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Totalitarian Movements and Political
Religions
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Two religious meaning systems, one
political belief system: Religiosity,
alternative religiosity and political
extremism
Daphna Canetti-Nisim
a
a
Political Science Department, University of Haifa
Version of record first published: 08 Sep 2010
To cite this article: Daphna Canetti-Nisim (2003): Two religious meaning systems, one political
belief system: Religiosity, alternative religiosity and political extremism, Totalitarian Movements
and Political Religions, 4:3, 35-54
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Infroducfion
Recenr reporrs rom Cermany uepicr a growing overlap berween rle
exrreme polirical Riglr anu some esoreric groups involveu wirl
occulr pracrices.
1
Auol Hirler, wlo re|ecreu Clrisrianiry, avoureu
religious paganism. Scbutzstajjel (SS) oicers learneu abour pagan
religions anu rle symbols o occulr rrauirions. Tlese anu similar
belies are lerearer reerreu ro as alternatite reliions, anu rleir
relarion ro rle polirical (exrreme) Riglr is ar rle learr o rlis essay.
Tle goals o rlis sruuy are rwoolu. irsr, an analyrical uisrincrion
berween rle rwo religious rypes religions anu alrernarive religions;
seconu, a rleorerical uiscussion on rleir murual relarions, as well as
rleir associarions wirl polirical arriruues.
Tlis essay ollows rwo separare rrauirions in rle psyclology o
religion. Tle irsr quesrions rle conrenr anu origins o religious
belies anu pracrices, ro be uiscusseu in rle preliminary secrion.
2
Tle
seconu analyses rle social psyclology o religiosiry, sruuying rle
social correlares o religiosiry, ro be uiscusseu by means o rle
polirical correlares o religiosiry, wlicl I reer ro as rle political
psycboloy oj reliiosity.
3
Religions lave lau consiuerable impacr on socieries in every
cenrury. Tley were useu ro legirimise, suppress or inspire polirical
regimes. Tlis arricle is abour religions as caregories baseu on rle
'srock` o exisring belie sysrems in Wesrern socieries. One incluues
convenrional monorleisric religions, anu rle orler, alrernarive
3
Jwo Reigious Meaning Sysfems,
One Poifica Beief Sysfem:
Reigiosify, Afernafive Reigiosify and
Poifica Exfremism
DAPHNA CANETTI - NI SI M
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belies. O rlese (or example, new religions, culrs anu occulr belies),
rlis essay ocuses on non-insrirurionaliseu alrernarive religions, wlicl
seem ro compere wirl insrirurionaliseu religions. Tle irsr argumenr,
rlen, is on rle narure o rle concepr o religion. A quesrion askeu by
some o rle grear sclolars o religion, incluuing Sigmunu Ireuu,
Emile Durkleim anu Marcel Mauss, concerns rle narure o religion
anu irs eecr on luman belaviour. So, in auuirion ro rle
insrirurionaliseu convenrional rype o religion, rlere is anorler rype
in Wesrern uemocracies non-insrirurionaliseu alrernarive religions.
Tle irsr kinu is airly clear, wlereas rle larrer is more complicareu.
4
Tle raison dtre o rle irsr argumenr is rle seconu rle unique
relarionslips berween (alrernarive) religious belies anu polirical
belies. A consranr inuing in polirics is rlar rle more inuiviuuals are
orrlouox in religious belies, rle weaker rleir arraclmenr ro rle
uemocraric-liberal line in polirics.
One miglr poinr our a parauox relareu ro rle acr rlar alrernarive
religions are consiuereu as reacrions ro insrirurionaliseu ones.
However, rleir ollowers presenr a similar polirical belie sysrem. Ir
woulu be reasonable ro assume rlar rle belie sysrems rlar emergeu
as alrernarives woulu be uierenr in polirical rerms, bur rleir eecr
on inuiviuual polirical arriruues is similar. In spire o ma|or
uierences in rle rype o belie sysrem, rlere seems ro be a similariry
in rle associarion berween rle rwo rypes o religions anu rle same
polirical lines.
Jhe Essence of Reigion
Democraric rlinking uoes nor easily merge wirl a religious-magical
airl. Ir was oren assumeu rlar religiosiry woulu be uiminisleu wirl
rle auvenr o Wesrern uemocracy. Some inuiviuuals conronr
problems o mouernisarion anu rle inabiliry ro keep up wirl rle
newangleu accelerareu pace, anu orlers are more easily urawn inro
less uemanuing magical conronrarions.
5
Ireuu anu Marx saw religion
as an immarure, cliluisl issue,
6
bur religion lelps us rolerare munuane
suering wirl rle promise o compensarion in rle arerworlu, wirlour
rle neeu ro rake polirical or social acrion, as Marx plraseu ir.
'Religion was rle opium o rle masses`.
7
I olloweu Auorno wlo
auopreu rle Marxian worlu view regaruing alrernarive belies.
8
Sruuies uealing wirl religion uemonsrrare rle lack o clariicarion.
Some veer rowarus rle sociological rrauirion o Durkleim, wlereas
RELICIOUS IUNDAMENTALISM AND POLITICAL EXTREMISM 36
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orlers renu ro ollow psyclologically orienreu ueinirions like rlose
o ]ames, wlo graspeu religion as a belie in an invisible worlu oruer
wlere people inu explanarions ro luman riuules.
9
Allporr, ollowing
]ames, suggesreu rlar rlere miglr be rwo kinus o 'religiosiries`.
1
Tlose wlose religion is inrrinsic see religion as an enu in irsel. Tley
were ounu ro be conservarive anu commirreu ro ulrra-orrlouox
uocrrines anu sel-ueceprion.
11
Tlose wlose religion is exrrinsic see ir
as a means ro orler enus, mainly social or polirical, anu religion las
implicarions in all areas in lie.
12
Psyclological ueinirions, as opposeu ro legal, were meanr ro
uerermine rlose universal elemenrs in all religious experiences. 'a
sysrem o belies in uivine or superluman power, anu pracrices o
worslip or orler riruals uirecreu rowarus sucl a power`.
