I W E E TRANSACTI ONS ON BI O-ME DI CAL E NGI NE E RI NG, V OL. BME -1 8 , NO.

4 , JULY 1 9 7 1
An I nductively Coupled RE System for the Trans-
mission of I kW of Power Through the Skin
JOHN C. SCHUDE R, ME MBE R, I E E E , JE RRY H.
GOLD,
STUDE NT ME MBE R, I E E E ,
AND HUGH E . STE PHE NSON, JR.
Ab stract-I n systems inwhich inductive coupling b etween a pan-
cake-shaped coil onthe surface of the b ody and a similar coil within
the b ody is utiliz ed for the transport of electromagnetic energy, the
minimiz ation of temperature rise in the tissue is intimately related to
the achievement of minimum losses in the region of the implanted
coil. A detailed theoretical analysis indicates the design considera-
tions for achieving miniimum losses in the vicinity of the implanted
coil and predicts relevant internal losses of ab out one-half of 1 per-
cent of the transported power. E x perimental verification of theoreti-
cal ex pectations has involved an operating freq uency of 4 2 8 kHz for
the transmission of 1 kW of power b etween a simple water-cooled
coil onthe surface of the chest and a coil implanted in the chest wall
of a dog. A max imum tissue temperature of 1 0 3 . 5 F was ob served.
Since 1 -h operationper day at the 1 -kW level would supply the antici-
pated energy req uirements for a patient with an artificial heart, the
system may find application in the charging of internal energy
storage units of artificial heart systems.
I NTRODUCTI ON
I N A 1 9 6 1 PAPE R our group detailed the theoretical
rationale for b elieving that inductive coupling b e-
tween a simple pancake-shaped coil on the surface
of the b odyT and a similar coil within the b ody was an
efficient method of transporting power [ 1 ] . At that
timiie we were concerned with the artificial heart prob lem
anid visualiz ed an arrangement in which a patient would
carry a rechargeab le b attery and inverter in a vest and
in which power would b e transported through the intact
tissue as demanded b y the implanted heart. Short-term
ex perimental results at the 5 0 - and 6 9 -W V levels were
reported. These power levels were in the vicinity of, b ut
somewhat greater than, the 3 5 W V which were the antic-
ipated req uiremeint for a patient during ex ercise. Long-
term studies, in which dogs and mice have b een ex posed
on a chronic b asis to 3 2 0 -kHz fields which simulate the
field req uired for the transport of 5 0 W V through the
chest wall of a dog, indicate that such fields are prob ab ly
not inj urious to b iological tissue
[ 2 ] ,
[ 3 1 . Fuller has
shown that even when inverter losses are included, very
efficient energy transport is possib le with inductivity
coupled systems [ 4 ] . Heimlich and Christiansen have
ex tended our b asic approach to provide for regulation
of power in the event that the coil spacing or orientation
Maiiuscript received Octob er 1 4 , 1 9 7 0 . This workwas supported
b y the National Heart and l ung I nstitute uinider Puib lic Health
Service Research Grant HE -0 5 8 5 4 .
J. C. Schuder and J. H. Gold are with the Thoracic anid Cardio-
vascular Section, Department of Surgery, Untiversity of Missouri
School of Medicine, Columb ia, Mo.
H. E . Stephenson, Jr. , is with the General Surgery Section,
Department of Surgery, University of Missouri School of Medicine,
Columb ia, Mo.
is varied [ 5
] .
Other investigators have suggested induc-
tively coupled schemes which employ lower freq uency
operation and ferroimagnetic cores
[ 6 ] - [ 9 ] .
I n recent y7 ears there has b een considerab le interest ini
artificial heart systems which visualiz e thernial or elec-
trochemical energy storage uLnits iimiplanted within the
b ody. The patient would b e connected to a fix ed energy
source for one or perhaps several periods each day while
his internal unit was b eing charged and then b e free of
ex ternal apparatus during the reimiainder of the time.
I n order to minimiz e the time req uired to charge the
internal unit, Newgard and E ilers [ 8 ] and Huffman et
al.
[ 9 ]
have reported using inductively coupled circuits
with ferromagnetic cores at the 1 2 0 - and 1 8 5 -W levels,
respectively. Based on the simple techniq ues outlined
in our 1 9 6 1 paper, we have recently demonstrated en-
ergy transport at the 3 0 0 -W level
[ 1 0 ] .
The present paper is concerned with a detailed the-
oretical analysis of the prob lem of transporting electro-
magnetic energy into the b ody b y inductive coupling
b etween a pancake-shaped coil on the surface of the
chest and another coil implanted in the chest wall under
the constraint of minimiz ing the losses in the vicinity of
the implanted coil. The results of the analysis will sug-
gest that a several-fold increase over previously
achieved power levels is possib le.
PRE LI MI NARX T THE ORE TI CAL CONSI DE RATI ONS
I n our approach to the prob lemii of finding the condi-
tions for minimiz ing the losses in the internal coil and in
the tissue surrounding the internal coil, we shall first
consider the eq uivalent circuit of Fig. 1 . For the present
we shall tacitly assume that all of the losses in the inter-
nal coil and tissue surroundinig the internal coil can b e
correctly represented b y choosing appropriate values for
the various series and shunt resistances shown in the
eq uivalent circuit. After solving the eq uiivalent circuit
and finding the conditioins for minimum loss in terims of
the parameters of the eq uivalent circuit, we shall then
turn our attention to the prob lem of ex pressing the
various loss parameters of the eq uivalent circuit in
terms of such itenms as coil geometry, tissue conductiv-
ity, and the electrical parameters of the material used
in covering the coils. The rationaliz ed rimeter-kilogram-
second system of units is uLsed ex clusively in this paper.
I n the circuit of Fig. 1 , power is supplied to the ex ter-
nal coil at the numb er 1 set of termiiinals and delivered
b y the internal coil at the
niinib ( r
2 set of terminals.
