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Totalitarian Movements and Political
Religions
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The return of martyrdom: Honour,
death and immortality
Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi
a
a
University of Haifa
Version of record first published: 08 Sep 2010
To cite this article: Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi (2003): The return of martyrdom: Honour, death and
immortality, Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions, 4:3, 11-34
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Tle uisruprive anu violenr porenrial o religion anu religiosiry las
become a ropic o concern anu inreresr since rle 199s, in rle years
leauing up ro rle 2 'Millennium`, wlere religious violence lau
been wiuely expecreu ro erupr, anu especially since rle evenrs o 11
Seprember 21. Recenr evenrs anu arremprs ro conceprualise rlem
musr leau us ro ask wlen anu low religious imaginarion anu religious
pracrices presenr a rlrear ro liberal uemocracy. In a recenr meuia
inrerview, Riclaru Dawkins saiu rlar wlile beore 11 Seprember
21, religion lau been vieweu by many as larmless nonsense, ir
now musr be vieweu as uangerous nonsense. Tle quesrion is, wlen
uo belies leau ro acrion anu lave serious consequences
Secularisarion means rle privarisarion o religious belies anu acrions
anu, in rle Iirsr Worlu, we lave become useu ro regaruing religious
involvemenr inueeu as larmless anu leauing ro norling o
consequence.
Wlenever, anu wlerever, religion in rle Wesr maniesrs irsel in a
orm wlicl is more rlan a marrer o privare airl, ir will be ueineu
in mosr Wesrern socieries as uisruprive anu |uugeu ro be marginal anu
uevianr. Any religious conlicr is perceiveu as merely aravisric. We are
collecrively slockeu by rle rerurn o religion as a morive or polirical
anu violenr acrions. Ir seems rlar a pre-mouern monsrer las come our
o rle ueprls ro launr us. Inciuenrs o mass suiciue bring ro minu
iueas anu pracrices o mucl earlier rimes anu o culrures seemingly
vanisleu. Iueals o puriry anu uevorion lave always leu rrue believers
2
Jhe Refurn of Marfyrdom:
Honour, Deafh and Immorfaify
BEN]AMI N BEI T- HALLAHMI
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ro acrs o sel-sacriice anu marryruom. We aumire rlose acrs rom
aar wlen we reau abour rlem in loly scriprure, bur are slockeu ro
wirness rlem ar irsr lanu rouay.
Wlar we lave been observing in uierenr parrs o rle worlu is rle
rerurn o marryruom as an iueal anu as a morive. We realise rlar rle
uenial o uearl is parr o all religious belie sysrems, anu as sucl an
inregral parr o rle lives o billions o believers arounu rle worlu, bur
or rle ma|oriry o rlose billions ir is kepr ar rle margins. Now
marryruom las come back as an acrive acror in polirics anu lisrory.
Tle goal lere is ro speciy some o rle psyclological meclanisms
involveu in rlis uramaric process.
Tle backgrounu or our uiscussion is rle lisrorical process o
secularisarion rlrougl wlicl borl sociery anu inuiviuuals lave
moveu away rom rle uominance o religious insrirurions anu
religious iuearion. Ar rle srare level rlis las raken, in a very ew cases,
rle slape o a ormal separarion berween religion anu srare anu, in
many orler cases, rle massive abolirion o religious laws anu
prolibirions once sancrioneu by rle srare.
Tle realiry o secularisarion can be assesseu in rle ollowing areas.
uniormiry versus pluralism, privare versus public, ascribeu versus
aclieveu, anu cloice versus inlerirance. Ir is easy ro prove rlar in all
inuusrrial socieries rouay, religion, wlicl was once uniorm,
collecrivisr, public, ascribeu anu inlerireu, is rouay pluralisr,
inuiviuualisric, privariseu, aclieveu anu oren reely closen.
Privarisarion is rle mosr imporranr clange, overriuing all orler
uimensions. In rrauirional culrures religion is experienceu in rle
collecrive splere. Tle possibiliry o cloice anu preerence in religious
marrers is a mouern plenomenon, inrerprereu as a symprom o rle
uecline o religion. In mosr rrauirional socieries, religion is nor a
marrer o cloice, bur o birrl, leauing ro auromaric acceprance.
Our examinarion o religious belaviour, psyclological or orler,
rom a non-religious poinr o view, is preuicareu on rle lisrorical
process o secularisarion, wlicl is borl pervasive anu relarive. Our
uiscussion lere is irsr o all a relecrion anu a prouucr o
secularisarion. Any acauemic examinarion o religious belaviour is
preuicareu on rle uecline o religion as a social orce.
Tlis uecline las creareu rle space or a secular analysis o religion
anu or rle psyclological sruuy o religion. Any sclolarly uiscussion
o religion is subversive, ueconsrrucrive anu reuucrive a mosr
serious rlrear.
1
Tle war berween religion anu science was |usr rle
RELICIOUS IUNDAMENTALISM AND POLITICAL EXTREMISM 12
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prologue ro rle war berween psyclology anu all rle luman sciences
anu religion.
2
One aspecr o rle secularisarion o rle acauemic worlu
is rle rurning o religion irsel inro an ob|ecr o sruuy. Tle acauemic
sruuy o religion is in irsel a proo anu a symprom o rle
secularisarion o culrure. Examining rle origins o rle religious iuea
means rlar irs aurloriry is no longer raken or granreu, or even
accepreu, anu rle explanarions oereu excluue any religious claims.
Wlen religion is sruuieu, ir is no longer raken or granreu. Ir is pur
on rle same ooring as orler luman acriviries, as a social anu
belavioural plenomenon. Tlis woulu lave been inconceivable only
a couple o cenruries ago.
Tle uecline o religion as a social insrirurion las been connecreu
wirl rle rise o science. Hisrorically, ligler euucarion (anu euucarion
in general) was uominareu by religion. Universiries in borl meuieval
Europe anu rle Islamic worlu srarreu as religious insrirurions. Tle
secularisarion o euucarion is one o rle mosr imporranr aspecrs o
secularisarion in general. Tle uncrion o euucarional insrirurions was
primarily religious, aimeu cliely ar prouucing rle clergy as well as
members o rle proessional class anu sclolars. Tle clergy las been
marginaliseu in sociery anu rleology las been marginaliseu in rle
acauemic worlu. Norling uemonsrrares rle uecline o religious
aurloriry in rle Wesr like rle clanging srarus o religion in rle
universiries. Tleology, once rle 'queen o rle sciences`, las been
relegareu ro oblivion, banisleu rom mosr researcl universiries.
Ior rle pasr 5 years, religion las been uealr severe blows by rle
ueveloping sciences. Narural sciences lave replaceu religion`s
rrauirional cosmology wirl a secular one anu biological sciences lave
uemolisleu rle view o lumaniry as unique in rle narural worlu. Tle
process o rle uecline o religion anu rle rise o science las been
eloquenrly uescribeu by Irazer. 'Ior ages rle army o spirirs, once so
near, las been receuing arrler anu arrler rom us, banisleu by rle
magic wanu o science rom learrl anu lome`.
3
Tle course o rle
srruggle berween science anu religion is uniuirecrional anu consisrenr.
As Wallace srares, 'In rlese conresrs, wlenever rle barrle is ully
|oineu, anu borl parries commir rlemselves ro rle srruggle, science
aluays wins`.
4
Bur ir was ler ro rle social sciences anu psyclology ro
examine rle narure o religious belies anu in rlis way ro ueal religion
a ma|or blow.
RETURN OI MARTYRDOM 13
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Approaching Reigious Behaviour
Wlar uo all religious plenomena lave in common Tle common
uenominaror o all religious acrions is a complex sysrem o belies
anu claims rieu ro sucl acrions, anu nor rle acrions rlemselves or rle
emorion involveu. Religion is clearly an iueology, meaning 'rlar parr
o culrure wlicl is acrively concerneu wirl rle esrablislmenr anu
ueence o parrerns o belies anu values`.
5
Bur ir is clearly uierenr,
in rle narure o irs claims, rom all orler iueologies we know, sucl as
ler-wing or riglr-wing worlu views in polirics. Bur religion is a very
parricular kinu o iueology, involving rle inuiviuual in a unique
commirmenr anu in a unique nerwork o relarionslips, real anu
imagineu. Tle working ueinirion o religion useu lere is rle
srraiglrorwaru, everyuay uescriprion o religion as a sysrem o
belies in uivine or superluman power, anu pracrices o worslip or
orler riruals uirecreu rowarus sucl a power.