13
Alaras
oereu a more ueraileu ueinirion wlicl srresses rle luman
relarionslip wirl so-calleu uivine enriries.
14
Tlis rrearmenr brings ro
minu rle srarring poinr o Durkleim, wlo claimeu rlar religions
uiviue rle worlu inro rle proane versus sacreu.
15
Religion as a social
insrirurion, wlicl uoes nor exisr wirlour belie in a supernarural
worlu, meuiares berween rle invisible worlu anu rle visible one.
16
Beyonu rlese consiuerarions sranus rle quesrion o wlerler one
can incluue alrernarive religions, rle main ocus o rlis sruuy, wirlin
rle analyrical ramework o religion, a possibiliry i we ollow a
common psyclological ueinirion rlar srresses rwo elemenrs. rle
supernarural premise anu a meaning sysrem. Bur convenrional anu
alrernarive religious belies are 'meaning makers` wlicl are relareu ro
rle supernatural premise.
17
Tle inclusion woulu also be possible
wlen we rurn ro sociological ueinirions rlar nor only emplasise rle
uisrincrion berween projane and sacred,
18
bur also srress rle social
uncrions o religiosiry.
19
I rlereore argue rle exisrence o rwo kinus
o religions. institutionalised-contentional versus non-
institutionalised non-contentional, anu uiscuss rlem using one
ramework.
Jhe Confemporary 'Reigions Markef`
Ir is oren claimeu rlar rlis is a secular age, bur sucl asserrions are
rarler erroneous.
2
Perlaps ormal memberslip is ueclining, bur ir is
only a parr o rle religious specrrum. Tle Wesr las experienceu a
visible presence anu growrl o a variery o non-Clrisrian anu non-
orrlouox Clrisrian bouies. Tlese religious alrernarives compel rle
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srill uominanr religions ro operare in a new pluralisric religious
environmenr. Iormal religions srress belies anu pracrices, wlicl
uelineare rleir boruers, anu uo nor rolerare uualiry in religious
ailiarions. 'Tle srick anu rle carror` meclanism woulu be one useul
boruering rool in mainsrream religions, since religious inuiviuuals
perceive lie on earrl as meaningless.
21
Mosr grear plilosoplers, sucl
as Marx, Ireuu anu Nierzscle, saw belie in rle arer-lie as a
religious escape.
22
Clrisrian-]uuaeo rrauirions uo nor propose
iuenrical rules o belaviour, bur rlere are generally Holy Days anu
loliuays anu clurcl arrenuance is a leauing inuicaror o religiosiry.
23
Alrernarive religions lave many labels (or example, supersririous
belies, non-religious paranormal plenomena, popular occulrism,
popular mysricism, esoreric belies). Tley encompass belies anu
pracrices sucl as rle belie in rle powers o glosrs, releparly, airl
lealing, asrrologers, exrra-sensory perceprion (ESP), sances, caru
reauing, uream inrerprerarion or uivinarion.
24
Tlese are mosrly
belies rlar originareu in pre-mouern anu pre-Clrisrian religious eras,
comprising a loose nerwork o belies anu pracrices wlere seekers go
rom one oprion ro rle orler. Tley lack rle sociological
claracrerisrics o convenrional religions anu even rlose o rle neu
reliious notenents. People may be swepr inro rle realm o rle
occulr anu magical wlen in a srare o ear anu anxiery.
25
Israel in
parricular is an oursranuing example o a sociery wlicl or many
uecaues las urireu rowarus rle occulr, parrially uue ro rle
uisillusionmenr wirl polirical leauers, nuclear amily anu religious
insrirurions, coupleu wirl rle consranr rlrear o annililarion.
26
Afernafive Reigions: Jheir Uniqueness and Reafionship wifh
Mainsfream Reigions
Insrirurionaliseu belies pass rom one generarion ro rle orler
rlrougl reaclings anu loly books. Iolk belies are rranserreu orally
anu inormally. Iormal religions lave a clear organisarional srrucrure
anu lierarcly, wlereas alrernarive belies comprise a mucl looser
ramework. Alrlougl magic anu religion are borl baseu on rle
supernarural premise, magic is also 'applieu` in rle empirical worlu
anu rlus sub|ecr ro scienriic alsiicarion. Religion auequarely
auuresses issues o ulrimare meaning anu moraliry rlar are uiiculr ro
invesrigare.
27
A way ro learn abour rle srruggle berween mainsrream
religions anu alrernarive religions is a 'rour` rlrougl Tbe Cultic
RELICIOUS IUNDAMENTALISM AND POLITICAL EXTREMISM 38
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Milieu.
28
Ir is nor a rleory abour culrs, bur abour unorganiseu
amorplous occulr belies anu pracrices. Tlese belies anu pracrices
are caprureu as lererouox or uevianr in relarion ro rle uominanr
culrure anu, o course, ro mainsrream religion.
29
Teaclings are
murually supporrive, anu rle believers-seekers consrirure a uniying
elemenr o 'seekerslip`.
All parricipanrs are seeking rle ulrimare meaning in lie.
3
Tley
lave a common iueology o seekerslip, arising rom rle uevianr
srarus, rle receprive orienrarion anu rle inrerpenerrarive
communicarion srrucrure. Lolanu anu Srark ueine rlese inuiviuuals
similarly ro orlers wlo ueine mainsrream believers as. 'searcling or
some sarisacrory sysrem o religious meaning ro inrerprer anu resolve
rleir uisconrenrs`.
31
Tle roure ro spirirual enliglrenmenr is
conringenr on rle uegree o 'seekerslip`, bur recenrly rlere las been
a slir in rle sociological proile o seekers, uue ro a murual sense o
prolongeu crisis o meaning in rle Wesr.