2 6 5
I E E E TRANSACTI ONS ON B1 0 -ME DI CAL E NGI NE E RI NG, JULY 1 9 7 1
R3 C
where 1 7 2 ! is the rms value of the secondary terminal
voltage. From ( 1 ) , ( 3 ) , and ( 4 )
= v1 1
/ 2 ,RL1 2
+ f2 M2 ! \ 1 2 1
|RR
Fig. 1 . E q uivalent circuit representing complete prob lem and used
in formaliz ed derivation of power-loss and optimum-load rela-
tionships.
The load is represented b y a series comb inatioin of
capacitance C and resistance R. I t is assumed that the
series resistances R1 and R3 are small enough and the
shuinI t resistances R2 and R4 are large enough so that
they may b e neglected in deriving ex pressions for the
various cllrrents and voltages. I f the percent losses do,
ill fact, turn out to b e low, the assumption is appropri-
atte. Otherwise, a nmore sophisticated approach would b e
req uired.
Losses
W ith coC adj usted to eq ual 1 / ( wL2 ) , the voltage
eq uilib rium eq uation around the secondary loop is
given b y
0 =
j cMI l + I 2 R ( 1 )
where X is the angular freq uency, L2 the inductance of
the secondary coil, AI the mutual inductance b etween
coils, and A1 and 1 2 are rms phasors representing the
primiiary and secondary currents. The secondary coil
terminal voltage, ex pressed as an rms phasor, is
,r = 1 2 ( R- 4 -) = ( R -j L2 ) . ( 2 )
Thle voltage eq uilib rium eq uatioil arouind the primary
loop is giveni b y
V 1 = j oLiI i + j wMI 2 ( 3 )
where L1 is the inductaince of the primary coil and
1 1
is
the rmls phasor representing the voltage applied to the
primlary coil.
W V ith P defined as the power delivered to the load,
the rms value of the secondary current can b e ex pressed
as
where V 1 7 is the rms value of the voltage applied to
the primary terminals.
From Fig. 1 it is evident that the power loss in the
transmission of power b etween the primary terminals
and the load is given b y
P
= oss-
I
j 1 2 R1 + V ,1 I 2 / R2 +
1 2 1
R3 +
j 2 |1 2 HiR1 .
( 8 )
X V hen the ex pressions for cuirrent and voltage from ( 4 )
throuighi ( 7 ) are stLb stitlited into ( 8 ) ,
RR,
I
PRLL w2 ) R3
Pss
' _ C0 2 M2 R2 t
M2
RRi) + A
1 1
-L2 2 '
R R
At this point, it is convenient to introduce a set of
dimensionless q uantities which we shall term " partial
dissipation parameters. " These parameters are defined
b y
R2
w% Lj
DI
Rs
cx L2
wL1
D. ) = -L
R2
wL2
D4
= - .
R4
( 1 0 )
W hile the purpose of introducing these parameters will
b ecome evident later, it is of interest to point out that
they are closely and inversely related to the Q ' s of the
coils. For ex ample, the Q of the primary coil in the
eq uivalent circuit is given b y 1 / ( D1 + D2 ) and the Q of
the secondary coil b y 1 / ( D3 + D4 ) . I t is also convenient
to ex press the mutual inductance in terms of the coeffi-
cient of coupling kand the inductance values of the
individual coils, namely
=
k( LI L2 ) 1 1 2 . ( 1 1 )
Using ( 1 0 ) to eliminate R1 throtugh R4 and ( 1 1 ) to
eliminate Alf, ( 9 ) b ecomes
1
I
( I
) 1 =
Fromii ( 1 ) and ( 4 ) the rms primary curreint is
( PR) I / 2
j E q uations ( 2 ) and ( 4 ) yield
Z ! = 2 CO2 Ls2
1 / 2
2 1
=
PiI 2 ( R +
I I
~R
( 4 )
( 5 )
( 6 )
P R
Plo,s = -- ( Di + D, + k2 D4 )
k LcoL2 k
coLkI k
+ ( D3 + D4 +k2 D2 ) ( 1 2 )
By differentiating
Pl,,0 ,
with respect to R and setting
the result eq ual to z ero, one finds that the load condition
for minimum power loss is
= D3 + D4 +
k2 D2 \ 1 / 2
R. P
= coL,\ Di + D2 k2 D4
( 1 3 )
( 7 )
2 6 6
k
) )
SCHUDFE R et ( l. : TRANSNMI I SSI ON OF POW E R THROUGH THE SKI N
W hen the value Ropt from ( 1 3 ) is sub stituted b ackinto
( 1 2 ) , the power loss Ltider optimum load is found to b e
2 P
Ploss ( min)
k-[ ( D1 +
D2 + k2 D4 ) ( D3 + D4 + k2 D2 ) ] 1 ( 2 ( 1 4 )
k
From ( 1 2 ) through ( 1 4 ) , the ratio of P1 o! s to
Pj osa0 n5 8 )
can b e ex pressed as
Ploss 1 / R Ropt
Ploss( min) 2 Ropt R
I mpedance Matching
Because the prinmary and secondary inductance val-
ues do not appear ex plicitly in ( 1 4 ) , they are availab le
for limited manipulation in order to achieve b oth the
minimum loss condition and a suitab le input impedance
whenworking into a load with a predetermined resistive
component. By rearranging ( 1 3 ) , the optimum secon-
dary inductance is given b y
R / D3 + D4 + kD2 \ -1 /
DkDI + D, + k2 D4 /
This value of L2 yields nminimum losses for any specific
value of R.
