Post Lecture Notes for KPB 3123 Negotiations and Conflict Management (1 Lecture

session 17th September 2012)

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The Nature of Conflict as Form of Intellectual Thinking and Studies

I must study politics and war, that my sons may have liberty to study mathematics and
philosophy
John Adams (1735-1862)

Question: What are conflict and war? Why do we need to learn about this? Let me frame
this question in a wider context: What are the relations between conflict and resolution with
the society? War doesnt happen in Malaysia. For God sake, we dont have any armed
conflict in this beloved country (except for 20 years ago when our Armed Forces combating
the so called Communist terrorist)! Thus, why do we need to learn about conflict?
Contrary to the popular opinion (as been usually portrayed through Hollywoods war
film such as Rambo trilogy and more contemporary The Expendables!), conflict is not merely
an act of warfare, military, explosion, suicide bomber or anything relating to the act of
militant. Jeong (2010) explained in his book Conflict Management and Resolution:
.... Conflict is mostly popular described as a struggle over values and claims to scarce
status, power and resources.
Based from above argument, clearly, conflict is all about disagreement among
people whether in a society, organization, and company so on and so forth. Nevertheless,
conflict may occur when there is any form of human interaction! Conflict is manifested
through adversarial social action, involving TWO or MORE actors with expression of
differences often accompanied by intense hostilities. You cannot have fights without any
contender! Thus, in order to have a conflict, the most important is to find a rival, adversary
and contender!
Everyday forms of conflict may occur in the society. Sometimes, you may have a
dispute with your neighbor over a sound pollution (in P Ramlees film entitled Seniman
Bujang Lapok. There was a scene where Ramlee, Sudin and Ajis having trouble with his
neighbors such as a guy blow a trumpet in the middle of the night, exactly when they started
to memorize the films script),this was a classic example of everyday forms of conflict.
Post Lecture Notes for KPB 3123 Negotiations and Conflict Management (1 Lecture
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Approaches to Understanding Conflict
Brother will kill brother; spilling blood across the land, killing for religion is something
that I dont understand.
Megadeth (1990)

Conflict dates from the beginning of human history and will never end. According to the
teaching of the Cluster of Abrahamic Religion (Islam, Christian and Judaism), the first
human conflict on earth were the clash between Cain and Abel (Qabil & Habil). The former
were the first murderer and the later the first to be assassinated. If we analyze this tragedy
closely, thus we could understand why the conflict often happens in the society. Please
remember:
.... Conflict is mostly popular described as a struggle over values and claims to scarce
status, power and resources.
Based from above argument, clearly, the disputes between Cain and Abel were all
about disagreement over scarce status (offering to the God), power (to get marry to
beautiful woman) and resources (to control the land etc). Nevertheless, the most important
thing is, we should know that conflict is normal to human. However, the most important
thing is how to manage and control the conflict from led to full-fledge casualties (For God
sake that is why we name this course as Negotiations and Conflict Management).
Our survival on this planet hinges on how we manage various features of conflict that
is fuelled not only seemingly incompatible interests and values but also by hostilities. The
most destructive types of conflict such as interstate and civil wars consist of a coercive,
violent mode of confrontation among adversaries. Whereas conflict embraces personal loss
and societal destruction, its many features are not limited to physical violence. Non violent
forms of struggle are also prevalent in pursuit of different values and scarce resources. In
bringing about important social change, resorting to force is neither necessary nor inevitable.
Each year, 20-40 armed conflicts of various size rages around the world. Some
conflicts have been successfully managed, but others have brought about devastating
consequences such as wholesale killing. For instance, the conflict in Southern Thailand, after
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more than a decade in hiatus, the separatist movements once again reignited the fire when
the armed forces of Thailand, responsible to the death of more than 70 peoples due to
coercive and aggression when they tried to disperse demonstration in Tak Bai, 2004. Thus,
the escalation of violence in Southern Thailand 4 provinces (Yala, Narathiwat, Pattani and
Songkhla) was something inevitable.
The wars in Chechnya have been responsible for the most horrific human rights
violations, while civilian populations in Iraq become terror victims and are hostage to
religious, sectarian violence unleashed as a consequence of the US invasion. Whereas
violence and intractable conflict seem certain to remain a prominent and tragic part of the
human condition, some conflicts have been successfully transformed for resolution. Many
decades of struggle in Acheh, ended (at least temporarily) with the building of new
institutions (such as syariah based law enactment) that transferred governance power to the
local.
In understanding conflict, it is imperative to examine the sources of discontent and
animosity, to identify the phases of evolving relationship between adversaries, and to
illuminate the escalation to their struggles and eventual recession of violent cycles to the
peaceful resolution of differences. Given the enormity and severity of the consequences of
uncontrolled violence, serious attention needs to be devoted to the regulation and
management of hostile relations, even if it may take longer to resolve deadly conflict.
The methods of intervention in any type of violence have to be associated with
understanding the very nature, causes and dynamic of conflict. It covers the decision making
process, political systems in social dynamic of human interaction which can be transformed.
In analysis we need to include the causes of violent conflict and the interconnectivity in
diverse elements within and between conflict systems. At the same time, multiple types of
conflict relationship at the inter group, national, international and global level will be
discussed in the context of past and current efforts to manage irreconcilable differences.