32
Tlese alrernarive religions lave no neeu or uogmas or
insrirurions. Tley are inuiviuualisric, open-ro-all anu rouglly
organiseu, anu only rarely appear in rleir original orm. Tle mosr
popular organisarional orm o rle culric zone is rle sociery o
seekers. Tle srrucrural clanges associareu wirl secularisarion seem ro
be ro rle auvanrage o rle religious alrernarives. Tle uecline o
Clrisrian-]uuaeo clurcles las consequenrly weakeneu rleir role as
ueliverers o rrurls. Even wlen rley conuemn unorrlouox rrauirions
sucl as asrrology anu wirclcrar, rleir worus go unleeueu. Wlar was
previously cririciseu by secular anu orrlouox insrirurions las become
merely varianr, nor uevianr. Tle rrearmenr o asrrology by rle
aurloriries in Israel anu wirclcrar in Brirain are goou examples o
assimilarion anu even relabilirarion. A uierenr argumenr in rle
secularisarion rleory is rlar ir re|ecrs borl orrlouox anu unorrlouox
religions. Ir emplasises rle uilemma o wlicl is rle uominanr culrure
rle religious or rle scienriic. Borl religious anu alrernarive
religious movemenrs are aumonisleu by secular rlouglr or
unscienriic iueas, bur go unpunisleu or religious ueviancy.
33
All in
all, secularisarion may creare comorrable conuirions or rle
spreauing o alrernarive religions anu lence rlese processes may lave
causeu Wesrern sociery ro become mysrical, magical anu pseuuo-
scienriic.
In sum, rlere are ar leasr rwo clusrers o (alrernarive) religious
belies.
34
Borl lave rle uncrion o purring rlings in oruer anu
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arrriburing meaning ro luman exisrence. Tlese are nor necessarily
organiseu groups o believers bur 'seekers` wlo slare belies anu
pracrices. Religiosiry anu alrernarive religiosiry are psyclologically
anu sociologically similar, bur uierenr in conrenr anu insrirurional
level, anu in rleir populariry. Eacl can acr as a subsrirure or rle
orler, bur in many cases (or example, Israel) rley 'slare` believers.
Borl rypes engage in a 'low inrensiry conlicr` anu compere or
believers. Ler us now examine low borl rypes are relareu ro polirical
iueas.
Reigious Beief Sysfems and Poifica 9AJ=I?D=KKC
Iolitical Ixtrenisn
Irom rle poinr o view o polirical psyclology o religiosiry, I ueine
polirical exrremism nor in rerms o iueologies, parry plarorms,
polirical agenua or movemenrs, as we renu ro uo in polirical science
analyses.
35
Polirical exrremism is in many ways expresseu by rle
clusrer known as riglr-wing aurlorirarianism (RWA).
36
Ir is seen lere,
rlen, rlrougl rle prism o a ser o belies rlar express supporr or less
liberal-uemocraric values, norms anu arriruues.
Iurrler, ir is assumeu rlar rlese arriruues in avour o anri-
uemocraric worlu views may, wlen cerrain conuirions are ulilleu,
rurn inro belaviour. Tle passive supporr or anri-uemocraric, anri-
liberal acrions may represenr orler orms o luman response. Ir may
be expresseu in rle polls as supporr or parries rlar propose sucl an
iueology as policy. Ir may be rranslareu inro acrive memberslip in
groups, wlicl cloose ro acr in rle name o sucl values. Ir may also
become an incenrive or a meclanism rlar operares sporauic violenr
exrreme acrions. Keeping rlis rransirion porenrial in minu, I mainly
uiscuss polirical exrremism in rerms o inuiviuual expressions o
supporr or anri-uemocraric arriruues.
Reliion and Iolitics
Ir is well known rlar rle uegree ro wlicl believers are orrlouox in
rleir belies anu pracrices las a role in rle slaping o rleir approacl
ro polirical arriruues. Sruuies perormeu all over rle worlu since rle
Seconu Worlu War lave slown rlar religious orrlouoxy is rieu ro a
parricular parrern o arriruues anu polirical belaviours. Religious
orrlouoxy las been rieu ro polirical conservarism, aurlorirarianism
RELICIOUS IUNDAMENTALISM AND POLITICAL EXTREMISM 4
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anu pre|uuice. Tlis combinarion o religious belies wirl polirical anu
social arriruues is an iueological complex rlar claracrerises anu
animares many orrlouox groups.
Many religious groups lave polirical visions in rle sense o a
messianic or apocalypric uream wlicl conrains rle iuea o rleir
polirical uominarion o a srare/worlu. Many believers rake rlese
ureams seriously, anu rle anrasy o urure grearness anu uominarion
serves as compensarion or currenr ueprivarions. In some cases,
messianic ureams are rransormeu inro polirical acrion plans.
Religious iueology becomes imporranr in polirics wlen ir is
rransormeu rom a religious belie sysrem inro a polirical iueology
embouieu in a polirical movemenr, anu wlen rlis movemenr gains
power or mass supporr.
Religious exrremism is inclineu ro suppress rle riglrs o orler
religions or secular orces in sociery anu even ro organise violence
againsr rlem. In Inuia, Hinuu exrremisr movemenrs lave arrackeu
Muslims anu burneu mosques. In Israel, ]ewisl exrremisrs lave
uemanueu religious-baseu laws anu pracrices, anu some lave
violenrly arrackeu Palesrinians. In rle Unireu Srares, religious
exrremisrs lave uemanueu religious prayers in public sclools anu
some lave been involveu in killing uocrors wlo perorm aborrions.
37
In rleir book, Tbe Autboritarian Iersonality, Auorno et al.
38
were
irsr ro resr empirically rle relarionslip berween (alrernarive)
religious belies, anu exrreme riglr-wing polirics rle inclinarion ro
auopr anri-uemocraric arriruues. One o rle assumprions auvanceu by
Auorno anu lis associares was rlar an inuiviuual wlo believes in rle
exisrence o an invisible worlu also renus ro succumb ro rle
inciremenr o uemagogues proposing anri-uemocraric value sysrems.