Although it is sometimes convenient to ex press the
impedance as viewed from the input terminals in terms
of an eq uivalent circuit consisting of a resistance in
shunt with aninductance, for the high power application
visualiz ed in the present paper, it is prob ab ly more help-
ful to consider the simple series eq uivalent input im-
pedance. From ( 1 ) and ( 3 ) , it is immediately evident
that this input impedance can b e ex pressed as
C0 2 M2
Z in
=
j wLi + R-* ( 1 7 )
R
I f M is now ex pressed in terms of the coefficient of cou-
pling and the inductances as given b y ( 1 1 ) , and if an
optimum value of secondary inductance as given b y ( 1 6 )
is used, ( 1 7 ) b ecomes
Z D3
+ D4 + k2 D-1 / 2 V "
Z in = j L + ct. ,L1 k
( D,
+ D2 + k2 D4 ) ( 1 8 )
From ( 1 8 ) it follows that one may ob tain a predeter-
mined value for the series eq uivalent input resistance
Rin b y making
the
primary
inductance
Rin ( D3 + D4 + k2 D2 ) 1 / 2
Li1 = --V -( 1 9 )
ckD, + D2 + k2 D4
COI L LosSE S
Having solved the coupling prob lem in a formaliz ed
way, we now turn to a detailed consideration of the
various loss mechanisms which determine the values for
of doing this is to consider first the contrib utions to the
partial dissipation parameters from the coils themselves
and then consider the additional contrib utions to the
partial dissipation parameters which arise when the
coils are covered with insulating material and placed
in the b iological environment.
Although there are maj or losses associated with the
ex ternal coil per se, these losses do not occur within the
b ody and are of no immilediate concern to us. Conse-
q uently, and using the sub script A to denote coil-
associated contrib utions to the partial dissipation pa-
rameters, D1 A and D2 A are considered to b e z ero.
The implanted coil is a maj or source of internal power
loss. Our coils are flat wound with the windings occupy-
ing a region with an inside diameter of 6 X 1 0 -2 m, an
outside diameter of 1 0 X 1 0 -2 m, and a thickness of ab out
2 X 1 0 -3 m. W ith coils of this siz e, and b y using Litz wire,
we have found it comparatively easy to achieve mea-
sured ex perimental Q ' s of ab out 2 5 0 . That is, one can
realiz e a value of ab out 4 X 1 0 -3 for the sum of D3 A and
D4 A. But a
glance at
( 1 4 ) indicates that for a given sunm
of D3 and D4 , for ex ample, it is very important that D4
b e made as small as possib le. Conseq uently, it is desir-
ab le that the coil b e constructed so that its contrib ution
to D4 , namely D4 A, b e minimiz ed. W e have found that
b y using comparatively small wire and an unusually
loose winding, D4 A can typically b e made one-third or
less of the sum of D3 A and D4 A.
I NDUCTI V E -TYPE TI SSUE LOSSE S
E lectric fields are estab lished in the b iological tissue
b y virtue of the time-varying magnetic field set up b y
the currents in the two coils and b y virtue of the voltage
which is present b etween the inner and outer turns on
each coil. These electric fields cause current and conse-
q uently power loss in the tissue. I n the present section
we shall consider the losses associated with the electric
field which is induced b y the time-varying nmagnetic
induction field.
A sketch of the geometrical arrangement of the coils,
together with an appropriate coordinate system, is
shown in Fig. 2 . The ex ternal coil, which is a short dis-
tance ab ove the surface of the chest, is centered on the
z ax is and lies in a plane parallel to the z
=
0 plane. The
internal coil is also centered on the z ax is. I t lies in the
z = 0 plane.
The magnetic induction vector B created b y the cur-
rents in the coils will, in general, have a radial and ax ial
component. Because of symmetry, its value will b e
independent of the angle 4 . This magnetic induction
field induces a tangential electric field vector E which
has ax ial symmetry and which is a function of r and z .
To evaluate the electric field at any poiI nt in the tissue,
imagine a single-turn circular loop centered on the z
ax is and in a plane parallel to the plane of the internal
and ex ternal coils. The voltage V T induced in such a
2 6 7
the
partial dissipation parameters.
A convenient
way
I E E E TRANSACTI ONS ON BI O-ME DI CAL E NGI NE E RI NG, JULY 1 9 7 1
z
E X TE RNAL COI L
SHORT DI STANCE
ABOV E SKI N -
BI OLOGI CAL
TI SSUE
W ALL
Fig. 2 . Coordiniate system used in discuission of imia- netic and
electric fields involved in iniductive-type power losses in tissuie.
Fig. 3 . I dealiz ed coil-tissuLe arrangement used in evaluation of
inductive-type power losses in tissuLe.
loop, ex pressed as an rms phasor, is given b y
V T = JE -dl ( 2 0 )
where dl represents a differeintial displacenment alonI g
the path of integration. Since E is a tangential vector
with the same magniitude everywhere on the circular
path of integration, the righlt side of ( 2 0 ) b ecomes
E 4 ,2 rr,
and we have fromii ( 2 0 )
E o
-I -
( 2 1 )
2 rr
where E 5 is anrms phasor representing the electric field.
I f we now introduce Ml, to represent the nlLtual in-
ductance b etween the primary coil and the imlaginary
loop and A1 2 to represent the mutual inductance b e-
tween the secondary loop and the inmaginary loop, we
have
fromii ( 2 4 ) is sul) stituted inito ( 2 5 ) ,
Ploss ( series issuie) | [ I , J
1 fJ'
M I t7 ]
1 ,2 1
2
[ ff
' ]
( 2 6 )
where ar is tacitly assumed to b e independent of position.
Consideratioin of ( 2 6 ) and Fig. 1 reveals that the tis-
stue power loss under study can now b e
conveniently
accounited for b y appropriate resistances in the R1 and
R3 positiois. That is ( using the sub script B to indicate
that we are concerned with tissue-related losses) ,
RlB -- ( I t, ( 2 7 )
and
R
=
-JJ dv.
( 2 8 )
V T
=
j wMlI l + j coM2 I 2
where 1 1 and I , are the curreints as shown in Fig. 1 .