6
Tle one irreuucible
belie common ro all religions is rle belie in spirirs inlabiring an
invisible worlu anu our relarionslip wirl rlem.
7
We will use rle presence o rle supernarural premise, or rle
supernarural assumprion, as rle rouclsrone or ueining cerrain
luman belaviours as religious. Wlar is rlis premise
Ir is rle premise o every religion anu rlis premise is religion`s
ueining claracrerisric rlar souls, supernarural beings anu
supernarural orces exisr. Iurrlermore, rlere are cerrain
minimal caregories o belaviour, wlicl, in rle conrexr o rle
supernatural prenise, are always ounu in associarion wirl one
anorler anu wlicl are rle subsrance o religion irsel.
8
(original
emplasis)
Similarly, William ]ames uescribes a separarion o rle visible anu rle
invisible worlus, wlicl parallels rle separarion berween rle sacreu
anu proane.
Religion las meanr many rlings in luman lisrory. bur wlen
rom now onwaru I use rle woru I mean ro use ir in rle
supernaruralisr sense, as ueclaring rlar rle so calleu oruer o
narure, wlicl consrirures rlis worlu`s experience, is only one
porrion o rle roral universe, anu rlar rlere srrercles beyonu
rlis visible worlu an unseen worlu o wlicl we now know
norling posirive, bur in irs relarion ro wlicl rle rrue
signiicance o our presenr munuane lie consisrs. A man`s
RELICIOUS IUNDAMENTALISM AND POLITICAL EXTREMISM 14
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religious airl . means or me essenrially lis airl in rle
exisrence o an unseen oruer o some kinu in wlicl rle riuules
o rle narural oruer may be ounu explaineu.
9
All religions promore rle iuea o an invisible worlu, inlabireu by
various crearures sucl as gous, angels anu uevils, wlicl conrrol mucl
o our belaviour, rlouglrs anu eelings. Anu i we believe in rle
exisrence o rle unseen worlu, rlen religion as a social insrirurion is
or us rle meuiaror berween rle invisible, supernarural worlu anu rle
visible, luman anu narural worlu; bur rlar insrirurion anu irs coue o
belaviour uoes nor exisr wirlour rle belie in rle supernarural.
Religious acriviries are organiseu inro riruals, anu rarionaliseu by
belies. Riruals are rlen organiseu inro insrirurions.
Wlile rlis uescriprion may be roo narrow ro incluue some
rrauirions somerimes reerreu ro as religious, ir is broau enougl ro
cover wlar religion means ro mosr luman beings rlrougl rleir
concrere lisrorical experience. Tlis ueinirion, wlile being
conservarive or some rasres, las rle auvanrages o being concrere,
lisrorical anu close ro rle uirecr experience o rle proverbial person
on rle srreer, rle common believer. Tle psyclological ueinirion o
religion las ro be close ro rlar wlicl real people experience anu
recognise immeuiarely, anu sucl subsranrive ueinirions are in line
wirl rle rrauirions o sclolarslip in rle sruuy o religion. Tlis is a
picrure o religion rlar is recogniseu inruirively by laymen anu
sclolars alike.
Tle universaliry o our ueinirion is baseu on rle universaliry o
belies in rle worlu o rle spirirs. Despire rle culrural variarions
anu rle claims or uniqueness, rlere is a universal common
uenominaror ro all religions. Tle uescriprion o supernaruralism is
valiu nor |usr or Wesrerners, bur also or Slinroisrs, Hinuus,
Muslims, Sikls anu members o rlousanus o orler religious
groups. Ar rle presenr rime, rlere are 1, species o rle genus
religion, anu rlis ueinirion covers all o rlem. Many aulerenrs o
numerous religions are oenueu wlen rleir airl, wlicl seems ro
rlem unique, is classiieu in rle same way as all orlers, bur we can
easily poinr ro belavioural generalisarions wlicl are valiu or all
religions anu culrures. Tle emplasis on rle supernarural
assumprion in ueining religion gives us irsr a clear uisrincrion
berween religious anu non-religious belaviours, anu seconu a valiu
cross-culrural ueinirion.
RETURN OI MARTYRDOM 15
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Tle psyclological analysis o religion uoes nor precluue orler
approacles, anu uoes nor mean rlar religion as a social insrirurion
sloulu be uisregarueu. We realise rlar social relarions are always
imbueu wirl quesrions o power, anu rlar religious belies anu
pracrices may be connecreu ro power arrangemenrs in a mosr uirecr
way. Priesrs, proplers anu messials uesire power over orlers anu
rlen use ir or abuse ir or many luman purposes. Sociological,
anrlropological anu lisrorical approacles cover wlar our
psyclological blinu spors leave belinu.
Our observarions o living religions uemonsrrare rlar rlere is no
inrrinsically religious meaning in anyrling. All acrions rlar are
rlouglr ro be claracrerisric o religion, or example, privare anu
collecrive rirual, uevorion or iueological commirmenr proven by
sel-sacriice, can also be ounu in secular serrings. Ecsrasy anu
commirmenr, measureu in a variery o ways, can be ounu on many
secular occasions. Any ob|ecr, person, rime or place may become
imbueu wirl loliness anu rlus gain religious meaning. Religious
acrions are ueineu solely by rleir relarion ro a uelineareu realm o
loliness. Holiness is a realm o arbirrary conrenr, ueineu by
speciic rrauirions, anu nor o psyclological uncrion or srrucrure.
1
All religions lave creareu sacreu space anu rime, srrucruring uay-ro-
uay lie, anu connecring secular acriviries wirl grauarions o
sacraliry.
Wlar unires all religions in pracrical rerms is rle crearion o sacreu
space on earrl. We all know sacreu space in rle orm o rires o
passage, wlere imporranr lie-cycle rransirions are sacraliseu. Purring
uearl in rle sacreu space lies ar rle cenrre o all religious belie
sysrems. Personal immorraliry, wlerler rlrougl rle rise o one`s soul
ro leaven, or some orm o reincarnarion, as well as various promises
o resurrecrion, lave been rle monopoly o all religions since
prelisroric rimes. Anu rlis is inueeu rle mosr imporranr uncrion o
religion or rle ma|oriry o believers. As William ]ames pur ir.
'Religion, in acr, or rle grear ma|oriry o our own race, neans
immorraliry, anu norling else`.
11
Tle uenial o uearl is parr o rle uaily pracrice o all religions. 'I
can resriy ro rle enrire worlu rlar I know rlar lie is erernal, rlar ir
is everlasring, rlar rle grave is nor rle enu, rlar rlose wlo uie young
or olu slall go on living`.
12
Tlis is low rle Presiuenr o rle Clurcl
o ]esus Clrisr o Larrer-uay Sainrs expresseu lis airl, wlicl le
slares wirl billions arounu rle globe, o all religious rrauirions.
RELICIOUS IUNDAMENTALISM AND POLITICAL EXTREMISM 16
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Secuarisafion and Modernify
Over rle pasr 5 years we can observe rle persisrence o lumaniry`s
reauiness ro espouse supernaruralism, relecring a longing or rle
improbable, wlicl seems quire unuiminisleu, rogerler wirl an
opposire process, wlicl is rle grauual uecline anu all o
supernaruralisr belie sysrems. Secularisarion, wlicl las raken place
in rle Wesr, anu is in realiry ue-Clrisrianisarion, is rle lisrorical
process rlrougl wlicl borl sociery anu inuiviuuals move away rom
rle uominance o religious insrirurions anu religious iuearion.
13
Ar rle
srare level, rlis may rake rle orm o rle separarion o religion anu
srare, anu rle abolirion o religious laws anu prolibirions. Tlus, rle
Iralians (1974), rle Argenrinians (199) anu rle Irisl (1995) lave
abolisleu rle prolibirion on uivorce, connecreu ro rle lisrorical
uominance o rle Roman Carlolic Clurcl, anu auopreu rle
superioriry o civil law in mariral quesrions. Ar rle same rime, we see
religious rrauirions in many counrries laving an impacr on public
policies regaruing conrraceprion anu aborrion.
Wirlin rle conremporary inuusrrialiseu worlu, religion is
conceprualiseu anu manageu mosrly as leisure-rime acriviry,
compering wirl orler sucl pursuirs.
14
Tle relegarion o religion . ro 'leisure` . is symbolic o rle
proounu clanges wlicl lave raken place . sucl neurraliseu
resiuues o Clrisrianiry . are largely severeu rom rleir basis in
serious belie anu subsranrial inuiviuual experience. Tlereore,
rley rarely prouuce inuiviuual belaviour rlar is uierenr rom
wlar is ro be expecreu rom rle prevailing parrerns o civilisarion.