39
In recenr uecaues, Wesrern uemocracies lave become aware o a
growing inclinarion rowarus rle auoprion o alrernarive religions.
Since rle beginning o mouern uemocracy, researclers anu policy-
makers lave uealr wirl rle murual exisrence o a uemocraric
governmenr anu organiseu religiosiry wirl polirical inclinarions.
Democracy is baseu on pluralisric, public anu polemic principles anu
rule o rle ma|oriry, wlereas religion is baseu on rle belie in rle
absolure anu invisible erernal rrurls abour Cou.
However, rle auoprion o alrernarive religions in rle Wesr is
accompanieu by rwo orler plenomena. Iirsr, rlere is an increase in
levels o inrolerance rowarus 'oursiuers` (or example, erlnic
minoriries anu oreign workers), anu rle lourisling o exrreme-
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Riglr parries (in, or example, Ausrria, rle Nerlerlanus, Denmark,
Irance, Ausrralia anu Israel).
4
Seconu, rlere are eelings o
inuierence anu alienarion o rle masses rowarus polirical
processes.
41
Civen rle acr rlar only lal a cenrury las passeu since
belies anu arriruues gloriying anri-uemocraric values emplasiseu rle
inuierence o rle masses anu brouglr abour rle massacre o
millions, rlese rlree plenomena may |eoparuise rle basic values,
social lie anu srabiliry o uemocraric rule.
Democraric perceprions are slapeu rlrougl a process o
euucarion anu polirical socialisarion, a process oren replere wirl
insurmounrable obsracles. One o rle obsracles is alrernare value-
sysrems, wlicl may clasl wirl uemocraric values.
42
Sucl alrernare
value-sysrems incluue alrernarive religious belie sysrems rlar may be
lisrorically relareu ro pre-mouern anu anri-uemocraric iueas
concerneu wirl royalry, arisrocracy anu euualism. However, in rle
course o rime, rogerler wirl uevelopmenr o scienriic iueas anu
uemocracy, a cerrain rype o secularisarion las begun ro uisseminare
over rle Wesr. Norwirlsranuing, variarions o alrernarive religions
are srill ligl on rle inuiviuuals` scale o values anu prioriries. In many
inuusrrial socieries rouay, religion, wlicl was once uniorm,
collecrivisr, public, ascribeu anu inlerireu, is rouay pluralisr,
inuiviuualisric, privariseu anu aclieveu, anu oren reely closen. In
eecr, privarisarion is rle mosr imporranr clange, overriuing all
orler uimensions. In rrauirional culrures religion is experienceu in
rle collecrive splere. Tle possibiliry o cloice anu preerence is a
mouern plenomenon, inrerprereu as a symprom o rle uecline o
ormal religions. In mosr rrauirional socieries, religion is nor a marrer
o cloice, bur o birrl anu auromaric acceprance.
However, wlen religion anu religiosiry are a marrer o cloice, ir
is conceivable ro ask wlerler inuiviuuals sloulu auopr religious
belies anu pracrices. On rle one lanu, pluralism o opinions anu
reeuom o expression are basic componenrs o uemocracy anu
consrirure irs very quinressence. 'tbe reatest tbreat to Anerican
liberty cones jron tbe disenaed, not tbe enaed`.
43
On rle orler
lanu, recenr inuings slow rlar many inuiviuuals in Wesrern
uemocracies lave unuergone a slir in rleir belie sysrems, anu rlar
many o rlose wlo auopr cerrain alrernarive religions in acr renu ro
neglecr uemocraric values.
44
One coulu inu uevoreu believers in many religions wlo are
willing ro rake exrreme measures on belal o rleir religious creuo.
RELICIOUS IUNDAMENTALISM AND POLITICAL EXTREMISM 42
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In orler worus, wlen newspapers reerreu ro exrremisr Clrisrians
arrempring ro rake over rle Republican Parry, or religious ]ews anu
Muslims borl rrying ro uesrroy rle IsraeliPalesrinian peace process,
or Hinuus arracking a mosque in Inuia, rle groups may lave been
wearing uierenr clorling, bur rley were all cur rom rle same clorl
rley were all exrremisrs riglr-wing aurlorirarians.
45
Reliiosity and Iolitical Welransclauung
Mainsrream religions renu ro supporr srricr preservarion o rle
exisring socio-polirical oruer.
46
Ir is accusromeu ro assume rlar
religions can aecr rleir believers` arriruues rowarus uemocracy in
rwo parls. Tle irsr is an inuirecr one rlrougl religious reaclings,
47
anu rle seconu parl is a uirecr one, as some o rle polirical arriruues
are a resulr o belonging ro a religious group.
48
I will now uescribe a
number o arremprs ro unuersranu rlese parls.
As menrioneu earlier, Auorno et al. perormeu one o rle seminal
sruuies on religiosiry anu polirical exrremism.
49
Tley uisringuisleu
berween rle aurlorirarian inuiviuual anu rle uemocraric inuiviuual.
Tle irsr caregory supporrs inroleranr arriruues rowarus oreigners
anu uevianrs, anu neeus leauing orces spirirually anu polirically
srrong leauers. Tley ignore weaknesses anu aggressive impulses anu
pro|ecr rlem onro orlers, especially rlose wlo uo nor belong ro rle
in-group, anu eel rle neeu or conrempr or orlers, originaring rom
rle inluence o rle aurlorirarive igure.
5
Tle arriruues rley auopr
marcl convenrional values, aggressiveness anu exrreme cynicism.
51
Tle orlers, lowever, inrernalise moral values, are open-minueu anu
renu ro mainrain social relarions. In eecr, Auorno et al. claimeu rlar
aurlorirarians slare a similar psyclological consrrucr, wlicl leaus
rlem ro submir ro aurloriry anu in parricular ro srrong polirical
leauers anu exrreme-Riglr iueologies.