W hein the valuie of V
Tfrom ( 2 2 ) is stlb stituted inI to ( 2 1 ) ,
E o
=
-( j coAM ll + j MJ,I ,) . ( 2 3 )
2 irr
Now, b ecause the phasor I 1 and the phasor ' 2 , as re-
lated b y ( 1 ) , are in timiie q uadrature, the rms value of
E o
can b e ex pressed as
Dividing b otlh sides of ( 2 7 ) b y wL1 and b oth sides of ( 2 8 )
b ) y, o,L2 yields
D
I I 1 1 /
2
DI B=
I C A2
L4 ii2 L r d2
( 2 9 )
and
-
1 1 roAf> 1
D3 B
=
LO J J dz rJ
[ 1 2 2
4 7 r2 L r
( 3 0 )
E
|= - _ ( TM. I J2 + ( cMX I . ) 2 J1 / 2 . ( 2 4 )
2 irr
The power loss in the tissue is given b y
Ploss ( series tisstue = f E f
1 2
Oud? ( 2 5 )
where o is the conductivity of the tissue and dtv is a dif-
ferential elevient ( f volum-ie. W lihen the valuie of
E p|
as the contrib ution of the loss mode under consideration
to the partial dissipation parameters D1 and D3 .
I n order to ex press D1 B and D3 B in somewhat more
ex plicit terms, it is necessary to evaluate the b racketed
terms in ( 2 9 ) and ( 3 0 ) . This, in turn, means that it is
necessary to find the L' s and Al' s. Since this is difficult
for our flat-wound coils, we have idealiz ed the prob lem
as shown in Fig. 3 . Here the diameter of the actual coils
has b een retained, b ut the flat cross section of the wind-
ing space has b een replaced b y a circular b undle of ap-
( 2 2 )
2 6 8
SCHUDE R et al. : TRANSMI SSI ON OF POW E R THROUGH THE SKI N
prox imately the same cross-sectional area. The spacing
of the ex ternal coil ab ove the surface of the skin and of
the internal coil b eneath the surface approx imates the
spacing which is used in our actual ex perimental work.
Since b oth L1 and M1 2 are proportional to the sq uare
of the numb er of turns on the primary coil, it may b e
ob served that the b racketed term in ( 2 9 ) is independent
of the numb er of turns on the primary coil. Similarly,
the b racketed term in ( 3 0 ) is independent of the numb er
of the turns on the secondary coil. The L' s and M' s in
( 2 9 ) and ( 3 0 ) can b e evaluated b y formulas derived
from Neuman' s relationship [ 1 I ] . W ith the M' s known
at selected points in the tissue, a numerical integration
can b e performed. For a somewhat more detailed dis-
cussion of the integration procedure under slightly dif-
ferent conditions, reference is made to one of our earlier
papers
[ ( 1 .
Although losses occur throughout the b ody, we are
primarily concerned with losses in the vicinity of the
internal coil b ecause it is these losses which will directly
influence our ab ility to transmit high power levels with
an acceptab le tissue temperature rise. Conseq uently,
we have picked a cylindrical region 4 X 1 0 -2 m high and
1 6 X 1 0 -2 m in diameter, as outlined b y the dashed lines
in Fig. 3 , for our region of integration in evaluating the
b racketed terms in ( 2 9 ) and ( 3 0 ) . For this region ( 2 9 )
and ( 3 0 ) b ecome
D1 B= 9 5 X
1 0 -' 2 wo
( 3 1 )
and
D3 B
= 1 7 5 X
1 0 1 2 wra. ( 3 2 )
CAPACI TI V E -TYPE TI SSUE LOSSE S
The b asic system under consideration operates and
operates well with one terminal of each coil at general
tissue potential, with the electrical center tap of each
coil at tissue potential, or without provision for any
particular relationship b etween the potentials of the
coils and the general potential of the tissue. However,
if dielectric and tissue losses of the capacitive type are
to b e calculab le, it is necessary that some specific ar-
rangement b e assumed. I n this section we shall consider
in some detail the case in which the electrical center tap
of each coil is at tissue potential and then comment
b riefly upon the arrangement in which one terminal of
each coil is at the generai tissue potential.
I n the material which follows we shall use the term
" midpoint" to designate a point on the flat-wound coil
such that a circle drawn through the point in q uestion,
and with the same center as the coil, would divide the
face of the coil into two regions of eq ual area. W e shall
also make the tacit and approx imate assumption that
this midpoint is the electrical center tap of the coil in
the sense that the rms voltages b etween it and the two
terminals are eq ual.
2 CA 2 Ce
Fig. 4 . E q uivalent circuit used for evaluation of capacitive-type
losses in b iological tissue and in material covering implanted
coil. E lectrical center taps of coils are connected to b iological
tissue.
An appropriate eq uivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4 .
The C' s represent capacitance which is introduced b y
the insulating material that covers the coils and sep-
arates their windings from the b iological tissue. The Z ' s
represent tissue-associated impedances. W e shall use
this eq uivalent circuit to develop ex pressions for the
power loss in the tissue and in the dielectric material
covering the internal coil and then use these power-loss
formulas to find the contrib ution of this loss mode to
the partial dissipation parameters.
I n the evaluation of the power loss from the circuit of
Fig. 4 , it is helpful to realiz e that the impedances intro-
duced b y the capacitors are very much larger than those
associated with the tissue. This means that I A and I B
are determined b y the terminal voltages and the im-
pedances of the capacitors and are sub stantially inde-
pendent of the tissue-associated impedances. Now let us
consider our flat-wound coils, and let A b e the winding
area on one face of the coils. The eq uivalent capacitance
2 CA can then b e ex pressed b y
nft~~~~~~~~~
1 2 _
2 CA
= -
2 2 A
( 3 3 )
where the
I
is introduced b ecause the voltage from mid-
point to the edge of the winding is not constant b ut
varies from z ero to a max imum value, and where the
A / 2 factor is present b ecause each of the two capacitors
involves only half of the one-face area of the coil wind-
ing. I n ( 3 3 ) , E ' is the permittivity of the material cover-
ing the coils and tA is the thickness of the insulation b e-
tween the ex ternal coil and tissue. The phasor represen-
tationi of the current I A then b ecomes
I A1 ( ) vi.
( 3 4 )
A similar ex pression for Ls, modified b ecause b oth faces
of the implanted coil are involved, yields
I B
1 ( 4 tf)
( 3 5 )
where tB iS the thickness of the insulation b etween the
internal coil winding and the tissue.