15
I ir is more rlan a leisure-rime acriviry, rlen religion is parr o civil
sociery, a volunrary associarion relecring rle ree will anu cloices o
ree cirizens.
Mosr o wlar we rlink o as culrural acriviries reauing, wriring,
arr, music anu urama useu ro be religious. Lireracy irsel was rieu ro
religion, bur over rle pasr ew cenruries, religion las been separareu
rom learning, culrural prouucrion anu rle arrs. Only a ew cenruries
ago, culrural acriviries revolveu complerely arounu religion. Mosr
books publisleu beore rle rwenrierl cenrury lau ro uo wirl religion.
Touay, only a small proporrion o prinreu marrer is religious in
narure, anu mosr o ir is ueciueuly secular. Mosr works o arr
prouuceu rlrouglour lisrory lau religious sub|ecrs. Touay, religious
RETURN OI MARTYRDOM 17
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arr is simply a rariry. Since 19, rlere lave been very ew ma|or
arrisrs wlo lave lau anyrling ro uo wirl religion rley lave been
rle exceprion rarler rlan rle rule (or example, Ceorges Rouaulr).
Sociologisrs lave uescribeu secularisarion in rerms o rle clange
in rle inreracrion berween religion anu orler insrirurions in sociery,
sucl as rle economy anu polirics. In rrauirional socieries, religious
iueas are pervasive anu aecr all members o rle communiry. Religion
useu ro be rle cenrral insrirurion in sociery anu rle religious
congregarion useu ro be rle mosr imporranr organisarion in any local
communiry. In mouern, reclnologically auvanceu socieries rle
insrirurion o religion (in rle sociological sense) anu rle religious
insrirurions wirlin sociery are kepr separare rom rle orler
insrirurions o sociery. polirics, rle economy, uomesric lie, arr anu
enrerrainmenr. Tlougl religion gains auronomy, rlis clange implies
a weakening in irs power. Ir loses culrural legemony as public lie
becomes secular. Secularisarion means irsr rle relegarion o religion
ro rle privare splere, anu rlen rle uecline in observance. Tle
privarisarion anu psyclologising o religiosiry leave ir conineu ro rle
inrerior lie, unrelareu ro rle public splere o polirics anu economics.
Tlere las been a consiuerable uecline in clurcl arrenuance anu
orler kinus o religious acriviry in rle Wesr. In Wesr Cermany,
reporreu regular arrenuance among Proresranrs wenr uown rom 15
per cenr in 1963 ro 8 per cenr in 198; or Carlolics, rle igures were
55 per cenr anu 31 per cenr respecrively.
16
In rle Nerlerlanus, wlar
las been uescribeu as 'rle culrural revolurion`, las, since rle 196s,
resulreu in a rauical ue-Clrisrianisarion. Clurcles wlicl lave serveu
as rle learr o communiries since rle Miuule Ages are now lockeu-
up relics. In Crear Brirain, as well as in orler counrries in Europe,
rlere are rlousanus o empry, useless clurcles, being oereu or sale
or reuse. Walking uown rle srreer in Lonuon, one can encounrer
uilapiuareu clurcles surrounueu by signs oering rlem ro wloever
will converr rlese vacanr builuings ro any socially useul purpose.
Anu in Marcl 1996 rle preuicrion was maue (by rle Clurcl irsel)
rlar rle Merlouisr Clurcl in Crear Brirain, wlicl las been parr o
rle lisrory o Clrisrianiry in rle Wesr or almosr rlree cenruries,
woulu become exrincr early in rle rwenry-irsr cenrury! We know rlar
rle level o religious acriviry in Europe anu Norrl America las allen
uuring rle rwenrierl cenrury, as ar as overall religious acriviry anu
rle main clurcles are concerneu, anu in some areas we know rlar
rle eecr o religion las uecreaseu.
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Ir las been wiuely assumeu, since rle uays o rle Enliglrenmenr,
rlar religion anu religiosiry are uesrineu ro uecline inro weakeneu anu
insigniicanr orms, i nor ro uisappear complerely.
17
Tlis assumprion
las nor been beyonu uispure, lowever, especially since rle miuule o
rle rwenrierl cenrury. Hisrorical secularisarion apparenrly srarreu
earlier rlan is usually rlouglr. Mouern lisrorians suggesr rlar rle
rlirreenrl cenrury was a rurning poinr, wlen meuieval Europe
enrereu a rime o prosperiry, wlicl reuuceu orler-worluly concerns.
Larer on, ir was rle Proresranr Reormarion, rle coming o rle
narion-srare anu rle rise o capiralism wlicl were rle milesrones on
rle roaus ro secularisarion.
18
Religion las been linkeu wirl rle
agrarian worlu o euualism, ueclining wirl rle arrival o
inuusrrialisarion. Secularisarion is associareu wirl mouerniry, a
pro|ecr o inrellecrual, moral, polirical anu economic uimensions.
Mouerniry is claracreriseu by insrrumenral rarionaliry, anu by social
anu culrural pluralism, narion-srares anu science-baseu reclnology.
Secularisarion is connecreu ro ma|or lisrorical rurning poinrs anu ro
rle ormalisarion o inuiviuual riglrs in rle Unireu Srares
Consrirurion (especially rle Iirsr Amenumenr o 1791) anu rle
Irencl Declararion o rle Riglrs o Man anu Cirizen o 1789. Tlese
uocumenrs signiy rle uecline o monarcly anu arisrocracy anu make
possible a secular sociery in wlicl religion is a privare marrer, a
marrer o 'conscience`.
Ir was Karl Marx wlo, even beore rle miuule o rle ninereenrl
cenrury, alreauy uescribeu rle process rlrougl wlicl religion was
separareu anu isolareu rom orler realms o lie. 'In a orm anu
manner corresponuing ro irs narure, rle srare as sucl emancipares
irsel rom religion, rlar is, by recognising no religion anu recognising
irsel simply as rle srare`. Religion rlen becomes privare, 'rle absrracr
conession o a parricular peculiariry, o privare wlim, o caprice`.
19
Tle conrexr o secularisarion anu mouerniry means rle
privarisarion o religious belies anu religious acriviries. Ir is easy ro
prove rlar in all inuusrrial socieries rouay, religion, wlicl was once
uniorm, collecrivisr, public, ascribeu anu inlerireu, is rouay pluralisr,
inuiviuualisric, privariseu, aclieveu anu oren reely closen.
Privarisarion is rle mosr imporranr clange, overriuing all orler
uimensions. Organiseu religious acriviries become parr o civil sociery
anu oren rake on rle claracrerisrics o leisure-rime pursuirs.
Religious belies survive anu are commonly expresseu bur rley are
rarely associareu wirl acrion or wirl collecrive acrion. A common
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claim in rle age o secularisarion is rlar religious asserrions are only
symbolic, meraplorical or absrracr. Tlis leaus ro unueresrimaring
rleir abiliry ro morivare, anu ro uiscounring any risks sremming rom
religious belie sysrems.
2
Tle secularisarion o polirics in rle Wesr las been pervasive, anu
almosr roral. Iueas abour uivine riglrs anu uivine laws lave been
banisleu rom rle public uebare in polirical uemocracies. Religious
liberry is a mouern iuea, relecring secularisarion. Religious rolerance
las appeareu rogerler wirl capiralism, science anu narionalism,
wlicl souglr ro uniy uierenr erlnic communiries unuer a new
iuenriry. Narionalism arrracrs some o rle same emorional
commirmenr ormerly clannelleu ro religious iuenriry. Unril 2
years ago, pracrically all social conlicrs were also religious in narure.
Touay, religious wars cause amazemenr anu regrer anu are consiuereu
a rling o rle pasr in mosr parrs o rle worlu. Once rley were
narural, wlile now rley appear mosr unnarural. Secular wars o
narionalisr movemenrs anu narion-srares are regarueu as normal in
rle secular age. Ir coulu be suggesreu rlar narionalism las replaceu
religion as an imagineu communiry.
Harringron srareu rlar capiralism was responsible or
secularisarion, as ir uesrroyeu rrauirional sociery.
