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This document is for leaning purpose , it describe some information on waste management especially on mining and mineral processing. By MANYAMA KAARE a student of ARDHI University, TANZANIA;
Originaltitel
Mining and mineral processing waste management based on nickel
This document is for leaning purpose , it describe some information on waste management especially on mining and mineral processing. By MANYAMA KAARE a student of ARDHI University, TANZANIA;
This document is for leaning purpose , it describe some information on waste management especially on mining and mineral processing. By MANYAMA KAARE a student of ARDHI University, TANZANIA;
Mining and mineral processing waste management based on NICKEL
MISE 3
ARDHI UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DEPARTINMENT OF MUNICIPAL AND INDUSTRIAL SERVICES ENGINEERING
MI 321, MINING AND MINERAL PROCESSING WASTE MANAGENMENT TITTLE: NICKEL NAME OF STUDENT: MANYAMA KAARE REG #: 2795/T.2010 YEAR OF STUDY: 3, SEMESTER ONE 2012/1013 BSc. Municipal and industrial services engineering
DATE ,4 th January 2013
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CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1BACKGROUND Nickel (Ni) is a silvery-white, hard metal. Although it forms compounds in several oxidation states, the divalent ion seems to be the most important for both organic and inorganic substances, but the trivalent form may be generated by redox reactions in the cell. Nickel compounds that are practically insoluble in water include carbonate, sulfides (the main forms being amorphous or crystalline monosulfide, nis, and subsulfide Ni 3 S 2 ) and oxides (nio, Ni 2 O 3 ). Water-insoluble nickel compounds may dissolve in biological fluids. Particles of the same chemical entity (oxides and sulfides) have different biological activity depending on crystalline structure and surface properties soluble nickel salts include chloride, sulfate and nitrate. Nickel carbonyl (Ni(CO)4) is a volatile, colorless liquid with a boiling-point of 43 0 C it decomposes at temperatures above 50 0 C. In biological systems, nickel forms complexes with adenosine triphosphate, amino acids, peptides ,proteins and deoxyribonucleic acid. Nickel is widely distributed in nature, forming about 0.008% of the earths crust. The core of the earth contains 8.5% nickel, deep-sea nodules 1.5%; meteorites have been found to contain 5 50% nickel ,The natural background levels of nickel in water are relatively low, in open ocean water 0.2280.693 g/litre, in fresh water systems generally less than 2 ,Agricultural soils contain nickel at levels of 31000 mg/kg; in 78 forest floor samples from the north-eastern United States of America, concentrations of 8.515 mg/kg were reported .The nickel content is enriched in coal and crude oil. Nickel in coals ranges up to 300 mg/kg; most samples contain less than 100 mg/kg but there is a large variation by region . The nickel content of crude oils is in the range <180 mg/kg. Production and use. There are two commercial classes of nickel ore, the sulfide ores (pentlandite and pyrrhotite) and the silicate-oxide. Most nickel is produced from the sulfide ores.
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1.2 OBJECTIVES To enable Municipal and industrial services Engineering students to be in a position in mining and mineral processing waste managements. 1.3 METHODOLOGY In carrying out this study, the following methods where involved; Literature review Consultation from the professionals Lecture notes 1.4 SCOPE OF THE REPORT This report mainly limited in NICKEL: how it mined, processed, waste generated from it and how to manage those wastes.
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Mining and mineral processing waste management based on NICKEL MISE 3
CHAPTER TWO 2.0 HOW NICKEL MINED AND PROCESSED 2.1 TYPES OF MINING OPERATION Several factors (location, geometry, morphology, depth, economics, environment, andeven mining tradition) underlie the choice of method(s) for mining a specific ore deposit. Depending on this method, and on the size of the mine site, the projects display different ore-extraction capacities, and consequently larger or smaller quantities of mining waste. A major difference from the environmental standpoint can also be demonstrated in the composition of the waste associated with the mining method employed. 2.1.1 Open pits and quarries There are many alternatives within open pits and quarries but the great principles are identical. Most industrial materials and shallow metallic deposits (< 300 m) are mined by this method, which is the cheapest in practice. The scale of the projects, and particularly their depth, is conditioned by an economic threshold above which it is better to continue mining through underground workings.