2 6 9
Li
I E E E TRANSACTI ONS ON BI O-ME DI CAL E NGI NE E RI NG, JULY 1 9 7 1
Although there are dielectric losses associated with
the covering on the primary coil, we shall not consider
them b ecause they are ex ternal to the b ody. The losses
associated with the covering on the internal coil can
b est b e ex plored b y ob serving that the eq uivalent con-
ductance 2 GB associated with the capacitance 2 CB can
b e ex pressed as
1 AS'
2 GB = -
3 tB
( 3 6 )
where a' is the conductivity of the material used in
covering the internal coil. The
I
term in ( 3 6 ) appears
b ecause the voltage from midpoint to the edge of the
coil varies from z ero to a max imum value, and the aver-
age value of the voltage sq uared over the area involved
is
'
of the value of the voltage at the edge of the coil
sq uared. Since the dissipation factor D' of the material
is defined b y
= I= ,E ( 3 7 )
we can eliminate or' from ( 3 6 ) and write
1 woAe' D'
2 GB
=
. ( 3 8 )
3 I B
The common impedance Z c is sub stantially z ero for
the case under consideration. This simplifies our ex pres-
sion for the power loss and allows us to write
PlOss( shunt tissue)
=
I A I 2 RA + |B I 2 RB + V 2 1 2 GB
( 3 9 )
where RA and RB are the series resistive components of
Z A and
Z B. W hen values for I A, I B,
and
GB from
( 3 4 ) ,
( 3 5 ) , and ( 3 8 ) are sub stituted into ( 3 9 ) , we have
Ploss( shunt tissue) = [ N RA
V ] 1 2
-w@ Ac' 2 / wA4 eDI (
+
4 B)
RB+
6 B
-I V 2 1 . ( 0
From ( 4 0 ) and Fig. 1 it is evident that the tissue
power loss under consideration can b e accounted for b y
appropriate resistances in the R2 and R4 positions. Again
using the sub script B to indicate that we are dealing
with tissue-related losses, we have
R2 B =
L\
) RA] ( 4 1 )
and
flwAE ' \ 2 / A et D' l--
R4 B
-
RB +
-
4 tB / 6 tB3
Dividinig wL1 b y b oth sides of ( 4 1 ) and wL2 b y 1 ) oth sides
of ( 4 2 ) yields
D2 B = wLI -) RA
8 tA/
( 4 3 )
and
F/ wA E ' \ 2 u,A e' D' \ _
D4 B = wL2 I 4 ) RB t I -.
6 tB
( 4 4 )
I f we now define L1 ' to b e the inductance of a single-
turn coil occupying the same space as our actual coil L1 ,
and L2 ' to b e the inductance of a single-turn coil occupy-
ing the same space as L2 , we have
D2 B = wn1 L1 2 [ ( l A'
8 tA
( 4 5 )
and
. _ 4 _ _
2
/ cA e' D'
D4 B = -- n2 L2 1 1 1 ) RB +
B / 6
( 4 6 )
where n1 is the numb er of turns on L1 and n2 the nunmb er
of turns on L2 .
The usefulness of ( 4 5 ) and ( 4 6 ) is enhanced b y having
appropriate numerical values availab le for RA and RB.
W e have found these approx imate numerical resistance
values b y using two ring sets as sketched in Fig. 5 . These
sets approx imate the dimensions of our coil windings.
One set was implanted ab out 7 . 5 X 1 0 -3 m deep in the
chest wall of a dog while the other set was held tightly
against the skin and coax ial with the implanted ring
set. W ith the inner and outer rings of the ex ternal set
constituting the numb er I set of terminals and the inner
and outer rings of the internal ring set constituting the
numb er 2 set of terminals, open-circuit and short-circuit
impedance measurements were made at a freq uency of
4 0 0 kHz with a General Radio 9 1 6 -AL RF b ridge. These
measurements yielded the following: Z 0 1 = 2 2 -j 9 ,
Z ,1 = 2 2 -j 9 , Z o2 = 5 . 9 -j O. 5 , and Z ,2
=
5 . 9 -j O. 5 . These
results give an eq uivalent T with Z A = 2 2 -j 9 , Z B = 5 . 9
-j 0 . 5 , and Z c= 0 . Thus our previous decision to set
Z c= O appears j ustified and we have RA= 2 2 Q and
RB= 5 . 9 Q . Because of the
freq uency dependence
of RA
and RB and b ecause the current is actually inj ected into
the tissue with a distrib ution which is impossib le to
duplicate ex actly with our ring sets, our values for RA
and RB are sub j ect to considerab le uncertainty. Never-
theless, as we shall see, the availab ility of even approx i-
mate values for RA and RB is helpful in finding the
contrib ution of this mode of loss to the total loss which
takes place.
W henone terminal of each coil is at tissue potential,
numerical coefficients in ( 4 5 ) and ( 4 6 ) must b e modified
to reflect increased losses. Specifically, the 8 in ( 4 5 ) is
changed to a 2 , the 4 in ( 4 6 ) is changed to a 1 , and the
6 in ( 4 6 ) is changed to 1 . 5 . I n addition, since Z c
in the
2 7 0
SCHUDE R et al. : TRANSMI SSI ON OF POW E R THROUGH THE SKI N
Fig. 5 . One of two identical ring sets used in evaluating RA and RB.
Ring sets are ab out 2 X 1 0 -3 m thickand radial dimensions are
ri= 2 . 7 5 X lO-2 m, r2 = 3 . 5 X 1 0 -2 in, r3 = 4 . 0 X 1 0 -2 m, and r4 = 4 . 7 5
X 1 0 -2 m.
eq uivalent circuit of Fig. 4 is no longer z ero, RA and RB
in ( 4 5 ) and ( 4 6 ) must b e suitab ly modified to account
for Rc. W hile the lumping of Rc into RA and RB is in-
ex act, the modified forms of ( 4 5 ) and ( 4 6 ) are still q uite
useful.
SAMPLE CALCULATI ONS
I n this section we shall use the relationships developed
in previous sections to calculate the losses for a specific
coil pair operated at a freq uency of 4 2 8 kHz . I n the
following section, our actual ex perimental ex perience
with this coil pair will b e presented.
