How is Antibiotic Resistance Caused and How are Hospitals Preventing These Infections?

An antibiotic is defined as a chemical that kills or inhibits the growth of microorganisms. There are
two types of antibiotics and they are bacteriocidal antibiotics that kill bacteria and bacteriastatic
antibiotics that prevent bacteria growing. Antibiotics work by inhibiting bacterial metabolism, for
example inhibiting the enzymes that are needed to make the chemical bonds in bacterial cell walls.
This means that bacteria can't grow properly and can cause the cell to burst as it cannot handle the
pressure of water moving via osmosis.
Antibiotic resistant bacteria are named as such because they are not killed or inhibited by certain
antibiotics. They will continue to grow and multiply in the presence of the antibiotic. Bacteria that are
resistant to several antibiotics are called multiresistant bacteria.
Antibiotic resistance can develop in a number of ways. ome bacteria are naturally resistant to some
antibiotics. !esistance may also arise through genetic mutation of the bacteria or microorganism.
These mutated genes that cause resistance are passed on to other bacteria when they multiply via
mitosis. "lasmids can carry the resistance genes from one bacterium to another. #urthermore, when an
antibiotic is given, the resistant bacteria survive but the sensitive ones don't. This means that there is
more selective pressure on the bacteria, causing the resistant strain to become more favourable and
more abundant. After time, the only surviving bacteria are the resistant strain. This means that the
overuse of antibiotics can actually have a negative effect overall.
$ene mutation is a permanent change in the %&A se'uence that makes up a gene. They can occur
when inherited from a donor cell or can be ac'uired during the lifetime of the bacterium. These
mutations can be caused by environmental factors, such as the presence of () light or the presence of
antibiotics. *ther chemicals used in some antibiotics or other treatments may cause bacteria %&A in
plasmids to mutate, causing a resistance against the antibiotic.
"lasmids are transferred during what is known as bacterial con+ugation. This occurs when there is
direct contact between the donor and recipient bacterium. The pilus of the donor cell recognises and
binds to the specific receptor site on the cell wall of the recipient cell. An enzyme cleaves one strand
of the plasmid at a specific nucleotide se'uence, also known as the origin of transfer. The plasmid is
now mobilized for transfer. A single strand of plasmid now enters the recipient cell and once inside, a
complementary strand to the single strand is synthesized. The two bacterium then split, and after time
all bacterium carry the plasmid.
The evolutionary arms race is the evolutionary struggle between competing sets of co,evolving genes
that develop adaptations against each other. This is shown by bacteria and antibiotics. #or example, an
antibiotic can kill bacteria, but when one bacterium has a gene mutation, an adaptation for survival
against the antibiotic occurs, meaning it is resistant. An antibiotic is then developed to make a
counter,adaptation and the cycle continues.
!esistance can be spread via direct contact between with another human or animal that is carrying the
resistant bacteria. This is a particular problem in hospitals because there are lots of vulnerable people
gathered in one area, who are often taking antibiotics. This means there is a higher chance of people
in hospitals carrying the resistant bacteria and it is also spread more easily.
-!A is an example of an antibiotic resistant .A/ 0.ospital Ac'uired /nfection1. -!A stands for
meticillin,resistant taphylococcus aureus. .A/'s can be transmitted by poor hygiene and are
infections that are caught while a patient is being treated in hospital. 2odes of practice have been
developed to prevent the transmission of .A/'s. These include encouraging hospital staff and visitors
to wash their hands thoroughly before and after being in contact with the patient. 3'uipment and
surfaces are also disinfected after they've been used. "eople with .A/'s are also often moved to an
isolation ward so they are less likely to transmit the infection to other patients.
2odes of practice have also been developed to control .A/'s that are caused by antibiotic resistant
bacteria. These are mainly aimed at doctors and advise that doctors shouldn't prescribe antibiotics for
minor bacterial or viral infections. They should also use narrow spectrum antibiotics that will only
affect a single bacterium. "atients should take all of the antibiotics that they are prescribed so that the
infections are fully cleared.
Clostridium difficile is also spread through poor hygiene. pores of the C.difficile 02%/1 bacteria can
be passed out the body in faeces and can survive on surfaces and ob+ects for many weeks. The
bacteria is transferred by touching a contaminated surface and then ingested. The bacteria do not
usually cause problems with healthy people. .owever, this means that people with weakened immune
systems are more susceptible to the infection. #or this reason it is especially important for hygiene to
be controlled in hospitals. This is because people in hospitals usually have weakened immune systems
and there are lots of surfaces for the bacteria to linger on. Therefore, it is extremely important for
surfaces to be cleaned with disinfectant in hospitals.