Figure 1: Different steps of a mining activity
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As a rule, after the stripping operations (removal of the soil and superficial horizons), actual mining is carried out in successive steps, imparting a roughly conical shape to the mine . The mining of each step or bench produces a tonnage of extracted material corresponding to the overburden surrounding the deposit, which is sent directly to the waste dump, and a tonnage corresponding to the ore that is selectively routed either for storage or directly to the processing plant. The variation in the ratio between the tonnage of waste to be extracted and the quantity of ore recoverable (also called stripping ratio) strongly conditions the economic viability of the mine. If this ratio becomes too high, especially when the quarry is deepened, it is no longer economically profitable to continue strip mining. 2.1.2 Underground (quarries and) mines When deposits are difficult to reach from the surface (depth, cliffs permitting side access), the only alternative is underground workings. A broad range of methods are available (chamber and pillar, long-wall, under-level caving, under-level stopping and filling, shrinkage) all of which are roughly adapted to the characteristics of the ore or the geometry of the deposit: dip of the layers or veins, thickness, continuity of the mineralization, grade of ore (disseminated or massive). The workings are generally opened by levels with a 60 m vertical spacing and then sublevels at 15 m intervals. Two criteria are vital for all these workings: selectivity of the ore and its percentage recovery. All the operations conducted in the ore are connected to one another and to the surface by a series of passages, all opened in the overburden surrounding the deposit: shafts, inclines, drifts, chutes, cross-cuts for personnel and machine access, for removal of ore and drainage water, as well as for ventilation. 2.2 NICKEL EXTRACTION Nickel ore is usually mined from underground mine and some in open pit mine. The run-of- mine nickel ore will be sent to processing plant which includes crushing process, washing process, grinding process, concentration process. Nickel can be recovered using extractive metallurgy. Most lateritic ores have traditionally been processed using hydrometallurgical techniques to produce a matte for further refining. Recent
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advances in hydrometallurgy have resulted in recent nickel processing operations being developed using these processes. Most sulphide deposits have traditionally been processed by concentration through a froth flotation process followed by pyrometallurgical extraction. Recent advances in hydrometallurgical processing of sulphides have led to some recent projects being built around this technology. Nickel is extracted from its ores by conventional roasting and reduction processes which yield a metal of >75% purity. Final purification in the Mond process to >99.99% purity is performed by reacting nickel and carbon monoxide to form nickel carbonyl. This gas is passed into a large chamber at a higher temperature in which tens of thousands of nickel spheres are maintained in constant motion. The nickel carbonyl decomposes depositing pure nickel onto the nickel spheres (known as pellets). Alternatively, the nickel carbonyl may be decomposed in a smaller chamber without pellets present to create fine powders. The resultant carbon monoxide is re-circulated through the process. The highly pure nickel produced by this process is known as carbonyl nickel. A second common form of refining involves the leaching of the metal matte followed by the electro-winning of the nickel from solution by plating it onto a cathode. In many stainless steel applications, the nickel can be taken directly in the 75% purity form, depending on the presence of any impurities. 2.3 BENEFICIATION OPERATION Beneficiation of ores and minerals is defined as including the following activities: crushing; grinding; washing; filtration; sorting; sizing; gravity concentration. In essence, beneficiation operations typically serve to separate and concentrate the mineral values from waste material, remove impurities, or prepare the ore for further refinement. Beneficiation activities generally do not change the mineral values themselves other than by reducing (e.g., crushing or grinding),or enlarging (e.g., pelletizing or briquetting) particle size to facilitate processing. A chemicalchange in the mineral value does not typically occur in beneficiation. 2.4COMMINUTION The first step in beneficiation is comminution. Typically, this is accomplished by sequential size reduction operationscommonly referred to as crushing and grinding. Crushing may be