The ex ternal coil under consideration consists of 3 2
turns of 3 -9 -3 8 Litz wire, wound very loosely so as to
occupy a space with an inside diameter of 6 X 1 0 -2 m,
an outside diameter of 1 OX 1 0 -2 m, and a thickness of
2 X 1 0 -3 m. The top of the coil is covered with a 4 X 1 0 -3
m layer of Silastic. The side of the coil nex t to the b ody
is covered with a 2 X 1 0 -3 m layer of Silastic to which is
fastened a 1 4 -turn coil of Teflon tub ing through which
cooling water flows. The outside diameter of the tub ing
is 2 X 1 0 -3 m. The coil has aninductance of 1 1 4 X 1 0 -6 H.
Since the coil is ex ternal to the b ody, D1 A = D2 A = 0 . The
ex ternal coil is shown in Fig. 6 .
The internal coil consists of 1 6 turns of 3 -1 6 -3 8 Litz
wire and is also very loosely wound so as to occupy the
same siz ed region as the winding of the ex ternal coil.
I ts Silastic covering is ab out 3 X 1 0 -i m thickon each
face. Thus the total thickness of the internal coil is
8 X 1 0 -3 m. The internal coil is illustrated in Fig. 7 . The
coil has an inductance of 2 9 . 7 X 1 0 -6 H and an effective
resistance of 0 . 3 Q at a freq uency of 4 2 8 kHz . I t has a
dc resistance of 0 . 2 1 Q . Using the dc resistance as a
reasonab le estimate of the internal coil' s contrib ution to
resistance in the R3 spot in Fig. 1 and the appropriate
eq uation from ( 1 0 ) , we have D3 A= 2 . 6 4 X 1 0 -i. The
0 . 0 9 -Q difference b etween the effective series eq uivalent
resistance of 0 . 3 Q and the dc resistance of 0 . 2 1 Q is
attrib utab le to shunt-type losses. I f this difference re-
sistance value is transferred to the shunt position b y the
familiar
R. hunt=
( wL)
2 / Rr,,. rio
relationship, and if the
appropriate eq uation from ( 1 0 ) is utiliz ed, D4 A
=
1 . 1 3
X 1 0 -3 .
The contrib ution to the partial dissipation parameters
b y inductive-type tissue loss is given b y ( 3 1 ) and ( 3 2 ) .
Fig. 6 . E x ternal coil. W ater cooled face which is placed nex t to
skin is shown. Unit has inside diameter of 4 X 1 0 -2 m, outside
diameter of 1 1 X 1 0 -2 m, and thickness of 1 X 1 0 -2 m. I t weighs
lhOg.
Fig. 7 . I nternal coil. Unit has inside diameter of 4 X 1 0 -2 m, out-
side diameter of 1 1 X 1 0 -2 m, and thickness of 8 X 1 0 -3 m. I t
weighs 9 0 g.
Based on the results of the workof Schwan and others
[ 1 2 ] , [ 1 3 ] , and as discussed in one of our earlier papers
[ 1 ] , we use a value of 0 . 5 mho/ m as a representative
value for tissue conductivity at 4 2 8 kHz . For this value
of conductivity, ( 3 1 ) and ( 3 2 ) yield DI B= 0 . 1 2 8 X 1 0 i-
and D3 B = 0 . 2 3 5 X 1 0 -3 .
The contrib ution to the partial dissipation parameters
b y capacitive-type tissue and dielectric losses is given
b y ( 4 3 ) and ( 4 4 ) where RA is taken as 2 2 Q and RB as
5 . 9 Q . Since the Silastic used in covering the coils has a
dielectric constant of 2 . 9 , the permittivity e' in ( 4 3 ) and
( 4 4 ) is given b y 2 . 9 multiplied b y the permittivity of
free space or 2 . 5 6 X 1 0 -1 1 F/ m. The dissipation factor D'
for our Silastic is ab out 0 . 0 0 4 . Because the water-filled
Teflon tub ing associated with the ex ternal coil consti-
tutes a layer with a relatively high permittivity and
low impedance, it is neglected in comparison with the
adj oining layer of Silastic. Conseq uently, we take tA to
b e 2 X 1 0 -3 m. The value of tB for the internal coil is
3 X 1 0 -i m. The area A follows from the winding dimen-
sions and is 5 0 . 3 X 1 0 -4 M2 . W e are now in a position to
2 7 1
I E E E TRANSACTI ONS ON BI O-ME DI CAL E NGI NE E RI NG, JULY 1 9 7 1
evaluate ( 4 3 ) and ( 4 4 ) . W e find D2 3 = 0 . 0 0 3 1 8 X 1 0 -3
and D4 B= 0 . 0 0 6 5 X 1 0 -3 .
Using these values for the various contrib utions to the
partial dissipation parameters, we have
DI
=
DI A+ D1 B
= 0 . 1 2 8 X 1 0 -3 , D2 = D2 A+ D2 B= 0 . 0 0 3 1 8 X 1 0 -3 , D-= D3 A
+ D3 B= 2 . 8 7 X 1 0 -3 , and D4 = D4 A+ D4 B = 1 . 1 4 X 1 0 -3 .
For a tissue thickness of ab out 7 . 5 X 1 0 -3 m, the wind-
iings of the two coils are ab out 1 . 5 X 1 0 -2 m apart and
the coefficient of coupling kis approx imately 0 . 5 .
W hen these values for the D' s and for kare sub sti-
tuLted into ( 1 4 ) , we ob tain a Ploss( min) of 5 . 1 6 X 1 0 -3 P.
I Thus at the 1 0 0 0 -W level, we predict a relevant loss of
5 . 1 6 W . From ( 1 3 ) , the value of the optimal load resis-
tance reauired to achieve this minimum loss is 1 2 3 Q .