21
Iamily, religion
anu communiry are unuermineu by rle marker anu by rle iueology
o urilirarian inuiviuualism. Kinslip ries lave been weakeneu by
urbanisarion (rieu ro social lererogeneiry) anu inuusrrialisarion. Tle
amily las clangeu rom a unir o prouucrion, consumprion anu
socialisarion, ro a unir o consumprion anu socialisarion. Prouucrion
was cur o rom rle amily wirl rle coming o capiralism. In earlier
uays, sraying wirlin rle amily was a marrer o inuiviuual survival,
unuer capiralism rlis is no longer so. Turner srareu rlar unuer
capiralism, religion, as a means o mainraining amily inregriry, is no
longer neeueu.
22
Inuiviuualism anu marerialism are being blameu or rle uecline o
religion anu amily, bur rlese are inueeu rle explicir goals o
capiralism. Tle privarisarion anu comparrmenralising o lie in rle
Wesr leau ro a pluralisr anu posr-Clrisrian culrure. Tle clanges in rle
Wesrern conceprion o rle amily, o rle iueals o marriage anu in rle
srarus o women, are unuoubreuly relareu ro secularisarion. Clanges
in rle amily are rle mosr salienr in rlis conrexr. Tle plenomenon o
uivorce, almosr unknown in Wesrern socieries |usr a cenrury ago, is
now quire common.
23
In earlier rimes, religion was an acrive parry ro
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marriage, wlicl was regarueu as a sacramenr. Now rlis rliru parry
las been removeu wirl rle coming o 'no aulr uivorce` anu only rle
parrners are involveu.
Hererogeneiry, pluralism anu ragmenrarion are all aspecrs o
secularisarion in mosr Wesrern counrries. In rlis conrinuing process,
lisrorical belie sysrems are becoming ragmenreu, privariseu anu
reinrerprereu in more symbolic, rarler rlan lireral, ways. Religious
organisarions are becoming uiviueu anu pluralisric. Secularisarion
appears rogerler wirl rle awareness rlar social insrirurions are
murable, nor srable or erernal. Culrure is uesacraliseu, as many (or
mosr) people are no longer reauy ro live, or uie, or religion.
24
Tle worlu view o arleisric lumanism las become esrablisleu in
rwenrierl-cenrury civilisarion.
25
Tlis las been rle culminarion o a
long-rerm process. Tle re|ecrion o any norion o rle supernarural
anu rle arer-lie,
26
anu rle realisarion rlar rlis lie is all rlere is, leaus
ro a lumanisr call or acrion. Ir is rlar lumankinu sloulu make rle
mosr o lie lere on earrl, anu be commirreu ro social |usrice.
27
As
Homans suggesreu, secularisarion is nor |usr rle uecline o religious
iueas anu insrirurions, bur a rraumaric ue-iuealisarion, bringing abour
new culrural movemenrs.
28
Secularisarion, seen by some as an unmirigareu blessing, las been
experienceu by many as a loss anu requires a mourning process.
29
Ir
is rle painul loss o communiry wlicl may leau ro a uangerous
submission ro ascisr aurloriry.
3
Tle iueal o sel-acrualisarion las
replaceu rle commirmenrs ro rle survival o amily, communiry anu
sociery. Tle new iueal is expresseu rlrougl rle mouern insrirurion o
psyclorlerapy, oering a lumanisr meaning sysrem ro seculariseu
inuiviuuals.
31
Tle secularisarion o culrure anu consciousness is wlar
sloulu mosr concern us. Tle uesacralisarion o culrure means rlar
religious symbols, language anu reerences in culrure are abanuoneu,
or are useu wirlour awareness o rleir original meaning. Bur culrural
secularisarion is slow anu relarive. In mosr culrures, rle irsr wrirren
works were scriprures. Because rle process is lisrorical anu relarive,
no luman culrure is rorally secular, given rle weiglr o rrauirion.
Language is everywlere suuseu wirl religious rerms, anu so we
speak o crusaues (or jibads) in polirics or business, anu we use
religious exclamarions rlar lave losr rleir power. In rle Wesr,
blasplemous worus useu ro slock, anu ir was consiuereu improper ro
use Cou`s name in vain. Now any sucl sensiriviries woulu be
consiuereu bizarre. Tle uecline o religion in rle Wesr is clearesr in
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public lie, wlere Sunuay closing laws lave gone rle way o
uinosaurs. Sunuay was supposeu ro be rle Sabbarl, a loly break
uevoreu ro rle Loru. In mosr Wesrern counrries, sucl laws lave been
uisappearing ar an accelerareu rare.
Tle process o secularisarion is srriking in mouern olklore.
Wlereas ir useu ro be illeu wirl wircles, goou anu evil spirirs anu
rrolls, over rle pasr couple o cenruries ir las become 'rarionaliseu`.
Supernarural moris lave been rransormeu inro mouern, real ob|ecrs
anu crearures.
32
A similar rransormarion las raken place in rle
conrenr o psycloric uelusions. Wlereas in rle miu-ninereenrl
cenrury religious iueas were common in uelusions, a lunureu years
larer rley were replaceu by 'rarionaliseu` iueas abour elecrrical anu
elecrronic orces.
33
Tlese clanges may be rle mosr signiicanr,
because rley rell us rlar lumans lave ler religious rrauirions belinu
wlen rley creare rleir mosr inrimare anu revealing anrasies.
Jhe Secuarisafion of Deafh and Vioence
Tle secularisarion o uearl anu violence in rle mouern worlu las
been momenrous over rle years. Dearl is expecreu by all lumans,
anu may be conceiveu as rle rrue exrincrion o rle sel (by secular
culrure) or as a way srarion on rle roau ro ulrimare salvarion (by
religion). Secularisarion, as we lave seen, las meanr rle raming o
religion rlrougl privarising anu marginalising all irs messages anu
uncrions, incluuing rlar o uealing wirl uearl. Visions o
immorraliry may srill be ounu among many, bur rleir promise las
been marginaliseu.
In rrauirional sociery plysical uearl is ever presenr, rogerler wirl
rle luman imaginarive response o a belie in immorraliry. Menento
nori! Remembering uearl is no problem wlen ir is all arounu you.
Mouern sociery las rrieu ro eliminare uearl rom our everyuay
experience, anu because uearl las been more successully uenieu, rle
conscious uesire or immorraliry las been reuuceu.
Even sucl a uevelopmenr as rle rise o sysremaric psyclology as
an inuepenuenr uiscipline represenrs rle uecline in rle belie in rle
exisrence o rle soul, a psyclological rleory wlicl las been a parr o
every religious rrauirion. Anu rle soul is always rle erernal soul, rle
insrrumenr o our own immorraliry. Mouern psyclology, as Allporr
srareu, is rarler prouu o being 'a psyclology wirlour a soul`,
34
rlus
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expressing a uirecr ueparrure rom religious rrauirions. Acrually, rle
uevelopmenr o mouern psyclology woulu nor lave been possible
wirlour re|ecring rle iuea o rle soul. Tle uevelopmenr o a scienriic
psyclology las meanr rle naruralisarion anu secularisarion o rle
soul anu inally irs uisappearance.
35
Tle rrurl is rlar we uo nor expecr violence ro arise our o
religious belies, because we expecr religiosiry ro lave a limireu
impacr on belaviour oursiue clearly religious serrings. Clock
suggesreu ive uimensions or rle measuremenr o religiosiry in
mouern sociery. iueological, rirualisric, inrellecrual, experienrial, anu
consequenrial.
36
Tle so-calleu consequenrial uimension o religiosiry
was soon uroppeu by Clock limsel anu is usually absenr rom rle
lirerarure uealing wirl rle belaviour o believers.
37
Tle secularisarion o uearl anu violence is sel-eviuenr wlen we
look ar rle evenrs o wlar las become known as 'rle orler 9/11`. On
11 Seprember 1973, abour 3, people uieu in Sanriago, Clile,
uuring a milirary coup rlar enueu rle career anu rle lie o rle
Clilean presiuenr, Salvauor Allenue. I we examine meuia anu
sclolarly reacrions ro rlis evenr ar rle rime anu larer on, rley were
mucl more mureu rlan rlose ro rle evenrs 11 Seprember 21. Tlis
was nor only because rle anri-Allenue coup was long in rle making,
anu a Cenrral Inrelligence Agency rask orce lau been working on ir
since Seprember 197. Tle uiscussion o rle 1973 evenrs, regaruless
o wlerler rle coup was applauueu, as lappeneu in rle Unireu
Srares, or ueploreu, rook place wirlin rle ramework o normal,
secular violence. Tle acrors` belaviour, on eirler siue, uiu nor
require a specialiseu explanarion. People killeu orler people, or were
killeu, uemonsrraring commirmenr, courage, cowaruice or cruelry,
bur in our mouern perceprion, rlere was norling unusual ro ponuer.