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performed in two or three stages. Primary crushing systems consist of crushers, feeders, dust control systems, and conveyors used to transport ore to coarse ore storage. Size separators (such as griddles and screens) control the size of the feed material between the crushing and grinding stages. Griddles are typically used for very coarse material. Screens mechanically separate ore sizes using a slotted or mesh surface that acts as a "go/no go" gauge. Vibrating and shaker screens are the most commonly used types of separators. After the final screening, water is added to the crushed ore to form a slurry. Grinding is the last stage in comminution. In this operation, ore particles are reduced and classified (typically in a hydrocyclone) into a uniformly sorted material between 20 and 200 mesh. Most facilities use a combination of rod and ball mills to grind sulfide ore. 2.5 FLOTATION The second step in the beneficiation of sulfide ore is concentration. The purpose of concentration is to separate the valuable mineral from nonvaluable minerals (referred to as "gangue"). There are a variety of concentration methods. Selection of a method to use for a ore is based on the ore mineralogy and mineral liberation size. Froth flotation is the standard method of concentration used in the copper industry. Differential flotation for complex ores that contain sulfides requires the use of reagents that Modify the action of the collector either by intensifying or reducing its water-repellant effect on the valuable mineral surface. These reagents are known as modifiers or regulators or as depressants and activators. The most common modifier is the OH (hydroxyl) ion. Lime or sodium carbonate is used to raise the pH of the slurry and regulate the pulp alkalinity. The second most common modifier in some metal flotation is the cyanide ion derived from sodium cyanide. It is normally used to depress pyrite while floating chalcopyrite or chalcocite in rougher flotation. 2.5 MINERAL PROCESSING OPERATIONS Mineral processing operations, in contrast, generally follow beneficiation and serve to change the concentrated mineral value into a more useful chemical form. This is often done by using heat or chemical reactions to change the chemical composition of the mineral. In contrast to
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beneficiation operations, processing activities often destroy the physical and chemical structure of the incoming ore or mineral feedstock such that the materials leaving the operation do not closely resemble those that entered the operation. 2.6 NICKEL PROCESSING Firstly, the nickel ore mined will be conveyed to a stock bin before crushing and grinding. The nickel crushing and grinding plant can handle harder nickel ore as well as increasing the plant throughput. The outflow from the mill enters a vibrating screen and the oversize is directed to a CS series cone crusher before being returned to the mill. Screen undersize enters a ball mill/cyclone circuit before entering the flotation plant rougher cells. After crushing and grinding process, the nickel ore will be conveyed to flotation plant. Them the nickel ore will be sent to nickel smelter or nickel refinery 2.6.1 Nickel ore processing equipment A fleet of crushing, screening, grinding equipment is used to process nickel ore at high efficiency and low costs. Beneficiation equipment like feeder, crusher, ball mill, classifier, screen, rocking bed, magnetic separator, mix tank, flotation machine
2.6.1.1 Features & advantages: High quality dressing equipment; Installation Services & Automation & Instrumentation service;
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Spare parts and consumables parts support. 2.7 NICKEL CRUSHER: The nickel crusher is widely used in nickel processing plant. SBM is a major nickel crusher manufacturer in China, Our nickel crusher is from primary crushing, secondary crushing to fineness crushing. The common nickel crusher are Heavy duty jaw crusher, small jaw crusher, impact crusher, spring cone crusher, CS series cone crusher, single cylinder cone crusher, HP hydraulic cone crusher and so on. The crushing capacity of the nickel crusher can be up to 1000 TPH, the final grain size of the crushed nickel ore can be down to 2mm in diameter. 2.8 NICKEL GRINDING MILL: Nickel mill is the major nickel milling machine to grind the crushed nickel ore. SBM can design and manufacture many types of nickel mills for nickel grinding. The common nickel mills are: ball mill, Raymond mill, MTM trapezium mill, MTW trapezium mill, ultrafine mill etc. And the ball mill is the most widely used nickel mill to grind the nickel mill. The ore is crushed to -5 inches in primary cone crushers, then reduced to -1/2" in short head cone crushers. The ore is then ground to -100 mesh in ball mills. Using wet magnetic separators the magnetic ore is separated (pyrrhotite) and further reduced to -200 mesh in a ball mill. Classification is accomplished with screens and cyclones. The pyrrhotite is then sent to froth flotation cells, and produces a 3% nickel concentrate. 2.9 NICKEL ORE CONCENTRATION After mining, the sulphide nickel ores are transported to a concentrator to upgrade their nickel content. The ores are first crushed and ground, liberating the sulphide minerals from worthless rock, or gangue. The sulphide minerals are then separated from the gangue, by flotation, and dried. Nickel Ores grade about 3% Ni content and the concentrates produced after treatment in the concentrator grade around 11% . The ore is subjected to high temperature pressure acid leaching followed by solvent extraction to yield nickel metal
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CHAPTER THREE 3.0 MINING AND MINERAL PROCESSING WASTES 3.1 SOURCE AND TYPE OF MINING WASTES The wastes generated from mining operations include solid waste, wastewater and waste gas. This waste can affect the environment through one or more of the following intrinsic criteria: its chemical and mineralogical composition, its physical properties, its volume and the surface occupied, the waste disposal method.