E X PE RI ME NTAL PROCE DURE AND RE SULTS
I n our ex perimiental evaluation of the coil pair de-
scrib ed, the internal coil was surgically implanted at a
depth of ab out 7 . 5 X 1 0 -3 m in the chest wall of an
anesthetiz ed 3 1 -kg dog. The leads from the internal coil
were ex ternaliz ed at a remote location for loading and
miionitoring purposes. The ex ternal coil was placed on
the surface of the skin so as to b e coax ial with the inter-
nal coil. Tap water flowing through a simple copper tub e
heat ex changer in a 3 1 -F b ath supplied fluid for cooling
the ex ternal coil. The flow rate through the Teflon cool-
ing coil was 1 . 2 ml/ s.
The resistive component of the load was supplied b y
three large power resistors which were force-air cooled.
The RF resistance of the load, whenhot, was ab out 1 2 1
Q . Series capacitance was used for supplying the capaci-
tive reactance needed to b alance b oth the inductive
reactance in the power resistors and the inductive reac-
tance of the secondary coil. The ex ternal coil was driven
b y the output from an 8 3 3 A power amplifier stage
operating at 4 2 8 kHz .
During operation for 1 h at a load current of 2 . 8 8 A
and a load power of 1 kW , the temperature at the coil-
tissue interface, as measured j ust b eneath the internal
coil, rose from 9 8 0 to 1 0 3 . 5 0 F. After 1 h of operation, the
power was removed and the temperature j ust ab ove the
internal coil was found to b e 9 8 F.
The following method was used to confirm that our
power loss in the internal coil and the surrounding tis-
sue was approx imately as predicted: A Silastic-covered
dummy unit with the same dimensions as the internal
coil and with a distrib uted nichrome heating element
was implanted and supplied with 5 . 2 W of dc power.
W ith the ex ternal coil in place and nonenergiz ed, the
flow rate and ex it water temperature were first adj usted
to b e the same as they were during the transmission of
1 kW of RF power. After 1 h of operation, the tempera-
ture at the coil-tissue interface j ust b eneath the internal
coil was 1 0 6 F. Nex t, the entrance water temperature
was adj usted to b e the same as it was during the trans-
mission of 1 kW of RF power. After 1 h of operation,
the temperature at the coil-tissue interface j ust b eneath
the internal coil was 1 0 1 . 5 0 F. Operation of the dummy
unit at the 1 0 -W level under the water temperature
conditions mentioned ab ove yielded coil-tissue interface
temperatures of 1 1 2 0 and 1 1 0 F, respectively. These re-
sults suggest that our actual power losses for the 1 -kW
transmission level are verv close to those predicted b y
our theoretical analysis.
DI SCUSSI ON AND CONCLUSI ONS
Although inductive-type tissue losses played a rela-
tively minor role and capacitive-type dielectric and
tissue losses played an insignificant role in determining
relevant losses in our sample calculations, these losses
can b ecome very important under other operating con-
ditions. For ex ample, from ( 3 1 ) and ( 3 2 ) and from ( 4 5 )
and ( 4 6 ) , it is evident that these losses increase rapidly
with increasing freq uency. I n addition, the capacitive
associated losses increase with anincrease in the numb er
of turns on the coils, a decrease in insulation thickness,
and an increase in the dissipation factor of the material
used in covering the coils.
I f desired, some increase in the depth of implantation
of the internal coil could b e achieved without anincrease
in the separation b etween the windings of the two coils
b y merely decreasing the thickness of insulation which
covers the coils. From ( 4 5 ) , ( 4 6 ) , and the sample calcu-
lations, it is evident that at 4 2 8 kHz , the insulation
could b e made much thinner without significantly in-
creasing the losses. Any further increase in depth of
implantation of the internal coil would serve to decrease
the coefficient of coupling b etween the coils and, as indi-
cated in ( 1 4 ) , increase the relevant losses.
Onthe b asis of the theoretical and ex perimental work
reported here, we conclude that it is possib le, on a short-
term b asis at least, to transmit 1 kW of electromagnetic
power into the b ody. W hether the system will prove
attractive on a long-term b asis is a nmatter for further
study.
RE FE RE NCE S
[ 1 ] J. C. Schuder, H. E . Stephenson, Jr. , and J. F. Townsend,
" High-level electromagnetic energy transfer through a closed
chest wall," in 1 9 6 1 I RE I nternat. Conv. Rec. , pt 9 , vol. 9 ,
pp. 1 1 9 -1 2 6 .
[ 2 1 A. M. Dolan, H. E . Stephenson, Jr. , S. H. Malt, J. C. Schuder,
and J. W . Mackenz ie, " Heat and electromagnetic energy trans-
port through b iological material at levels relevant to the intra-
thoracic artificial heart," Trans. Amer. Soc. A rtif. I nter. Organs,
vol. 1 2 , 1 9 6 6 , pp. 2 7 5 -2 8 1 .
[ 3 1 J. C. Schuder, J. H. Owens, H. E . Stephenson, J. , and J. W .
Mackenz ie, " Response of dogs and mice to long-term ex posure
to the electromagnetic field req uired to power an artificial
heart," Trans. Amer. Soc. Artif. I nter. Organs, vol. 1 4 , 1 9 6 8 ,
pp. 2 9 1 -2 9 5 .
[ 4 1
J. W . Fuller, " Apparatus for efficient power transfer through
a tissue b arrier," I E E E Trans. Bionted. E ng. ( Short Comniuti. ) ,
vol. BME -1 5 , Jan. 1 9 6 8 , pp. 6 3 -6 5 .
[ 5 ] L. A. Heimlich and F. H. Christiansen, " E nergy transmission
through the intact skin," in Artificial Heart Program Conference,
R. J. Hegyeli, E d. W ashington, D. C. : U. S. Government
PrintingOffice, 1 9 6 9 , ch. 7 9 , pp. 9 3 7 -9 4 4 .
[ 6 1 C. F. Andren, M. A. Fadali, V . L. Gott, and S. R. Topaz ,
" The skin tunnel transformer. A new system that permits b oth
high efficiency transfer of power and telemetry of data through
the intact skin," I E E E Trans. Biomed. E ng. , vol. BME -1 5 , Oct.
1 9 6 8 , pp. 2 7 8 -2 8 0 .