Post Lecture Notes for KPB 3123 Negotiations and Conflict Management (1 Lecture
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The Nature of Conflict
Imagine all the people living live in peace
John Winston Lennon (1971)
Conflict represent the persistent and pervasive nature of inter group and international
competition among disparate interest and values that underlies power dynamics. The
comprehension of mass violence and war needs to be based on an understanding of
institutional roles besides the psychological and behavioral elements that instigate aggression.
The experience of conflict is so basic than its negative effects spread to many aspect of a
communitys life.
The sources of adversarial relationship are not limited to tangible economic interest or
control over power, but also extend to values and identity differences. The antagonism in
question may arise from interpersonal tensions between government leaders, labor
management issues compromising multinational cooperation and manual workers,
disagreement between states on foreign policy directions, or international quarrels over trade
imbalances and disparities in decision making power at the international organizations (such
as International Monetary Fund and the World Bank).
Since conflict is entailed in diverse types of social interactions, its concepts have been
applied to a variety of situation. The potential for conflict exist where opposing interest,
values, or needs tinge our relationships with others. The latent conditions of conflict
eventually translate into multiple forms of enmity in the visible issues. In general, conflict is
most popularly described as a struggle over values and claims to scarce status, power and
resources. The efforts to attain desired objects become more intense in the absence of agreed
rules prescribing their equitable allocation. Peoples expectations alter in response to a shift
in their social and economic environment.
If governing norms are too rigid to be adjusted to new demands and expectations,
such inflexibility breeds resentment utilized for the mobilization of groups that are discontent
with the status quo. In conflict situation, the dynamic of actions and counteractions
inevitably engage attempts to control the others behavior, often with the intent to injure or
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destroy. In addition, violence may follow an unconstrained attempt to dominate in a fight
over power, prestige and material interests.
The essential nature of conflict situation is easily understood in terms of the
difficulties involved in meeting everyones aspiration simultaneously. Goals and activities
become incompatible when ones own interests are threatened by the action of another.
Parties to conflict make attempts to prevent each other from achieving desired objectives, in
part, owing to perceptions of divergent interest. Tensions essentially emerge due to the
pursuit of different outcomes or disagreement on the means to attain the same end.
Thus, a conflict situation is represented by perceived goal incompatibilities and
attempts to control each others choices, which generate adverse feelings and behavior
toward each other. In the end, what is at stake is the relationship itself and how the
relationship is defined. If the sources of discontent are left unaddressed, the conflict has the
potential to affect negatively an interdependent relationship that is mutually beneficial.
The relationships in conflict are often described in terms of an exercise of coercive
power. In an generic sense, power provides the ability to compel others to do something
and is also the source of peoples ability to exercise control over decision making on valuable
positions, limited goods and services. In an adversarial relationship, a coercive process is
linked to one partys efforts to change the others objectives and behavior. Thus, power
becomes an important element in the struggle for winning a conflict, since it is essential to
engendering a desired difference in the targeted persons emotions and behavior.
Conflict definition and the curve of conflict
Can you put a price on peace?
Megadeth (1986)
When many people think of conflict, images of war, violence and loss of life come to mind.
While these images are at times true, by definition a conflict is simply a disagreement among
the people on an issue. Conflict can be small, perhaps one or two adversaries, or they can be
large and complex, as among two or more countries. For instance, in the 1994 genocide in
Rwanda, could be attributed to hostile tensions which had a root though competition between
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Hutus and Tutsis over a fertile land for producing coffee beans that could generate a major
source of income to every tribe respectively.
Furthermore, the conflict between more countries also took place during the 2
nd