Figure 3: Mining waste types
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Besides these parameters, one must also take into account extrinsic parameters such as: climatic conditions liable to modify the disposal conditions, geographic and geological location, existing targets liable to be affected (man and his environment). Thus, identification of the environmental risks associated with the exploitation of mines and quarries and with ore processing not only requires the characterisation and quantification of the different types of waste, as well as a knowledge of the processes used, but also an assessment of the vulnerability of the specific environments contingent upon the geological and hydrogeological conditions and peripheral targets. Since this is a generic description, it is important to keep in mind that not all plants or deposits will release any pollutants to begin with. Figure 4 shows how meteoric precipitation can transfer pollutant from a tailings dam or a processing plant to the river if the waste management is not efficient. If there is no impermeable layer, below the deposit, the infiltration of meteoric precipitation through deposit can transfer the pollutant(s) to the river via groundwater flow. The extraction process can itself modify the water flow and accelerate this transfer. Infiltration can also occur below a decantation basin.
Figure 4: Pollutant transfer
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3.2. EXTRACTION/BENEFICIATION WASTES As for example, waste generated from nickel mining extraction/benefication 3.2.1 Waste rock Mining operations generate two types of waste rock, overburden and mine development rock. Overburden results from the development of surface mines, while mine development rock is a byproduct of mineral extraction in underground mines. The quantity and composition of waste rock generated at someone material mines varies greatly between sites, but these wastes will contain minerals associated with both the ore and host rock. Overburden wastes are usually disposed of in unlined piles, while mine development rock is often used on-site for road or other construction. Mine development rock may also be stored in unlined on-site piles or in underground openings. Waste rock piles may be referred to as mine rock dumps or waste rock dumps. Runoff and leachate from waste rock dumps may contain heavy metals, and these piles may generate acid drainage if sufficient amounts of sulfide minerals and moisture are present. 3.3 HUMAN HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE FROM MINING AND MINERAL PROCESSING WASTES 3.3.1 Environmental impact/risk Nearly any portion of waste management units at active mines may be a potential source of environmental contamination. Waste rock piles and tailings impoundments are of particular concern since these are the areas in which toxic contaminants most commonly are found. Contaminants associated with these areas may include heavy metals, reagents, and acid rock drainage that may degrade ground water, surface water, soil, and air quality during mine operation and after mine closure. A discussion of the potential environmental effects associated with metal mining is presented in the following sections. Specific examples from industry are included in this section, as appropriate. This section will give a brief overview of some of the potential problems that can occur under certain conditions. The extent and magnitude of contamination depends on highly variable site-specific factors that require a flexible approach to mitigation. However, many of the potential problems can be, and generally are, substantially
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mitigated or avoided by proper engineering practices, environmental controls, and regulatory requirements. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS TO GROUND WATER/SURFACE WATER Sources of ground and surface water contamination include runoff, leachate, and seepage from tailings impoundments, mine pits and workings (after mine closure), as well as waste rock piles. For lead and zinc recovered from sulfur-bearing ores, acid generation due to oxidation of sulfides in the ore body, host rock, and waste material may be of special concern. Acidified water increases the potential for leaching heavy metals from these sources and facilitates their transport. Factors that influence the acid generation potential include the sulfide content, the buffering capacity of the ore and/or tailings, exposure of mineral surfaces in an oxidizing environment, moisture, and the hydrogeology of the area. Some bacteria are catalysts for oxidation of sulfur-bearing minerals leading to acid generation. These bacteria pose a particular problem in waste rock piles and tailings impoundments.