Borl siues represenreu mouern, secular inreresrs. 11 Seprember 21
causeu slock nor only because o rle violence involveu, bur because
ir lookeu like a rlrowback ro earlier, more primirive rimes. Tle 19
inuiviuuals wlo were rle perperrarors saw rlemselves as marryrs.
Diu any o rlose wlo uieu on 11 Seprember 1973 in Clile regaru
rlemselves rlar way To answer rlar, we neeu ro clariy wlar
marryruom is. Serious violence, engageu in by only a minoriry o
lumans, always comes wirl a |usriicarion. Ir is always presenreu as
an arrempr ro reuress an imbalance anu recriy an in|usrice. A
religious belie sysrem is somerimes useu ro give sucl a |usriicarion.
Sacraliseu violenr uearl is given a cosmic meaning, wlile uearl in rle
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service o a secular iueology, narional or supra-narional, can lave
only an lisrorical meaning. Mosr o rle commirreu vicrims o
violence on borl siues in Clile uiu nor conceive o rleir uearl as parr
o a cosmic srruggle or salvarion. Many, on rle Riglr anu rle Ler,
coulu see rleir srruggle as lisrorical, luman anu inire.
Human lisrory, unril recenr cenruries, is illeu wirl religious
violence, bur in our seculariseu minuser, rle age o rle Wars o
Religion is over. Tle connecrion berween religion anu violence, once
quire inrimare, las become remore. Wlar we observe rlrouglour rle
worlu, rom Moscow ro San Irancisco, is a new anu improveu mouel
o a ueangeu Clrisrianiry. Since rle eiglreenrl cenrury we lave been
iglring abour narional liberarion, economics anu equaliry, all
respecrably secular causes. Secular iueologies, as we all know, can be
no less lerlal rlan religious ones, bur rouay in rle Wesr we are reauy
ro accepr uemocraric iueals as rle riglr |usriicarion or violence as
rle lasr resorr.
'Tle rree o liberry musr be reresleu rom rime ro rime wirl rle
bloou o parriors anu ryranrs`, wrore Tlomas ]eerson in 1787, anu
we all aumire lim or rlar. We iuenriy wlolelearreuly wirl rle
violence o rle oppresseu as rley iglr or rleir universally
acknowleugeu riglrs.
38
Tle preservarion o lie anu limb uoes nor
lolu rle mosr value in any luman culrure. All culrures aumire sel-
sacriice or a non-selisl cause, |usr as we aumire conrrol over one`s
bouily uesires anu weaknesses. We aumire rlose wlo climb Mounr
Everesr, or run mararlons or rleir vicrory o 'spirir` over 'lesl`, bur
we aumire even more rlose wlose ears beneir rle wlole amily,
communiry or narion. Alrruism is a universal iueal, anu ir makes sense
rom an evolurionary poinr o view because sel-sacriicial alrruism is
auaprive wlen ir preserves rle generic inreresrs o a popularion o
generically similar inuiviuuals.
39
So, parrioric sel-sacriice makes
sense anu is iuealiseu bur mosr parriors uo nor wanr ro uie in war anu
mosr believers uo nor wanr ro be marryrs.
Belie in immorraliry, rlougl cenrral ro all religions, is kepr ar rle
margins or mosr inuiviuuals uuring mosr o rleir lives. Ir becomes
cenrral wlen uearl is a real possibiliry or rle inuiviuual or moves
inro close proximiry. Epiuemics, wars, uisasrers, inuiviuual illness, age
anu inirmiry all give occasion ro relecrions on our inaliry. Bur rlere
are orler occasions, wlen psyclological orces wirlin rle inuiviuual
or rle power o circumsrances may leau ro suiciue or, in rle case o
marryrs anu parriors, ro suiciual iuealism.
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Wlen selless uearls occur, rley are experienceu uierenrly in a
secular or religious conrexr. Tle narional lero allen on rle ielu o
barrle uiers rom rle marryr in rle secular rewaru wlicl is lis
earneu riglr. Tlar rewaru is becoming parr o collecrive memory.
Mouern narionalism can only promise symbolic immorraliry rlrougl
rle secular meclanisms o memory. Tle larrer, as powerul as rley
may be, uo nor promise a rerurn ro lie. Any allen lero may also be
a religious believer wlo expecrs resurrecrion, bur rlis, in rle mouern
srare, is a privare rransacrion berween limsel anu rle worlu o gous
anu spirirs.
Tle iuea anu rle iueal o marryruom, cenrral ro all lisrorical
religions, las been marginaliseu in rle mouern worlu, as rle crearion
o sacreu space las been narroweu. Dearl may srill be sacraliseu bur
ir is rlen |usr respecrable, nor lonourable. Marryruom, rle mosr
lonourable uearl in religious rerms, las losr irs lonour. Marryruom
is oren loly ueear wlereby vicrims, nor vicrors, are rle rrue leroes,
wlo slall inlerir leavenly rewarus.
Jhe Cash of Civiisafions
Tle aulr lines berween civilisarions, accoruing ro Samuel
Hunringron, are ueineu by opposing views o 'relarions berween
Cou anu man, rle inuiviuual anu rle group, rle cirizen anu rle srare,
parenrs anu cliluren, lusbanu anu wie, as well as uiering views o
rle relarive imporrance o riglrs anu responsibiliries, liberry anu
aurloriry, equaliry anu lierarcly`.
4
Psyclological mouerniry is a minuser wlicl is rle ourcome o rle
long anu painul lisrorical process o mouernisarion.
41
Mouerniry
purs a grearer emplasis on rle nuclear amily (as opposeu ro rle
exrenueu amily); on egalirarian relarionslips berween rle
sexes; on srarus baseu on aclievemenr . (as opposeu ro srarus
baseu on birrl . or orler ascriprive claracrerisrics); anu on
grearer concern wirl inuiviuualism (rarler rlan wirl uoing
wlar is prescribeu by aurloriry igures or by social groups).
42
Mouerniry is an arrempr ro uesrroy communiry anu communalism, as
well as rle olu srrucrures o rle monarcly, euualism, nobiliry anu rle
amily irsel, all rlose orces wlicl creareu iuenriry anu aurloriry. Ir
is ulrimarely a rebellion againsr all aurloriry, bur mouerniry is
RETURN OI MARTYRDOM 25
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ancloreu in uierenr perceprions o rle luman conuirion, o uearl
anu immorraliry, as well as in a clangeu perceprion o lonour anu irs
imporrance.
Tle clasl o civilisarions, i rlis is inueeu wlar we lave been
wirnessing, is berween a civilisarion o lonour anu slame opposing a
civilisarion o uigniry, conscience anu guilr. An lonour culrure is 'a
culrure in wlicl male srrengrl anu power are liglly valueu anu in
wlicl men are prepareu ro kill ro ueenu rleir srarus as lonourable
men`.
43
Ayers uescribeu rle uierence berween lonour anu uigniry.
'Digniry miglr be likeneu ro an inrernal skeleron, ro a laru srrucrure
ar rle cenrre o rle sel; lonour, on rle orler lanu, resembles a
cumbersome anu vulnerable suir o armour rlar, once pierceu, leaves
rle sel no prorecrion anu no alrernarive excepr ro srrike back in
uesperarion.`
44
Bur an lonour culrure also means rle reauiness ro uie
because lie may nor be worrl living in slameul conuirions. Ir is
imporranr ro nore rlar rle emplasis on personal anu collecrive
lonour was recogniseu as an elemenr o ascisr iueology in rle
classical psyclological sruuy o aurlorirarianism, conuucreu in rle
Unireu Srares in rle 194s.
45
I lonour is more imporranr rlan lie, ir will inspire violence anu
sel-sacriice. Mouerniry espouses sel-sacriicial violence in rle
service o rle narion anu narional lonour, bur re|ecrs rle
resacralising o polirical violence. Sacriicing bloou anu soul or rle
narion is srill liglly commenuable, bur is less so or a creeu. Bur we
sloulu remember rlar marryruom was once, nor roo long ago, a
European iueal. Mouerniry means rle marginalisarion o lonour,
uearl anu immorraliry, wlicl were once so cenrral ro lumans. Tle
inspirarion or marryruom, borl or inuiviuuals anu or groups,
musr incluue nor only lonour anu rle belie in immorraliry, bur real
uespair as well.
Jhe Jhreaf of fhe Pre-Modern Marfyr
Wlen uiscussing rle psyclological aspecrs o mouernisarion in rle
less uevelopeu counrries o rle worlu, Inkeles anu Smirl nore rlar
'religion ranks wirl rle exrenueu amily as rle insrirurion mosr oren
iuenriieu borl as an obsracle ro economic uevelopmenr anu as a
vicrim o rle same process`.