52
Tle aurlorirarian personaliry asks or rle lelp o supernarural
anu polirical anri-uemocraric powers. One o rle well-esrablisleu
inuings o Alremeyer is rle relarionslip berween religiosiry anu
RWA.
53
He ounu rlar Clrisrian aurlorirarians renu ro believe in all
Clrisrian belies more rlan rle non-aurlorirarian. In eecr,
aurlorirarianism expresses many o rle componenrs o exrreme
riglr-wing iueology (or example, anri-uemocraric iueas).
54
An
empirical sruuy ounu posirive relarions berween religious belies anu
aurlorirarianism o rle polirical riglr-wing among borl ]ews anu
Palesrinians in Israel.
55
Anorler empirical sruuy in Israel reveals an
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associarion berween religiosiry anu RWA.
56
One coulu also look ar irs
pracrical implicarion, rlar is, religiosiry anu voring or polirical
parries. Longiruuinal uara slows rlar 79 per cenr o rle Israeli ulrra-
orrlouox ]ews anu 72.6 per cenr o rle orrlouox anu only 25 per
cenr o rle secular consisrenrly vore or riglr-wing parries (incluuing
many exrreme-riglr-wing parries).
57
Sruuies lave also slown rlar religious variables lave some
inluence on rle willingness ro rolerare our-groups o minoriries or
inuiviuuals wlo lolu uierenr polirical iueologies. Srouer uepicreu
clurcl arrenuance on a regular basis as an inuicaror o polirical
inrolerance.
58
Alrlougl larely rle rrauirional issues on rle polirical
agenua o Wesrern counrries lave cleareu rle srage in avour o new
issues (or example, environmenralism),
59
relarions berween religious
orrlouoxy anu polirical arriruues are unclangeu. Conrroversies are
over arriruues rowarus oursiuers, welare, aborrions, pornograply
anu so on. Iinuings lave revealeu rlar rle more inuiviuuals are
religious, rle less roleranr rley are, anu renu ro presenr larsl
arriruues rowarus criminals, lomosexuals, single morlers,
environmenral issues, women in polirics anu avoiuance o plysical
punislmenrs.
6
In 1955, Srouer claimeu rlar rlere is somerling in
rle narure o religious people rlar makes rlem inroleranr; only ew
clurclgoers wanr ro allow civil riglrs ro rlose wlo uo nor belong ro
rle ma|or polirical srream.
61
Anorler inuing is rlar rlose wlo are
members o more liberal religious oruers lave more liberal polirical
views.
62
Anu, ir is argueu rlar rlere are rwo kinus o belies in Cou
Cou rlar conrrols public lie versus Cou rlar conrrols more personal
aspecrs o lie. Inuiviuuals wlo auopr rle irsr premise are more
supporrive o conservarive, racial anu anri-eminisr polirical
arriruues.
63
Researcl perormeu in Belgium ounu rlar religious orrlouoxy
successully preuicrs anri-uemocraric, conservarive, narionalisric anu
racial polirical arriruues.
64
Orlers lave menrioneu religious
unuamenralism anu conservarism as prominenr preuicarors o
inrolerance. However, more complex sruuy uesigns lave srresseu rle
role o rleological conservarism, rleocraric belies anu messianic
uevorion, wlicl leau ro rle auoprion o anri-uemocraric polirical
arriruues sucl as rle reusal ro allow luman riglrs ro cerrain groups.
65
Some see uemocracy nor as a clusrer o iueals bur as rules o 'air
play`, rlrougl wlicl rley coulu srrive or peace, social |usrice anu a
religious way o lie. Once rlese goals are given a cenrral role, a
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uecline in obligarions ro uemocracy is expecreu. Sruuies in Israel, or
example, ounu rlar rle vasr ma|oriry o rlose wlo ueineu
rlemselves religious anu ulrra-religious ob|ecr ro uemocraric iueas.
66
Wlen religiosiry anu uemocracy clasl, mosr believers woulu give
prioriry ro religion. Ir seems rlar rle ma|oriry o rle religious/ulrra-
religious public in Israel supporrs a 'pre-mouern` srare insreau o a
mouern uemocraric srare.
67
Alrlougl nor all sclolars agree on rle uirecr linkage berween
religiosiry anu polirical riglr-wing exrremism,
68
no empirical sruuy
las ounu a posirive relarionslip berween religious orrlouoxy anu
polirical liberalism or rauicalism o rle polirical ler-wing,
69
bur rle
opposire was ounu.
7
Tle level o religiosiry in rle Unireu Srares
was ounu ro be negarively relareu ro rle rise o rauical workers`
organisarions.
71
One o rle lyporleses is rlar religiosiry is relareu ro
rle supporr or anri-uemocraric iueology because religion las
always been relareu ro rrauirional values, aurloriry anu lierarcly,
anu mosr o rle religious organisarions in lisrory were o
aurlorirarian orienrarion. Tle rise o rle iueals o mouern
uemocracy rolerance, equaliry anu luman riglrs is relareu ro
secularisarion, rlar is, rle uecline in rle power o mainsrream
religious insrirurions.
72
Sruuies in rle Unireu Srares lave slown rlar growing
abanuonmenr o religious esrablislmenrs las leu ro an increase in
polirical liberalism.
73
Religious iuenriry creares a unique rype o
loyalry anu group iuenriry, wlicl is rle arclerype o unconuirional
rribal anu narional loyalry. As menrioneu earlier, inuings on
religiosiry, pre|uuice, anu aurlorirarianism lave slown posirive
relarionslips berween religious orrlouoxy anu exrreme-riglr polirical
arriruues.
74
Polirical movemenrs, wlicl are iuenriieu wirl rrauirion,
conservarism, amily values anu ulrra-narionalism (rlar is, exrreme-
Riglr parries), are supporreu by religious insrirurions.
75
O course, one can claim rlar polirical arriruues are relareu ro
religion only wlen issues ar srake are relareu ro religious values, bur
inuings slow rlar religious orrlouoxy las a grear inluence on
polirical arriruues in general.