As water acidifies, the potential for leaching and mobilization of metals and other contaminants increases. The suite of elements and minerals that may be associated with lead-zinc deposits includes mercury, tellurium, cobalt, thallium, pyrite, and pyrrhotite. Lowering of pH affects the solubility of these constituents making them available for transport in both surface and ground water. Whether these contaminants will migrate depends on the geochemistry in the vicinity.. However, not all reactions are dependent on low pH. For example, high concentrations of arsenic have been found to be mobile at a pH of 10. 3.3.2 Environmental impacts/risk to soil Environmental impacts to soils as a result of mining activities are most commonly associated with erosion and contamination. However, mining activities also can cause under some conditions. . Erosion may be caused by land disturbances and removal of vegetation related to mining activities. Under these conditions, precipitation events such as snowmelt may lead to erosion of soils. Contamination of soils may occur from discharge, runoff, leachate, and seepage from tailings impoundments, pits and underground workings, as well as waste rock piles. In addition, deposition of wind-blown particulates from dry tailings impoundments may
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also be a source of soil contamination. Other sources of soils contamination include spills of fuel, flotation reagents, cleaning solutions, as well as other chemicals used or stored at the site. Contaminated soils may further act as a source of contamination to ground water, surface water, and in some instances as a source of air pollution due to re-entrainment and/or subsequent deposition of particulates. In some instances, direct human contact has occurred when tailings have been used in sandboxes, as soil amendments, and as construction fill material, although these are generally historic practices. The calamity of landslide, collapse and mud and stone flow caused by the waste muck and spoil. The mud and stone flow comprises a lot of mud and stones. and is one of the common calamity caused by people during the process of mine exploitation with high energy, and severe damage. The necessary conditions to form the mud and stone flow are: the huge rain formed naturally and the huge sands and stones formed artificially. The stripping soil and mucks were stored on the slope or in the valley with mine exploitation and the stability of wall rock got changed. A large amount of discrete solid substances were formed with the large scale landslide and collapse. Then, the severe mud and stone flow happened with the support of storm. 3.3.3 Environmental impacts to air The primary source of air contamination at mine sites is fugitive dust from the dry surfaces of Tailings impoundments, as well as waste rock piles, if they are exposed to the environment. Often, tailings impoundments are not completely covered by water, thus dry tailings are commonly available for wind-blown transport (as discussed above). Deposition of wind-blown tailings provides exposure routes for contamination of ground water, surface water, and soil. Potential contaminants include those discussed in the Ground Water/Surface Water Section. 3.4 WASTE LAND RESOURCES The mining construction facilities and mucks, spoils, tailings will occupy large area of land. 3.4.1 Collapse of the Land Surface in Mining Area The collapse of the land surface in mining area will destroy the ground and farmland. The collapse of ground surface is one of the relatively severe geological calamity existed in coal mines and other underground exploitation mines. The area of ground surface collapsing is 2 thousand m2 with the raw coal exploitation per 10 thousand tons. And the area of ground surface collapsing is 1.2 times of the coal exploitation. Statistically, in China, the area of ground surface
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collapsing has reached 0.839922 billion m 2 . For instance, in Kailluan mines, Tangshan City, the area of ground surface collapsing has got 15 million m2 reducing farmland with area of 93 million m. and the same thing happened in Feicheng City, Shandong Province, and in Xuzhou City, Jiangsu Province. 3.4.2 Calamity of landslide, collapse and mud It is fairly common that the calamity of landslide, collapse and mud and stone flow caused by the mining waste. On the other hand, the landslide and collapses are also rather common during the process of mine exploitation. The main reasons include that ,soil discharging area poor setting and disadvantageous mine exploitation methods, such as collapsing method" and "exploding method", which made the wall rock unstable, changed the geological construction and caused the large-scale landslide and collapse
3.5 CONTAMINATING WATER BODY The waste water and slag will cause water body and soil pollution. The waste water pollution caused during the process of mineral resources exploitation is one of the main factors making the quality of water source getting worse. The wastewater causing the water-body pollution during the process of mining extraction is not only from the oil and gas resources industry, but also from other mines. For instance, in Cangnan County, Zhejiang Pronvince, during the process of Alunite exploitation to produce Alum, the river nearby the mine got heavily polluted, and the banks along the river had changed into storage sites for waste Alum. The exploitation of Alunite mine had done great harm to the local people and economy. Another example with the coal gangue. The coal gangue piled in the open air has changed much during the process of weathering, rain leaching. And with the condition that reducing environment changing into oxidize one, a series of physical and chemical reactions happened, which made the soluble inorganic salt leak into the ground surface with the leachate, forming the highly mineralized water. Thus, a lot of hazardous wastes entered the surface water body and farmland, causing severe threat to the life of local people and livestocks. The leachate entered the underground water during the process of discharging, and caused heavily pollution to the land and underground water nearby. Furthermore, the radioactive pollution will happen during the process of black shale exploitation because of the radioactive compositions in the shale mine.
