=0.01
.
C
CRITICAL POINT:
The point at which the saturated liquid and saturated vapor states are
identical(Latent heat is zero) For Water P
cr
= 22.06 MPa and T
cr
= 373.95
.
C
CONTINUITY EQUATION :
Q = A
1
V
1
=A
2
V
2

CONSERVATION OF MASS PRINCIPLE:
The net mass transfer to or from a control volume during a time interval is equal to


the total mass within the control volume during the time interval.
m
in
-m
out
= m
cv

TYPES OF AIR CONDITIONING:
winter air conditioning system,
summer air conditioning system.
TYPES OF REFRIGERTION:
Vapor compression system, Cascade refrigeration system, Multistage compression
system, Linde Hampson liquefying system, Gas refrigeration system
Vapor absorption system

CARNOT CYCLE:

1-2 : reversible adiabatic heat addition.
2-3 : isentropic expansion
3-4 : reversible adiabatic heat rejection.
4-1 : isentropic compression.



OTTO CYCLE:



DIESEL CYCLE:



1-2: isentropic compression.
2-3: constant pressure heat addition
3-4: isentropic expansion.
4-1: constant volume heat rejection

DUAL CYCLE :

1-2: isentropic compression.
2-3: constant pressure heat addition


3-4: isentropic expansion.
4-1: constant volume heat rejection

BRAYTON CYCLE:



CARNOT VAPOR POWER CYCLE
1-2 : reversible adiabatic heat
addition.
2-3 : isentropic expansion
3-4 : reversible adiabatic heat
rejection.
4-1 : isentropic compression.



RANKINE IDEAL VAPOR POWER CYCLE



IDEAL VAPOR- COMPRESSION REFERIGERATION CYCLE


GAS REFRIGERATION CYCLES

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