76
Religious movemenrs somerimes
conrribure ro rle polirical srabiliry in uemocraric regimes by
inciremenr o rle believers` arrenrion ro rle 'carror` in Heaven, wlile
rley conrrol rlem rlrougl rle 'srick` in Hell.
77
Hence, many religions
prevenr rauical social clange anu conrribure ro rle preservarion o
rle status quo.
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Alrlougl inuings rom rle 196s slow rlar mosr o rle clergy
lelu revolurionary worlu views, a posirive relarionslip was ounu
berween low levels o religiosiry anu ler-wing rauicalism.
78
Orler
sruuies lave revealeu rlar religious orrlouoxy is posirively relareu ro
lawkisl, pro-war, miliranr anu polirical arriruues.
79
Ir was ounu rlar
orrlouox inuiviuuals are more miliranr anu renu ro supporr massive
milirary acrions.
8
Sociological sruuies renu ro srress rle role o
religion anu religious leauers in supporring rle socio-polirical oruer
anu preserving irs srabiliry.
81
Alrlougl in rimes o polirical rurmoil
religious acrors somerimes rebel againsr rle exisring status quo, rlis
is rle exceprion, wlereas rle rule is rlar rley usually supporr ir ro rle
exrreme.
82
Inueeu, recenr sociological sruuies poinreu mainly ar rle
relarionslip berween religiosiry anu anri-uemocraric arriruues.
83
All in
all, alrlougl mosr o rle researcl was uone in rle Clrisrian worlu, ir
is assumeu rlar anri-uemocraric, or ar leasr less uemocraric, values are
ar rle core o mosr religions.
In summary, rlere is lirrle uoubr regaruing rle associarion berween
religious orrlouoxy anu anri-uemocraric polirical arriruues anu
acrions. Tlere is somerling abour religious people rlar makes rlem
lean rowarus exrreme polirical arriruues rlar may clasl wirl
uemocraric perceprions. Alrlougl convenrional religiosiry is in
uecline in Wesrern uemocracies, religiosiry is srill uepicreu as one o
rle ma|or clallenges ro uemocraric socieries, anu in parricular since
rle evenrs o 11 Seprember. Common religious uevorees are more
inroleranr, miliranr anu exclusionisr in rleir polirical arriruues.
Alternatite Reliiosity and Iolitical Welransclauung
Conservarives uo nor wanr innovarions, anu alrernarive religious
belies are some kinu o an expression o ob|ecrion ro scienriic iueas
anu re|ecrion o rarional rlinking.
84
Ir is possible ro claim rlar rle
auoprion o alrernarive religious belies is rle mirror view o scienriic
belaviour.
85
People began ro eel rle by-prouucrs o mouern science
anu reclnology, sucl as air pollurion anu over-meclanisarion, wlicl
leu ro lealrl anu employmenr problems. Tlese were accompanieu by
wiuespreau uissarisacrion anu an aversion ro mouern science, wlicl
leu ro rle rise in rle auoprion o occulr belies anu pracrices anu
orler alrernarive religions.
86
Tlose wlo are exrremely conservarive,
incluuing polirically, are relucranr ro clange, anu are prone ro believe
in rle power o asrrologers, palm reauers anu orler 'ururologisrs`. Ir
may be argueu rlar conservarism anu aurlorirarianism are very mucl
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alike, as rle main claracrerisrics o conservarism are ob|ecrion ro
scienriic progress anu belie in magical powers.
87
Anorler way o looking ar rle relarionslip woulu be rlrougl rle
aurlorirarian personaliry rleory.
88
Supersririous belies, like rle belie
in rle power o asrrology, were ma|or ingreuienrs o rle ascisric
arclerype; rley were also ar rle basis o narional socialism.
Supersririous belaviour a cruel rlouglr or a uearl wisl o an
inuiviuual rowarus limsel or anorler person, gives rise ro eelings o
guilr leauing ro anriciparion o punislmenr, expresseu in rle orm o
supersririous conceprion o rle lack o goou luck, or rle bringing o
bau luck. Tle renuency o rle supersririous inuiviuual is ro reuirecr
rle responsibiliry rom rle inuiviuual onro exrernal orces. Auorno et
al. uiscusseu wlar rley rlouglr ro be rle orearlers o supersririous
belaviour rle belie in asrrological orecasrs, anu rle relarion ro
polirical arriruues.
89
Tley ounu rlar inuiviuuals wlo live in a worlu
o anrasies anu supersririous belies renu ro be pre|uuiceu in social
issues. In rle 192s rlere were empirical sruuies rlar sloweu rle
associarion berween supersririous belies anu pre|uuicial arriruues.
9
'Mysric personaliries` are loaueu wirl aralisric elemenrs anu renu ro
be aurlorirarian, anu uevelop anri-uemocraric veltanscbauun.
Accoruing ro rle aurlorirarian personaliry rleory, srricr euucarion
pracrices woulu leau ro perceprions rlar rle are o an inuiviuual is in
rle lanus o exrernal orces real or imagineu.
Iew researclers lave empirically resreu rle claims o Auorno anu
lis associares in rlar regaru.
91
Ranuall anu Desrosiers ounu a posirive
relarionslip berween rle belie in magic anu uogmarism (once
consiuereu as parallel ro aurlorirarianism).
92
Alremeyer resreu rle
'supersririous-anri-uemocraric` relarionslip using Tbe Sujjicient
Itidence Test anu rle RWA scale, anu ounu rlar aurlorirarians were
less crirical rlan orlers, anu wlen ir came ro supernarural-magical
powers, rley abanuoneu rleir crirical rlinking.
93
Tle renuency o
aurlorirarians ro neglecr crirical rlinking once rley ueal wirl
alrernarive religious belies is a resulr o rle acr rlar rley lave always
been rewarueu once rley placeu rleir belie ligler rlan reason. Tlis
renuency is beyonu religious belie per se. Ir is relareu ro rle
convenrional neeu or aurlorirarian submission. Alremeyer claimeu
rlar rle answer coulu be ounu in rle veltanscbauun o rle
aurlorirarians.