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3.5.1 Damages to Drinking Water and Human Health Because the toxic smelting slags were piled improperly and buried underground randomly, they had caused great trouble in the past without strict management for the nonferrous metal mines and related processing factories. Lead, zinc, arsenic and other contaminants in ground water proximal to mine sites have contaminated drinking water resources, .
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CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 DESCRIPTION OF MINING-WASTE MANAGEMENT METHODS 4.1. WATER MANAGEMENT 4.1.1 Different steps have to be checked: Avoid pollution of groundwater and surface water, Collect and treat the polluted water and leachates, Minimise the water volume that require treatment, Manage the dust. Measures used to control seepage from tailings dams include: Controlled placement of tailings, Foundation grouting, Foundation cut-offs, Clay liners, Under drains and toe drains, Artificial liners. 1. Controlled placement of tailings is the most cost-effective method of controlling seepage. Provided that the tailings are of low permeability they will form a cohesive system. 2. Foundation grouting involves the injection of fluidised material and could not be effective unless there is high permeability rock beneath the impoundment or where there are high permeability zones in the rock. 3. Foundation cut-offs are necessary when soil foundations are sand or sand and gravel. A significant reduction in seepage may be achieved by construction of an earth fill cut-off or a slurry trench cut-off wall. They may be applied to extremely weathered rock such as laterised, highly permeable rock. 4. Clay liners can be effective in areas where the storage is located in an area of high permeability. They are susceptible to cracking on exposure to the heat (by sun), which can increase permeability. 5. Underdrains below the tailings should be constructed. The drains act to attract theseepage water and discharge it to a collector system, ideally for recycling to theprocess plant.
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Some methods of collecting and treating this seepage are required, such as: Toe drains, Pump wells, Seepage collection, Artificial wetlands. 6. Artificial liners are used to line waste disposal facilities, often with provision fordrainage layers beneath the membranes to collect any leachate, which leaks past thefirst. However, these liners do not seem to be always appropriate for all tailingsdisposal situations (such as in case the underground water is confined and spoutingout). The control of the water balance in the system should include process water, tailingswater, storm water runoff, precipitation, seepage
Figure 4.1 Water gains and losses at a terrestrial impoundment
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Measures to minimize acid drainage and pollution from water containing dissolved metals, salts and process chemicals. Minimise percolation to subsoil and groundwater, by low permeability of the substrate and low permeable cover, Minimize seepage through the impoundment wall, Collect seepage by a collection and treatment system, Minimize influx of surface runoff by trenching and by-passing the tailings depository, Maximize circulation of process water, Minimize infiltration of water into the tailings dam.