46
Any religion wlicl requires a level o
ligl involvemenr is an invasion o seculariseu space anu on a
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collision course. Ir is also a rlrear ro mouern sensibiliries, anu is
perceiveu as a symprom o srress anu uisrress.
47
How uo you keep rle religious imaginarion unuer conrrol Ir
seems ro us rlar civiliseu lumaniry ueciueu a ew lunureu years ago
rlar rle age o rle Wars o Religion was over. Tlere were ro be no
more wars, killing anu sel-uesrrucrion carrieu our in an imaginary
negoriarion wirl rle worlu o rle spirirs. Wlenever sucl aravisms
seemeu ro occur, rley inuicareu rlar rle iueals o civiliseu lumaniry
lau nor yer prevaileu on earrl.
Unuer liberal capiralism, rle srarus o religion las become well-
regulareu. Ir las been privariseu, absrracreu, nebulous anu rlus rruly
spirirualiseu. One meaning o mouerniry or rle inuiviuual is rlar
even i one believes in rle worlu o rle spirirs, ir musr lave no
implicarions or consequences in rerms o public lie beyonu rle
communiry o believers.
Wlen rle call ro make religion collecrive is learu in rle Iirsr
Worlu ir is riglrly seen as a rlrear ro civil liberries anu a rerurn ro rle
pre-mouern worlu. Bur or abour one-sixrl o lumaniry rle call or
rle collecrivisarion o religion, in rle case o Islam, means keeping
rlings as rley are. Islam is, in some sense, rle lasr religion raking a
sranu againsr mouerniry (i we uo nor consiuer rle Hinuu rauicals o
rle 8baratiya janata Parry (B]P) anu \isbua Hindu Iarisbad [Worlu
Hinuu Council], wlo lave a vision o a worlu ruleu by rleir rrue
religion). In rle Islamic worlu we can srill observe, or large masses,
rle pre-mouern superioriry o religious communiries over rle iuea o
narionalism anu rle narion-srare.
Higl levels o mouerniry anu secularisarion are being en|oyeu by
rlose living in liberal uemocracies, bur rley are |usr a minoriry o
lumaniry. Mosr o lumaniry srill lives closer ro rle rrauirions o
communalism, lonour anu rle belie o immorraliry. Tle lirrle dalit
(unrouclable) girl in Inuia, uesrineu ro a lie o poverry anu
ignorance, is more represenrarive o lumaniry rouay rlan rle
acauemic in lis air-conuirioneu oice, wriring ar lis compurer anu
ponuering rle srare o rle worlu. Tlis gap berween rle mouern
minoriry anu rle pre-mouern ma|oriry is likely ro cause more
upleavals, anu we can wirness numerous movemenrs wlose
inspirarion is rle iuea o explicir resisrance ro mouerniry.
RETURN OI MARTYRDOM 27
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Resisfing fhe Enighfenmenf
Ir is only rarely rlar a religious movemenr will proclaim irsel ro be a
counrer-revolurion ro rle Enliglrenmenr, bur rlis is rrue in rle case
o rle Sociery or rle Deence o Trauirion, Iamily anu Properry, an
inrernarional group ounueu in Brazil by Plinio Correa ue Oliveira.
Tlis group, maue up o conservarive Roman Carlolics, is commirreu
ro ueenuing 'Clrisrian civilisarion` againsr a series o lisrorical
revolurions, srarring wirl rle Proresranr Reormarion. Trauirion,
amily anu properry was coineu ro counrer Iibert, Ialit,
Iraternit, rle slogan o rle Irencl Revolurion. Tlis combinarion o
polirical anu social arriruues wirl religious belies is an iueological
complex rlar claracrerises anu animares unuamenralisr groups. Ir is
abour conronrarion wirl mouerniry, anu a srraregy rlar nor only
re|ecrs any accommouarion, bur also conrains a clear, uropian vision
or reconsrrucring sociery. Tlis is a vision o uecline, uegenerarion
anu renewal.
Tle universal movemenr o resisrance ro mouerniry wlicl was
recogniseu uecaues ago is rlar broauly nameu (or misnameu)
unuamenralism. Many millions, inuiviuuals anu rlousanus o groups
arounu rle worlu, ranging rom Proresranr clurcles ro rle
governmenrs o some narion-srares, are currenrly uesignareu by
sclolars anu rle meuia as unuamenralisr. Tle rerm irsel las irs
origins in American religious lisrory. More recenrly, unuamenralism
las come ro be regarueu as a global plenomenon, wirl a movemenr
analogous in some ways ro rle original American plenomenon
appearing in many counrries anu regions. Using rlis rerm oursiue rle
American Clrisrian conrexr las been cririciseu, bur ir las become so
prevalenr in borl rle popular news meuia anu sclolarly lirerarure
rlar ir now uenores a variery o movemenrs worluwiue, borl religious
anu religio-polirical.
48
Iunuamenralism as a religio-polirical iueology
can be ounu all over rle worlu; as a signiicanr polirical movemenr
asserring rle vision o a religious srare ir can be ounu in abour 3
narions; anu as a uominanr power ir can be ounu in |usr a ew places.
Tle plenomenon o unuamenralism sloulu be uiscusseu in ar
leasr rwo uierenr conrexrs. Tle irsr is psyclological or social-
psyclological. As a general social-psyclological plenomenon,
unuamenralisr iueology las been uescribeu as rle belie rlar rlere is
one ser o religious reaclings rlar clearly conrains rle unuamenral,
basic, inrrinsic, essenrial, inerranr rrurl abour lumaniry anu rle
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ueiries; rlar rlis rrurl is opposeu by orces o evil wlicl musr be
vigorously ouglr; rlar rlis rrurl musr be olloweu accoruing ro
unclangeable rrauirions; anu rlar rlose wlo espouse rlis iueology
lave a special relarionslip wirl rle ueiries. Iunuamenralisrs lave been
uescribeu as inuiviuuals wlo eel riglrly rlreareneu by urbanisarion,
inuusrrialisarion anu mouern secular values. Holuing rlis iueology
may lave no visible social or polirical consequences as long as ir is kepr
wirlin rle religious realm anu limireu ro a relarively small group.
Many religious groups lave polirical visions in rle sense o a
messianic or apocalypric uream wlicl incluues rle iuea o polirical
uominarion o a srare (or rle worlu) by irs memberslip.
49
Many
believers rake rle ureams seriously, anu rle anrasy o urure
grearness anu uominarion serves as compensarion or currenr
ueprivarions. In some cases, messianic ureams are rransormeu inro
polirical acrion plans. Tle iueology o unuamenralism becomes o
imporrance or polirics wlen ir is rransormeu rom a religious belie
sysrem inro a polirical iueology embouieu in a polirical movemenr,
anu wlen rlis movemenr gains polirical power or mass supporr.
Iunuamenralisr movemenrs lave been uescribeu anu uescribe
rlemselves as movemenrs o religious rauicalism, reviralisarion anu
renewal. Tlis uescriprion is very mucl parr o rleir vision. Tley
proclaim a loyalry ro sacreu rexrs anu ro rle goal o crearing a rruly
religious srare. I secularisarion calls or rle separarion o religion anu
polirics, lere we lave rle resacralisarion o polirics anu rle
poliricisarion o religion. Mouerniry ueines irsel as commirreu ro rle
values o ree enquiry, rle cenrraliry o rle inuiviuual anu ro basic
inuiviuual reeuoms. Tle iueological complex o unuamenralism
incluues rle re|ecrion o mouerniry, nor necessarily o mouern
reclnology, bur o rle iueals o inuiviuualism, inuiviuual riglrs,
volunrarism, pluralism anu rle equaliry o women. Iunuamenralisr
movemenrs everywlere presenr a cogenr cririque o lare capiralisr
sociery, wlicl is porrrayeu as being composeu o alienareu, aromisric,
selisl inuiviuuals, engageu in rle obsessive pursuir o pleasure
wirlour leeu or irs consequences or orlers (or even or rlemselves).
Tle cririque o Wesrern values o marerialism, selislness, rolerance
or unconrrolleu sexualiries, uecline o amily ries, anu urban crime is
common ro all unuamenralisr iueologies, anu is presenreu as rle
essenrial cririque o mouerniry. Communalism is one aspecr o rle
pre-mouern, wlicl is cenrral ro rle realiry anu iueology o
unuamenralisr movemenrs.