World War. Germany developed a mutual armed coalition with Japan and Italy (Axis),
whereas their adversaries, such as US are in coalition with Britain and USSR (Allies).
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Hence, conflict could be happen with a few or large number of adversaries.
Human beings cannot exist without conflict. It is a natural and normal part of life and
human interaction. When a communication to settle a conflict is constructive, conflict has its
benefits. It could stimulate dialogue, discovery, new understanding, fairer and more socially
solutions and stronger relationship. However, when a communication is breakdown and the
hell breaks loose! If this is happening, conflict can lead to separation, hostility, civil strife,
terrorism and war.
Major problems arise when conflict become violent or intractable. Intractable
conflict refers to a particular type of conflicts that divides large groups of people and is
accompanied by large scale violence. Lund (1996) provides us with an explanation of violent
conflict in his book entitled Preventing Violent Conflict: a Strategy for Preventive
Diplomacy with the curve of conflict.

1
The 2
nd
World War has erupted from 1939-1945 between the Axis and the Allies. The Axis led by Germany,
Japan and Italy, whereas the Allies spearheaded by US, UK, France and USSR. As recorded, the casualties of
war exceed more than 100,000 people. The 2
nd
World War also paved a way to the Cold War (1945-1989).
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(Lund: 1996)
Durable (Warm) Peace
Durable or warm peace involves a high level of reciprocity and cooperation, and the virtual
absence of self defence, measures among parties, although it may include their military
alliance against a common threat. A positive peace prevails based on shared values, goals
and institutions (democratic political system & rule of law), economic interdependence and a
sense of an international community. Positive peace have a deep relations to a theoretical
framework based on the idea of Immanuel Kant (1724-1804).
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His thought on perpetual
peace deeply influenced the modern concept of international relations, which was the
Democratic peace theory.
The Democratic peace theory explains every country which founded with the strong
respect to democratic value and the rule of law will never wage a war against another. For
example, US and UK is a democratic country, thus, because of shared similarity, the
countries will never wage a war against another respectively. This was the reason overtly
used by the Bushs regime to legitimize the US led allies invasion to Iraq on 2003, in order
to democratize and liberate Iraq from tyranny of Saddam Hussein. However, according

2
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was a German philosopher, who researched extensively on philosophy of
enlightenment at the end of 18 century. His scholarly works entitled the Critique of Pure Reason (1781) had
inspired and influenced many notable contemporary philosophers, to name a few, such as Michel Foucault,
Jurgen Habermas and Karl Popper.
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to this theory, each democratic country will never wage a war against another, unless the
country has change to more totalitarian in political and foreign policy outlook.
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Stable (Cold) Peace
Stable (cold) peace is a relationship of strained communication and limited cooperation (e.g
trade), within the overall context of order and national stability. Value or goal differences
exist and no military cooperation is established, but dispute are generally worked out in non
violent and predictable ways. The prospect for war is slow. If disputes remain unresolved
and tensions continue to rise, the conflict may overtime enter a phase known as unstable
peace.
For instance, Malaysia and Indonesia relations, once upon a time ago (2005) have
reached to this level of situation over the dispute of Pulau Sipadan and clash between
Malaysian Royal Navy and Indonesian Navys frigate while daily patrolling around Sulawesi
(KD Renchong vs KRI Tedung Naga). However, Malaysia and Indonesia had managed to
avoid any armed crisis, due to diplomatic skills performed by both countries leaders.
Unstable Peace
Unstable peace exist when tension and suspicion among parties run high, but violent is either
absence or only sporadic. Initiatives taken to defuse tension during a period of unstable
peace are termed Preventive Diplomacy and Conflict Prevention, whose objectives include
reducing tension, resolving dispute and heading off crises. If the efforts are successful,
tensions will subside. An example of unstable peace is the relationship between India and
Pakistan over Kashmir territory or Malaysia and Philippines during the period of formation of
Malaysia in 1963. While at times the relationship rises to crisis, the overall status is an
unstable peace. If preventive diplomacy and crisis prevention are not successful, tension may
continue to rise through various types of confrontation and the relation may reach the phase
of crisis.
Crisis