4.2 DISPOSAL OF MINING WASTE AND TAILINGS Disposal of coarse mining waste consists in conversing large areas with dumps or filling abandoned open-pits By order of importance, the disposal of tailings is generally by: Terrestrial impoundment (tailings ponds) Underground backfilling, Deep water disposal (lakes and sea) Recycling. a. Terrestrial impoundment Terrestrial deposition is the predominant method for tailings disposal. It concerns fine waste and slurries such as mill tailings. The principle of tailings dams (or ponds) is dispose of the tailings in an accessible condition that provides for their future processing (once improved technology or a significant increase price makes profitable). Actually, the vast majority of tailings facilities are design as permanent disposal facilities. Tailings are often transported to the impoundment via pipelines. b. Underground backfilling This method is possible only for ore deposit without communication with an aquifer. Such an operation is usually costly and will be carried out for stability and safety reasons. c. Deep water disposal The disposal of tailings and solid waste directly into bodies of water although sometimes used in past operations, is rapidly becoming non-authorized as a standard practice due to the significant pollution effects it can have on the receiving waters and the possible subsequent impacts on the
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livelihoods of the local communities. This method requires specific conditions. And specific impact assessments. There seems to be a consensus among scientists that an appropriately designed underwater disposal of sulphidic tailings is the ideal solution from an environmental point of view in the short-term with control of the level of water. d. Recycling Coarse mining waste and especially barren rock is sometimes considered as materials for roads, building foundations or cement factories, depending on its geotechnical and geochemical characteristics. Recycling is not classified as disposal.
4.3 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES Some waste generated by mining operations, due to the mass it represents or to its chemical (or physical) nature, can pollute the environment, in particular media as water, soil, vegetation, and targets like the fauna and human. Among the environmental problems, associated with tailings deposition, the principal ones are: Safety and stability of dams, Water pollution, Safety and stability of dams Tailings dams need to designed for the mine life and shaped at the initial stage. This reduces the need for reshaping dams at a later stage and so avoids costly earthworks and double handling. We are conscious that in practice, the building of tailings dam at the initial stage of a mines life is difficult, due to the fact that in most cases the ore reserve ,the mine life and hence the total amount of tailings will increase over time. This is due to a continuous development of mining and processing methods and to the fact that the knowledge on the ore body will increase with time. The placement of waste on steep slopes is to be avoided when possible so as to reduce the risk of land slip and dam failure, particularly in areas of high rainfall and areas prone to landslides, earthquakes and tremors. Embankment of dam are shaped during the building stage so that slopes are gentle enough to reduce erosion and to allow vegetation to become established and so reduce the negative visual impact of unsightly waste rock.
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A major factor in the design of tailings embankments is stability, from a geotechnical point of view. Factors influencing this geotechnical stability include: Embankment height, Embankment slopes, Strength of the embankment and degree of compaction, Permeability of the embankment and groundwater position in relation to it, Strength and compressibility of the embankment foundations. The type of dam embankment to some extent dictates the system of tailings discharge to be adopted. For example, embankments that are designed as water retention structures are made of low-permeability materials and tailings are discharged well upstream of the embankment. Water pollution Acid rock drainage can be a significant concern in the management of waste rock but is not in the scope of that study .Water pollution may appear at different stages in the management of tailings. For example, failure of the discharge may cause spills and damage the surrounding Environment. Alternatively, rain and process water may create leachates when passing seeping through tailings (essentially in respect of tailings from ferrous and non ferrous ores),giving rise to: Sulphide oxidation and potential acid generation Sulphide oxidation and production of soluble salts Metal leaching and migration to the surrounding environment Leaching of residual process chemicals in the tailings, e.g. cyanide, acids, alkalis Geochemistry and toxicity of the waste materials impacting on humans, vegetation and fauna. These can also result from: Seepage through and below impoundment walls percolation to the subsoil and groundwater overflow of the dam walls or spillways
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CHAPTER FIVE 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 CONCLUSIONS The mining sector is a major contributor not only to the material needs, but also to the development and economic growth of the many countries example Tanzania. On the other hand, it is obvious that exploitation of mineral resources requires a responsible approach to avoid adverse effects on the environment. Risks linked to mining waste An important conclusion of the study is that the major risks linked to mining waste (not all mine or all mine waste) are double: Risks linked to the liberation of acidity and heavy metals caused by the modification of the relationship between the minerals, the surface and ground water and the atmosphere (especially metallic ore). Such risks could correspond to a continuous and long term pollution, which will not stop before total oxidation of the waste exposed to the atmosphere. This risk is the combination of a potential source of pollution with transfer pathway and the existence of targets (human here).Risks linked to the stability of the tailings dam. Such risks could create spectacular accidents. Liberation of acidity and heavy metals A specific characterization of representative waste samples resulting from mining, quarries and ore processing operations should be carried out on each site. Such characterization should include specific studies related to the potential of pollution of the waste. Not only the solid composition but also the nature of the leachates resulting from mining waste should be defined (as it is a common practice for industrial waste within the framework of the Landfill Directive) and be correlated to the quantity of corresponding waste. Indeed, the effluents resulting from deposits of mining waste may be acid and contain heavy metals in significant quantities, with a potential impact on the environment. The leachate of mining waste will also depend on the waste management practices implemented.