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Tlis culrural aspecr o unuamenralism uoes accounr or some o
irs clear appeal ro nor |usr rle uownrrouuen. Tle ueprivarions anu
srresses o mouerniry, be rley economic, psyclological or culrural,
eeu unuamenralisr movemenrs, as rle crisis o globaliseu mouerniry
is elr in cenrral anu periplery narion-srares. Againsr rle nominal
iueas o mouern liberalism or rle inuiviuual, sucl as rolerance,
inuiviuual auronomy anu sel-acrualisarion, anu rle realiry o
alienarion anu uislocarion, unuamenralism prescribes a commirmenr
ro genuer-role, amily anu communiry. In rle case o women, rlis
implies roral or relarive uomesriciry.
Iunuamenralisr iueology las mucl ro say abour rle lives o
women anu reprouucrive riglrs. Tle mouern reclnology o
conrraceprion separareu sexualiry rom procrearion, anu rogerler
wirl economic clanges unuermining rle rrauirional amily las lau
rle resulr o reuucing rle aurloriry o religion. Wlar seems ro be rle
ma|or issue uniring religious rauicals, be rley Proresranr, Roman
Carlolic, Hinuu, Muslim or ]ewisl, is rle uiscourse abour sexualiry,
procrearion anu rle srarus o women. In rerms o rle lives o borl
women anu men, rle global srruggle is abour rle iuea o
inuiviuualism anu rle riglr ro sexual lappiness anu expression. In rle
pre-mouern universe, sexualiry is rieu ro procrearion anu ue-
inuiviuualiseu. Tle srruggle is raking place, somerimes violenrly,
arounu aborrion clinics in rle Unireu Srares anu rle use o conuoms
in Arica. Women`s srarus is inevirably rieu ro rle cenrraliry o rle
parriarclal amily anu rleir assigneu role as rle socialisers.
Ar rle beginning o rle rwenry-irsr cenrury ir seems rlar in rle
Wesrern worlu rle insrirurion o rle amily is being rransormeu,
rogerler wirl sexualiry. Iunuamenralisr movemenrs are usually
opposeu ro conrraceprion. Unuer unuamenralisr regimes, speciic
regularions lave been issueu ro conrrol rle public appearance o
women rlrougl uress coues anu rle segregarion o rle sexes in
public. Tlis is in auuirion ro ormal limirarions on rle involvemenr o
women in public lie, reeuom o movemenr anu legal riglrs. Male
superioriry anu privilege is ormally recogniseu anu rle
empowermenr o women is sroppeu. All o rlis raises rle quesrion o
wly unuamenralisr movemenrs lave arrracreu so mucl supporr rom
women. Iirsr, we know rlar women are always more religious rlan
men. Seconu, ir is clear rlar in rrauirional socieries morlerloou is a
main source o grariicarion anu power, wlile rle emale in
rrauirional uress like rle Iranian cbador is less likely ro arrracr rle
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arrenrion o preuarory males. Women in Wesrern arrire may be
accosreu in public, wlile rle leau-ro-roe cover oers relie rom
being vieweu as a sex ob|ecr.
Iunuamenralism, like rwenrierl-cenrury ascism, re|ecrs liberal
uemocracy anu proposes an elirisr ruling class, maue up o religious
leauers or leauers sancrioneu by rle religious aurloriry.
Iunuamenralisr regimes are aurlorirarian by ueinirion, because a
religious srare musr ollow rle religious aurloriry invesreu in clergy
wlo alone can inrerprer rle scriprures. Tlus, rle clergy will always
lave a uirecr role in polirical uecision-making. Some may uescribe
rlem as roralirarian, because o rle narure o religious law wlen
applieu ro all aspecrs o lie.
Tlis anri-mouern iueology is quire iuenrical in a grear number o
unuamenralisr movemenrs. A rleroric o 'amily values` anu
parriarclal aurloriry can be learu in Oklaloma anu in Telran ar rle
same rime. Tle unuamenralisr iueology everywlere is collecrivisr
anu communalisr, as inuiviuual riglrs are seen as seconuary ro rle
inreresrs o rle communiry. Tle polirical srruggle againsr
Enliglrenmenr iueals calls or reversing rle lisrorical course o
secularisarion anu mouerniry, anu recrearing a pre-mouern (or pre-
colonial) iuealiseu pasr.
Conremporary marryruom is a clallenge ro mouerniry anu liberal
uemocracy, bur wlar ir raises runs ueeper rlrougl rle ounuarions o
mouern polirics. Wlar las been ignoreu or uenieu unril recenrly is
rlar rlere is a viral connecrion berween liberal uemocracy anu
secularisarion, operarionaliseu lere as rle privarisarion o religious
belies o wlarever kinu. Terms sucl as mouernisarion anu
secularisarion, wlicl seem ro lave gone our o aslion, lave ro be
brouglr back, because rley lave come back ro launr rlose wlo were
wisling ro ueny rlem a real exisrence.
Tle presence o unuamenralisr movemenrs wirlin rle
inuusrrialiseu worlu leaus us ro a rauical quesrion. are religious iueals
comparible wirl liberal uemocracy Wlar sloulu be examineu lere
is rle meaning o religious uiscourse wirlin rle conrexr o a liberal
uemocracy. Our vision o rle cirizen in a mouern uemocracy is o
someone wlo sincerely acceprs rle rules o rle game anu believes in
rle iueals o equaliry anu rolerance. Tlis iueal (or uropian) cirizen in
a uemocracy acrively parricipares in public lie anu slows respecr or
rle riglrs o orlers, especially minoriries. Bur rle iuea o rolerance is
alien ro rle spirir o lisrorical religions, anu rle iueals o equaliry anu
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luman riglrs are secular. Wlen we look ar rle inuings o lunureus
o sruuies wlicl lookeu ar rle relarionslip berween religiosiry anu
anri-uemocraric arriruues, we musr realise rlar religious people lave
a laru rime being rrue cirizens in a uemocracy. Iunuamenralism, as an
expression o religious orrlouoxy, nor surprisingly, is rieu ro polirical
conservarism, aurlorirarianism anu pre|uuice. Sruuies uone all over
rle worlu lave slown rlar religious orrlouoxy (in any rrauirion) is
rieu ro a parricular parrern o reacrionary anu anri-uemocraric
polirical arriruues anu belaviours.
Jhe Fufure of fhe Enighfenmenf
Wlar las ro be avoiueu is any iuealisarion o rle pre-mouern or rle
mouern. Trauirionalism las meanr respecr or aurloriry, uepenuence
anu an arraclmenr ro amily anu communiry. Communiry anu
arraclmenr lave meanr nor only social anu psyclological supporr
sysrems, bur oppressive aurloriry, abuse anu exploirarion. Basic
luman riglrs simply uo nor exisr in rrauirional socieries anu are rieu
ro massive secularisarion. In mouern lie, on rle orler lanu, we lave
an iueal o complere anu roral personal auronomy, oren rieu ro
alienarion anu empriness. Tle iueal o liberry, equaliry anu rarerniry
envisions a communiry, wlicl mouerniry las aileu ro creare. Tlis is
wlar leaus ro rle uangerous yearning or an iuealiseu pre-mouern
pasr.
5
Conremporary marryruom can be vieweu as an uprising againsr
rle enu o lisrory anu rle inal rriumpl o liberal capiralism.
Movemenrs o resisrance ro mouerniry will nor prevail, bur rle
collision wirl rlem may be an inevirable parr o polirics in rle
oreseeable urure. Religion, any religion, is rle enemy o liberal
uemocracy as long as ir las nor been ueangeu anu privariseu.
Religion, any religion, is quire explicirly abour elecrion anu exclusion.
We may regaru communalism as a more benevolenr aspecr o rlese
iueas, bur srill ir is a rlrear ro real uemocracy, wlicl views only rle
inuiviuual as worrly o inalienable anu absolure riglrs. To appreciare
rlar, all you lave ro uo is look ar rle Universal Declararion o Human
Riglrs, auopreu by rle Unireu Narions on 1 December 1948. Tlis
uocumenr is borl a ueclararion o rle rriumpl o rle Enliglrenmenr,
anu a polirical programme wlicl is benr on ignoring anu uesrroying
rrauirional luman communiries. Tle Unireu Narions, as rlis
uocumenr arresrs, is inueeu a secular worlu governmenr. I we wanr
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ro supporr rle Enliglrenmenr polirical pro|ecr, wlicl is srill on rle
agenua, we will soon realise rlar ir is rlreareneu nor |usr by aravisric
marryruom, bur also by some orces in rle mouern Wesr.