[ 7 1 G. H. Myers, G. E . Reed, A. Thumin, S. Fascher, and L.
Cortes, " A transcutaneous power transformer," Trans. Amer.
2 7 2
SCHUDE R et al. : TRANSMI SSI ON OF POW E R TnROUGO THE SKI N
Soc. A rtif. I nter. Organs, vol. 1 4 , 1 9 6 8 , pp. 2 1 0 -2 1 7 . port of very high power levels through the skinb y aninductively
[ 8 1 P. Newgard and G. E ilers, " Skin transformer and power con- coupled-radio freq uency system," J. E lectrochem. Soc. , vol. 1 1 7 ,
ditioning components," in Artificial Heart Program Conference, 1 9 7 0 , p. 2 5 0 C.
R. J. Hegyeli, E d. W ashington, D. C. : U. S. Government [ 1 1 ] G. P. Harnwell, Principles of E lectricity and E lectromagnetism,
Printing Office, 1 9 6 9 , ch. 7 8 , pp. 9 2 7 -9 3 6 . 2 nd ed. NewYork: McGraw-Hill, 1 9 4 9 , pp. 3 2 9 -3 3 0 .
[ 9 ] F. Huffman, T. Rob inson, and S. Kitrilakis, " Development [ 1 2 ] H. P. Schwan, " E lectrical properties of tissue and cell suspen-
status of an implantab le rankine-cycle circulatory support sions," in Advances in Biological and Medical Physics, vol. 5 ,
system," in Artificial Heart Program Conference. R. J. Hegyeli J. H. Lawrence and C. A. Tob ias, E ds. New York: Academic
E d. W ashington, D. C. : U. S. Government Printing Office, Press, 1 9 5 7 , pp. 1 4 7 -2 0 9 .
1 9 6 9 , ch. 9 1 , pp. 1 0 8 3 -1 0 9 1 . [ 1 3 ] W . S. Spector, Handb ookof Biological Data. Philadelphia, Pa. :
[ 1 0 1 J. C. Schuder, J. H. Gold, and H. E . Stephenson, Jr. , " Trans- Saunders, 1 9 5 6 , p. 2 9 1 .
John C. Schuder ( M' 5 5 ) was b orn in Olney, I ll. , on March 2 , 1 9 2 2 . He received the B. S. E . E . degree
from the University of I llinois, Urb ana, in 1 9 4 3 , and the M. S. E . E . and Ph. D. degrees from Purdue
University, Lafayette, I nd. , in 1 9 5 1 and 1 9 5 4 , respectively.
He was an I nstructor and then Assistant Professor of E lectrical E ngineering at Purdue University
from 1 9 4 9 to 1 9 5 6 , and an Associate Professor of Physics at Doane College, Crete, Neb r. , from 1 9 5 6
to 1 9 5 7 . From 1 9 5 7 until 1 9 6 0 he was a Fellow and then Assistant Professor of E lectrical E ngineering
in Surgical Research at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia.
Since 1 9 6 0
he has b een in the Department of Surgery at the University of Missouri School of Medicine, Colum-
b ia,
where he is
presently
a Professor of Biophysics
in the Section of Thoracic and Cardiovascular
Surgery. His research interests include electromagnetic energy transpor' through b iological tissue,
cardiac defib rillation, and artificial organs.
Dr. Schuder is a memb er of Sigma X i, the American Society for Artificial I nternal Organs, and
the Society for Social Responsib ility in Science.
Jerry H. Gold ( S' 6 5 ) was b orn in St. Louis, Mo. , on January 2 3 , 1 9 4 4 . He received the B. S. E . E . de-
gree from Bradley University, Peoria, I ll. , in 1 9 6 7 , and the M. S. E . E . degree from the University
of Missouri, Columb ia in 1 9 6 9 .
Since 1 9 6 7 he has b een a Research Assistant in the
Department
of
Surgery
at the University
of
Missouri School of Medicine, Columb ia, where he is currently a candidate for the Ph. D. degree in
electrical engineering. His research interests have b een in the areas of electromagnetic energy
transport
and ex perimental aspects of ventricular defib rillation.
Mr. Gold is a memb er of E ta Kappa Nu and an associate memb er of Sigma
X i.
Hugh E . Stephenson, Jr. , was b orn in Columb ia, Mo. , on June 1 , 1 9 2 2 . He received b oth the A. B.
and B. S. degrees from the University of Missouri, Columb ia, in 1 9 4 3 , and the M. D. degree from
W ashington University, St. Louis, Mo. , in 1 9 4 5 .
After internship at the University of Chicago, Chicago, I ll. , a surgery residency at Barnes Hospi-
tal, St. Louis, Mo. , for two years, and at Bellevue Hospital, New York, N. Y. , for three years, he was
appointed Assistant Professor of Surgery at the University of Missouri School of Medicine in 1 9 5 3 .
From 1 9 5 6 to 1 9 6 0 he served as Associate Professor, full Professor, and Chairmanof the Department
of Surgery. From 1 9 5 4 to 1 9 5 9 he was a Markle Scholar. I n 1 9 6 2 he visited the medical schools in the
United Kingdom as the first Surgical Traveler of the James I V Surgical Association from the United
States. From 1 9 5 7 to 1 9 6 2 he was the Associate-in-Charge of Cardiovascular Surgery of the Missouri
State Crippled Children' s program.
His research and pub lications
have b een concerned with various
aspects of cardiac resuscitation and cardiac surgery. His b ook, Cardiac Arrest and Resuscitation, has
recently b een pub lished in the 3 rd edition.
Dr. Stephenson
is a memb er of several professional
societies including the American College
of
Surgeons,
American Society for Artificial I nternal Organs, Society
of Thoracic Surgery,
Southern
Thoracic Surgical Association, American College of Chest Physicians, American Association for
Surgery of Trauma, Society for V ascular Surgery, Central Surgical Association, and the American
Medical Association. He is a memb er of Alpha Omega Alpha, Sigma X i, and Phi Beta Kappa.
He
is certified b y the American Board of Surgery and the Board of Thoracic Surgery.
2 7 3