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The different types of mine It is obvious that the pillar of sustainable development related to the protection of environment has not always been sufficiently considered, in particular in the past. As a consequence, a distinction should be made between the following three types of mines: Abandoned/ old mines Operating mines substantially based on old designed operations Operating mines based on new design Serious problems are arising from abandoned mines and mines which activity is based on old operations which have been conceived without environment management. There is a need of basic criteria for mine closure plans, which can be based on the methodological For operating mines substantially based on old designed operations, it is essential to evaluate the reliability of the control routine related to the stability of the tailings dams. It seems also necessary to improve the waste management conditions of these sites. Existing mines based on new design ensure a higher level of environmental protection. However, these sites should also be evaluated with the views of taking additional measures if necessary. The closure phase should also be carefully prepared. This is often taken into account. 5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS To validate this inventory study of the sites of mining waste deposit in each by detailed study carried out by a homogeneous multi-disciplinary team, especially for abandoned and closed mines, To get information for each site, on solid composition but also on the nature of the leachates resulting from specific and representative mining waste samples To evaluate different evolution forms of legislation To define basic criteria for mine closure plans, on the base on contaminated lands approach, To organise meetings and exchanges of information between industrials and researchers of the Member States
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Mining and mineral processing waste management based on NICKEL MISE 3
To start research and development programs on sets of themes, specific to the various methods of mining waste management, including an improvement of recycling techniques. The themes that have to be studied are related to main generic issues : o Design of tailing and waste rock facilities, o Waste management (characterization of the reactivity of specific mining waste by different ways leaching test, long term column test and normalisedtests of the Landfill Directive, improvement of recycling technique of mining waste and assessment of current after-care practices), o Dam stability (study of influence of exceptional meteorological conditions on the stability of dams), o Water management (study of the behaviour of heavy metals coming from mining waste in the subjacent geologic layers and the prediction of their becoming by tools like geochemical and solute-transport modeling), o Closure Plan
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Mining and mineral processing waste management based on NICKEL MISE 3
REFERENCES
1:RITCEY G.M.: Tailings Management Problems and solutions in the mining industry. ELSEVIER ISBN 0-444-87374-0, 1989 2:UNEP- A guide to tailings dams and impoundment - Bulletin 106 1996 3: UNEP, Environmental and Safety Incidents concerning Tailings Dams at Mines ,results of a survey for the years 1980-1996, Mining Journal Research Services, May1996 4: BOLIDEN ENVIRONNEMENT Tailings dam failure, Spain, HEALTH AND SAFETY REPORT 5: ERIKSSON N., ADAMEK P., The tailings pond failure at the Aznalcllar mine, Spain, Paper prepared for the Sixth International Symposium in Environmental Issues and Waste Management in Energy and Mineral Production, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, June 2000 6:HANNA T., Romanian cyanide spill preventable Mining Environmental Management, A Mining Journal Publication, p. 14-15 Mars 2000 7: MORIZOT G. Environmental aspect of the use of cyanide in gold and silver ores processing, Communication 1999
New Frontiers in Rare Earth Science and Applications: Proceedings of the International Conference on Rare Earth Development and Applications Beijing, The People's Republic of China, September 10–14, 1985
(Sustainable Agriculture Reviews 1) Eric Lichtfouse (Auth.), Eric Lichtfouse (Eds.)-Organic Farming, Pest Control and Remediation of Soil Pollutants_ Organic Farming, Pest Control and Remediation of s