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As Kant (1991:73) put it the concept of freedom is derivative of external right or restriction of each
individuals freedom, so that it harmonizes with the freedom of everyone else..and public right is the distinctive
quality of the external laws which make this constant harmony possible. From this standpoint, Kant argued
that the harmonization of wills through public right, when all citizen learn to harmonize their will by acting in
accordance with moral imperatives, transcended the limits of the private right of individual. This philosophical
opinion deeply influenced the formation of the democratic peace theory later on in the International Relations
Studies.
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Crisis is tense of confrontation between armed forces that are mobilized and ready to fight
and may engaged in threat and occasional low level skirmishes without having exerted any
significant amount of force. The probability of the outbreak of war is high. Initiatives taken
to diffuse tension during a period of crisis are termed Crisis Diplomacy and Crisis
Management, whose objectives include containing crisis and stopping violence or coercive
behavior. If the efforts of crisis diplomacy are not successful, the potential of large scale
outbreak of war may enter the phase of war. For instance, in October 16-28, 1962, US and
Cuba (with the backup from USSR) in a confrontation for more than 12 days. Failure in a
covert operation led by CIA, to overthrow Fidel Castro, paved a way for Cuba to ask for
USSR protection in military.
The USSR-Cubas government, secretly begin to build a base for a medium-range and
intermediate-range ballistic nuclear missile. Cuba effort to build a nuclear weapons base
causes anxiety to the White House, due to its potential to threaten USs national security.
John F Kennedy (the then President of US), ordered naval blockade to every ship sail to
Cuba (Commercial or war ship). The Naval blockade has proven effective to dismantle
and reduce the potential of war (Eventually, USSR canceled their intention to supply missiles
to Cuba).
War
War is sustained fighting between organized armed forces (Mafia, Yakuza, Cosa Nostra-
gangster style of gang fights could not be considered as war, even though sometimes it
would be referred as war by the police). It may vary from low intensity continuing conflict or
civil anarchy to all out hot war. Once significant use of violence or armed forces occurs,
conflicts are susceptible to entering a spiral of escalating violence.
Each side feels increasingly justified to use violence because the other side is doing
so, the threshold to armed conflict or war is especially important. If an effort at peacemaking
and peace enforcement is successful, fighting will subside. There may be a ceasefire, which
may help reduce tensions and move the relationship from a state of war back to a state of
crisis. At this point, efforts to keep the conflict from re-escalating are typically called Peace
keeping and termination. As any conceptual model, the curve to some extent simplifies a
complex reality. None of the five phases represent a natural state of relations between two
countries or within a country, and the course of an actual conflict will not follow a tidy bell
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curve. However the curve of conflict reminds us that few, if any, violent conflict suddenly
erupt out of nowhere. They have precursors in less violent and even non violent disputes and
tensions. Interventions are generally most effective when addressing disputes before they
erupt into violence. For instance, the 2
nd
World War erupted when Germany invaded Poland
in 1939. In fact, tensions in Asia Pacific blew to war phase when Japan assaulted USs
naval base at Pearl Harbour.
References
Chanteur. J. 1992. From War to Peace. Westview Press. Colorado
Jeong, H.W. 2010. Conflict Management and Resolution. New York: Routledge
Kamarulzaman Askandar (Editor). 2004. Management and Resolution of Inter-State
Conflicts in Southeast Asia. SEACN.USM