94
Tleir over-reliance on consensual valiuarion ro rleir
belies makes rlem vulnerable ro misconceprions, anu rlis lolus rrue
in rle uemocraric scene as well. Ir was ounu rlen, rlar rlere is a
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posirive relarionslip berween rle renuency ro rrusr orler-worlu
ueiries anu rle renuency ro auopr anri-uemocraric arriruues. Ir is all
baseu, as in wirclcrar anu uogmarism, on exrreme anu uogmaric
rlinking meclanisms.
95
Anorler empirical sruuy ounu rlar rlere is a linkage berween
alrernarive religions anu polirical conservarism anu rle uenial o
uemocraric elemenrs.
96
He uiu nor inu, lowever, associarions
berween alrernarive religiosiry anu religiosiry. Sub|ecrs wlo saiu rley
believe in alrernarive religious belies renueu ro rake rle parl o
proresr vores, wlicl exempliy polirical alienarion. Tlis is an escape
anu a searcl or an alrernarive meaning sysrem in borl rle realms o
religious anu polirical belies. Posirive links berween alrernarive
religiosiry anu exrreme renuencies ro aurlorirarianism were also
ounu.
97
Anorler empirical sruuy, baseu mainly on rle rleorerical
plarorm o Auorno et al., las ounu rlar rlere are signiicanr
uierences berween rlose wlo are alrernarively religious anu rlose
wlo are nor rle irsr were liglly aurlorirarian, remore rom
uemocraric values anu polirically alienareu.
98
In some cases (or
example, Israel), lowever, rle alrernarively religious were ounu ro
be liglly aurlorirarian anu anri-uemocraric even wlen ormal
religiosiry was conrrolleu. One o rle prominenr inuings was rle
associarion o alrernarive religiosiry wirl componenrs o rle RWA
rle uemanu rom rle governmenr ro rake exrreme measures againsr
so-calleu 'rrouble makers` anu uevianrs, or rle claim ro censure
srricrly movies anu newspapers.
99
Anorler perspecrive woulu be rlrougl one o rle rleorerical bases
ro aurlorirarianism working-class aurlorirarianism.
1
Tle auoprion
o paranormal belies anu aurlorirarian polirical powers are osrereu
in rle same social spleres. Lipser ounu rlar in rle American non-
euucareu working class 'laru lars` rlere is no inrernalisarion o
uemocraric values, bur rlere are aggressive renuencies, inrolerance
anu uogmarism.
11
Ir may be assumeu rlen, rlar psyclological
elemenrs associareu wirl rle belie in supernarural powers, combineu
wirl belonging ro a lower social srarus, aecr rle auoprion o non-
uemocraric norms. Recenr sociological empirical sruuies lave ounu
an associarion berween alrernarive religious belies anu
aurlorirarianism, anu a linkage berween magical rlouglr,
aurlorirarian arriruues anu anri-uemocraric values.
12
Ior example,
mosr o rlose wlo believe in alrernarive religious supersririous belies
voreu or rle exrreme-Riglr Ausrrian parry (IPO).
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Tle eecrs o alrernarive religions on polirical arriruues can also
be seen rlrougl rle lens o alse consciousness. Auorno uelineareu
rle associarion berween alrernarive religious belies anu exrreme
conservarive polirical orces in lis criricism on rle inuierenr
masses.
13
He claimeu rlar polirical orces use alrernarive religions
(or example, asrrology) ro creare alse consciousness among rle
masses. Accoruing ro Auorno rle non-rarionaliry o asrrology, raror
carus anu rle like, anu rle apparenr rarionaliry o mouern sociery are
rle same borl ill a social role o giving |usriicarion anu
legirimisarion ro rle status quo. Tle alrernarive religions marker
oers books, newspaper columns anu relevision slows. Conormism
is rle acror rlar allows rle slape anu conrenr o rle occulrism.
Negoriarion wirl invisible enriries is well combineu in rle very abric
o submission ro social convenrions. Asrrology columns give auvice
relareu ro rle larsl uaily lie o rle clienr-believer. Tle conrenr o
popular occulrism is 'pre-uigesr`.
14
Tle pracririoner rells rle clienr
wlar le alreauy knows ir is a non-rarional rarionalisarion o rle
status quo.
15
In sum, sclolars oer a cenrral rleorerical explanarion or rle
auoprion o anri-uemocraric arriruues ir is Tbe Autboritarian
Iersonality Tbeory wlicl is visible in all orler arremprs ro relare rle
rwo alrernarive religions anu exrreme-Riglr polirical arriruues.
Alrlougl empirical sruuies are rare, ir is usually rle approacl rlar
one sloulu ormulare negarive lyporleses in rlis regaru, rlar is, rle
more inuiviuuals are inclineu ro aulere ro alrernarive religious belies
anu pracrices (sucl as asrrology or reauing rea-leaves), rley are likely
ro auopr exrreme riglr-wing polirical arriruues wlicl ar rleir very
basis are anri-uemocraric.
Concusion
Two goals were iuenriieu ar rle beginning. Tle irsr was ro
uisringuisl berween rwo rypes o religions, anu rle seconu, ro rrack
rleir believers` polirical arriruues rowarus core uemocraric principles.
Tle srarring poinr o rlis arricle was ro look ar porenrial clallenges
ro uemocraric socieries, in parricular rle religious one. Hence, rle
arricle analyseu inrerwoven argumenrs. Tle irsr argumenr was rlar,
in spire o rrenus o secularisarion, rlere are rwo main rypes o
religions in presenr Wesrern socieries religious rrauirions anu
alrernarive religious rrauirions. Tle 'goous` in rle religions markers
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were uepicreu wirl a ocus on mainsrream religions anu alrernarive
religions. Mainsrream religions in rle Wesr are ]uuaeo-Clrisrianiry
anu are meaning sysrems anu meering sysrems. Norwirlsranuing,
rlere is a growing renuency o more anu more Wesrern inuiviuuals ro
auopr non-Clrisrian anu pre-Clrisrian religions. Tley are nor
insrirurionaliseu bur lave 'insrirurions` or clienr-pracririoner
meerings. Tle alrernarive religious worlu exisrs rlanks ro rle lealers,
books, slows anu orler inormarion carriers.