NOTES
1. See R.A. Segal, Reliion and tbe Social Sciences (Irlaca, NY. Sclolars Press, 1989).
2. See Raymonu B. Carrell, Isycboloy and tbe Reliious _uest (Lonuon. Tlomas Nelson
anu Sons, 1938).
3. See ]ames C. Irazer, Tbe Golden 8oub (New York. Macmillan, 1951), p.633.
4. Anrlony I.C. Wallace, Reliion: An Antbropoloical \ieu (New York. Ranuom House,
1966).
5. Clioru Ceerrz, 'Iueology as a culrural sysrem`, in D. E. Aprer (eu.) Ideoloy and
Discontent (New York. Iree Press, 1964), p.64.
6. Miclael Argyle anu Ben|amin Beir-Hallalmi, Tbe Social Isycboloy oj Reliion
(Lonuon. Rourleuge anu Kegan Paul, 1975).
7. Ben|amin Beir-Hallalmi, Iroleonena to tbe Isycboloical Study oj Reliion
(Lewisburg, PA. Bucknell Universiry Press, 1989); Ben|amin Beir-Hallalmi anu
Miclael Argyle, Tbe Isycboloy oj Reliious 8ebatior, 8eliej, and Ixperience (Lonuon.
Rourleuge, 1997).
8. Wallace (nore 4), p.52.
9. William ]ames, Tbe vill to 8eliete (New York. Dover Publicarions, [1897] 1956), p.51.
1. Beir-Hallalmi, Iroleonena (nore 7).
11. See William ]ames, Tbe \arieties oj Reliious Ixperience (New York. Collier, 192,
1961), p.46.
12. Coruon B. Hinckley, 'Messages o Inspirarion rom Presiuenr Hinckley`, IDS Cburcb
Neus, publisleu by Deseret Neus, 2 November 22.
13. C.. Riclaru K. Ienn, Touard a Tbeory oj Secularization (Srorrs, CT. Sociery or rle
Scienriic Sruuy o Religion, 1978); Daviu Marrin, A General Tbeory oj Secularization
(New York. Harper, 1978).
14. W.S.I. Pickering, 'Religion a Leisure Time Pursuir`, in D. Marrin (eu.), A Socioloical
Yearbook oj Reliion in 8ritain, Volume 1 (Lonuon. SCM Press, 1968).
15. Tleouor W. Auorno, Elsa Irenkel-Brunswik, Daniel ]. Levinson anu R. Nevirr Sanoru,
Tbe Autboritarian Iersonality (New York. Harper anu Row, 195), p.729.
16. Ceorge H. Callup, ]r., Index to International Iublic Opinion (Wesrporr, CT.
Creenwoou Press, 198).
17. Wallace (nore 4), p.52.
18. Sreven Bruce, A House Ditided: Irotestantisn, Scbisn, and Secularization (New York.
Rourleuge, 199); iuem, Reliion and Modernization: Socioloists and Historians
Debate Tbe Secularization Tbesis (Oxoru. Oxoru Universiry Press, 1992).
19. Quoreu in L. Easron anu K. Cuuuar (eus.), Tbe vritins oj Youn Marx (Caruen Ciry,
NY. Doubleuay, 1967), pp.223, 227.
2. Ben|amin Beir-Hallalmi, 'Religious Explanarions anu Explaining Religion`, in C. Hon
anu S. Rakover (eus.), Ixplanation: Ibilosopbical Issays (Dorureclr. Kluwer, 21).
21. Miclael Harringron, Tbe Iolitics at Gods Iuneral: Tbe Spiritual Crisis oj vestern
Citilisation (New York. Holr, Rinelarr anu Winsron, 1983).
22. Brian Turner, Reliion and Social Tbeory: A Materialist Ierspectite (Arlanric Higllanus,
N]. Humaniries Press, 1983).
23. Lawrence Srone, Road to Ditorce: Inland 15311987 (New York. Oxoru Universiry
Press, 1991).
24. Harringron (nore 21).
25. Sreven Buuu, \arieties oj Unbeliej: Atbeists and Anostics in Inlisb Society,
RETURN OI MARTYRDOM 33
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1850190 (Lonuon. Heinemann, 1977); Paul Kurrz, Iupraxopby: Iitin vitbout
Reliion (Bualo. Promerleus, 1989).
26. Corliss Lamonr, Tbe Illusion oj Innortality (New York. Hal-Moon Iounuarion,
1935, 199).
27. Corliss Lamonr, Tbe Ibilosopby oj Hunanisn (New York. Plilosoplical Library,
1949).
28. Perer Homans, Tbe Ability to Mourn: Disillusionnent and tbe Social Oriins oj
Isycboanalysis (Clicago. Universiry o Clicago Press, 1989).
29. Ibiu.; Perer Homans, 'Loss anu Mourning in rle Lie anu Tlouglr o Max Weber.
Towaru a Tleory o Symbolic Loss`, in P. Homans (eu.), Synbolic Ioss: Tbe Anbiuity
oj Mournin and Menory at Centurys Ind (Clarlorresville, VA. Universiry Press o
Virginia, 2).
3. Ericl Iromm, Iscape Iron Ireedon (New York. Rinelarr, 1941).
31. Ben|amin Beir-Hallalmi, Despair and Deliterance: Iritate Saltation in Contenporary
Israel (Albany, NY. SUNY Press, 1992).
32. ]ames Simpson, 'Rarionalizeu Moris in Urban Legenus`, Iolklore 92 (1981), pp.247.
33. I.C. Kla anu ].C. Hamilron, 'Sclizoplrenia A Hunureu Years Ago anu Touay`,
journal oj Mental Science 17 (1961), pp.81927.
34. Coruon W. Allporr, Tbe Inditidual and His Reliion: A Isycboloical Interpretation
(New York. Macmillan, 195), p.v.
35. ]acob R. Kanror, Tbe Scientijic Itolution oj Isycboloy (Clicago. Principia Press,
1969).
36. Clarles Y. Clock, 'On rle Sruuy o Religious Commirmenr`, Reliious Iducation 57
(1962), S98S19.
37. C.. Clarles Y. Clock anu Rouney Srark, Cbristian 8eliejs and Anti-Senitisn (New
York. Harper anu Row, 1966); see also Ben|amin Beir-Hallalmi anu Miclael Argyle,
Tbe Isycboloy oj Reliious 8ebatior, 8eliej, and Ixperience (Lonuon. Rourleuge,
1997).
38. Ben|amin Beir-Hallalmi, 'Overcoming rle Ob|ecrive Language o Violence`,
Aressite 8ebatior 3 (1977), pp.2529.
39. Roberr Trivers, Social Itolution (Menlo Park, CA. Ben|amin/Cummings, 1985).
4. Samuel P. Hunringron, Tbe Clasb oj Citilisations and tbe Renakin oj tbe vorld Order
(New York. Simon anu Sclusrer, 1996), p.25.
41. Habramu Wonuimu, Ben|amin Beir-Hallalmi anu ]on Abbink, Itbnic Identity,
Stereotypes, and Isycboloical Modernity in Itbiopian Youn Adults: Identijyin tbe
Iotential Ior Cbane (Amsreruam; KIT Publislers, 21).
42. Harry C. Trianuis, 'Sub|ecrive Culrure anu Economic Developmenr`, International
journal oj Isycboloy 8 (1973), pp.1638, 165.
43. Dov Colen, ]ames Vanuello anu A.K. Ranrilla, 'Tle Sacreu anu rle Social. Culrures o
Honor anu Violence`, in P. Cilberr anu B. Anurews (eus.), Sbane: Interpersonal
8ebatior, Isycbopatboloy, and Culture (New York. Oxoru Universiry Press, 1998),
p.262.
44. E.L. Ayers, \eneance and justice (New York. Oxoru Universiry Press, 1984), p.2.
45. Auorno et al. (nore 15).
46. Alex Inkeles anu D.H. Smirl, 8econin Modern: Inditidual Cbane in Six Detelopin
Countries (Cambriuge, MA. Harvaru Universiry Press, 1974), p.27.
47. Beir-Hallalmi (nore 31).
48. Marrin E. Marry (eu.), Tbe Iundanentalisns Iroject, 5 Vols. (Clicago. Universiry o
Clicago Press, 199195).
49. See Ben|amin Beir-Hallalmi, Tbe Illustrated Incyclopedia oj Actite Neu Reliions
(New York. Rosen Publisling, 1998).
5. Iromm (nore 3).
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