A parauoxical siruarion appears once one looks ar rlese religious
rrauirions anu rries ro guess low rley woulu reacr in polirical rerms.
Ir coulu be expecreu rlar a rype o religious belie, wlicl rebels
againsr mainsrream religions, woulu srress uierenr polirical values,
more mouerare anu pro-uemocraric ones. Bur, orrlouox believers
wlo are associareu wirl borl insrirurionaliseu religions anu
alrernarive religions are less likely ro auopr uemocraric arriruues.
Tlis, ro a grear exrenr, conirms Auorno et al.`s claims, as well as
Alremeyer`s presupposirions.
16
Hence, religious orrlouoxy may nor be as porenr a orce as some
believeu in previous uecaues, bur ir remains an imporranr religious,
social anu polirical plenomenon. In a worlu o wrencling clange
anu uncerrainry, millions o people will conrinue ro rurn ro religious
anu alrernarive religious movemenrs in rleir searcl or a more secure
anu morally grounueu social oruer. So, I lave uemonsrrareu rwo
poinrs wirl pracrical anu rleorerical implicarions, wlicl call or
urrler researcl. Iirsr, we can claim rlar rlere is a ma|or alrernarive
religious rrauirion besiue rle mainsrream religions, anu rlar rlese
rwo rypes religions anu alrernarive religions converge in rerms o
arriruues rowarus uemocraric perceprions. Seconu, borl rypes o
believers renu ro incline rowarus rle uirecrion o rle (exrreme)
polirical Riglr, anu rlereby clallenge rle uemocraric
veltanscbauun.
NOTES
1. ]. Hopper, 'Black Vampire Wearing a Swasrika`, Haaretz, 2 December 22, p.b9
(Hebrew).
2. S. Ireuu, 'Tle Iurure o an Illusion`, in ]. Srracley (eu.), Tbe Standard Idition oj tbe
Conplete Isycboloical vorks oj Sinund Ireud (Lonuon. Hogarrl Press, 1927),
pp.156; N.P. Spanos anu E.C. Hewirr, 'Ilossolalia. A Tesr o rle Trance anu
Psycloparlology Hyporleses`, journal oj Abnornal Isycboloy 88 (1979), pp.
42734.
RELICIOUS IUNDAMENTALISM AND POLITICAL EXTREMISM 5
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3. M. Argyle anu B. Beir-Hallalmi, Tbe Social Isycboloy oj Reliion (Lonuon. Rourleuge
anu Kegan Paul, 1975); B. Beir-Hallalmi, Iroleonena to tbe Study oj Reliion
(Lewisburg, PA. Bucknell Universiry Press, 1989).
4. Ir is given a variery o labels. occulrism T.W. Auorno, 'Tleses Againsr Occulrism`, Telos
19 (1974), pp.712; T.W. Auorno, 'Tle Srars Down ro Earrl. Tbe Ios Aneles Tines
Asrrology Column`, Telos 19 (1974), pp. 139; popular religion M. Truzzi, 'Deinirions
anu Dimensions o rle Occulr. Towarus a Sociological Perspecrive`, journal oj Iopular
Culture 3 (1971), pp.63546; or rle culric milieu C. Campbell, 'Tle Culr, rle Culric
Milieu anu Secularizarion`, A Socioloical Yearbook oj Reliion in 8ritain 5 (1972),
pp.11936.
5. R. Wurlnow, 'Asrrology anu Marginaliry`, journal jor tbe Scientijic Study oj Reliion 15/2
(1976), pp.15768.
6. S. Ireuu, 'A Religious Experience`, in Tbe Standard Idition oj tbe Conplete Isycboloical
vorks oj Sinund Ireud (Lonuon. Hogarrl Press 21, 1928; 1961); K. Marx, Iarly
vritins (New York. McCraw-Hill, 1964); B.S. Turner, Reliion and Social Tbeory
(Lonuon. Sage Publicarions, 1991).
7. C.]. Neuerman anu ].W. Couluing, 'Popular Occulrism anu Crirical Social Tleory.
Exploring Some Tlemes in Auorno`s Critique oj Astroloy and tbe Occult`, Socioloical
Analysis 42/4 (1982), p.329.
8. Auorno (nore 4).
9. E. Durkleim, Tbe Ilenentary Iorns oj Reliious Iije (Lonuon. Allen anu Unwin, 1912;
1976); W. ]ames, Tbe vill to 8eliete (New York. Dover Publicarions, 1897; 1956); W.
]ames, Tbe \arieties oj Reliious Ixperience (New York. New American Library, 192;
1958).
1. C.W. Allporr, Tbe Inditidual and bis Reliion (New York. Macmillan, 195).
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13. Argyle anu Beir-Hallalmi (nore 3), p.1.
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15. Durkleim (nore 9).
16. A.I. Wallace, Reliion: An Antbropoloical \ieu (New York. Ranuom House, 1966).
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19. M. Weber, Tbe Socioloy oj Reliion (Bosron. Beacon Press, 1963).
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Alrernarive Religions in rle Wesr`, in ibiu.
21. C.I. Emmons anu ]. Sobal, 'Marginaliry Hyporlesis`, Socioloical Iocus 14/1 (1981),
pp.4956; ].B. Dixon anu R. Kinlaw, 'Belie in rle Exisrence anu Narure o Lie Arer
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(21), pp.47988.
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24. V.I. Hollinger anu T. Smirl, 'Religion anu Esorericism among Sruuenrs. A Cross-
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49. Auorno et al. (nore 38).
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