FOR THE PREVENTION AND MANAGEMENT OF

SCRAP TIRE:
FI RES
Scrap Tire Management Council
USE. RECYCLE. RECOVER
Chapter Title Page
Distribution Map of Recent Scrap Ti e Fires ........... 2
Introduction ............................................................. 3
Initial Action Checklist ................... : ......................... 6
........................................................... Pre-Fire Plans 7
Fi e Prevention ....................................................... 13
................................................................... Size-Up 17
............................................... Establishing Control 21
.................................................. Health and Safety 27
............................................... Suppression Tactics 31
Environmental Concerns ....................................... 34
Public Relations and Information .......................... 40
Distribution of Recent Scrap Tire Fires
Elwood, New Jersey 9. FOR Vorth, Texas
Prince Georges County, Maryland 10. Wled County, Colorado
=inchester, Virginia 11. Gnntsville. Ohio
Lancnsrer, Ohio 12. Huntington, California
Carjkill, New York 13. Snanienro, C;ilifomia
Hngersville, Onmrio 14. Berks County, Pennsylvania
Pontinc. Michigan 15. Danville, New Hampshire
Lincoln, Nebraska
5th the disposal of an estimated ofthemajorproblemsd~esefuespresent
740 million vehicle tires each are listed below: w-
year in the United States, the manage-
ment of scrap tires has become a major 81 Even relatively small tire fves
economic and environmental issue. can require large community re-
Although responsible means for dis- source commitment
posal, such as recycling and incinera- In Lincoln, Nebmska, a f i e in a pile of
tion have recendy become more com- scrap tiresmeasuring ljofeetby 50 feet
mon, the tire dumps of the last forry by 10 feet high required one-half of the
years continue to present environmen- fire department% equipment and per-
tal and safety hazards that will last into sonnel to control. Theoverrime espen-
the foreseeable Future. dirure during this incident reduced the
The fire service has had to confront department's abidity to provide pre-
this problem on an increasingly ire- vention and education programs for
quent basis. Overthe pastsevenl years the remainder of the budget year.
there h3s been a sharp increzse in the
occunnce and severity of scrap tire E The cost of management is of-
fires. Cunenr storage regulations are ten far beyond that which the f ue
often unheeded, and fire departments department can absorb.
aregenerauyill-equippedandunuained Canadian officials estimate the 1990
in the management of these incidenrs; Hagarsville, Ontario, fire cost S1.5 mil-
this is especiaify m e in rural areas, lion to extinguish and caused S3 mil-
where many scrap tire piles are located. lion in damage. At the height ofrhe ten-
Ti e fues are different from con- aaetirefueeinCacs~I1,NewYork.nearly
ventional fires in many respeccs. Some 1,000 fire fighters and 1,000 support
3
personnel were operating from as far tire fires. The reconinlendations of this
away as 70 miles. group are contained in this document,
and can be helpful in rhe prevention,
The envi r onment al conse- plamingandmanagementofscraptire
quences of major tire fires are sip- fires.
nificant This document and the guidelines
A tire fire in Rhinehan, Virginia issued it contains are intended to compliment:
a plume of smoke 3,000 feet high and 1. Nationally recognized stand~rds
j0 miles long with fallout reponed in and good practices, such as the
three states. This f i e also threatened Codes and Standards of the Na-
the drinking water in the Disuict of tional Fire Protections Association
Columbia with lead and arsenic con- (NFPA) and Factory Mutual Sys-
urnination. Offici~sises~imtedtheclean terns' Loss Prevention Data Guides;
up costar S1.3 million. 2. Loully developedsite-specifrcpre-
fire plans developed by the fire
II -reme heat turns rubber into protection organization;
02, and a standard passenger car 3. Local or state ordinances, codes,
tire can generate abouttwo @ens statutes, standards or rules, par-
of oil as it burns and liquifies. ' titularly those that regulate scnp
If half of the burned tires in the tire operators or storage facilides;
Hagnrsville, Ontario fire were liquified 4. Emer~enc): preparedness plans
in dlis manner, an estimated 14 million developedby local andsure emer-
gdlons of toxic oil could have been ge nq management organizations
leached into che soil of nearby farm- 5. Adviceandrecommendationsfrom
lands (by comparison, the Esson- technical specialists from organi-
Valdez incident spilled 11 million gal- zations such as the Environmental
Ions of oil into the sea). Protection Agericy and the rubber
tire industry.
The risks presented by tire fires
demons&tes the need to address diis The guidelines contained in this docu-
problem. The potenrial for damage ment are based upon rhe collective
increnseswithever/tired'isurded. Fi e - experiences of incident commanders
depamenrs, tiremanufacturers. the in- who have managed major scrap tire
sunnce industry and the public are at fires and are presentedas an adjunct to
risk when these fires occur. the strategic and tacticnl practices al-
In June of 1992, as pan of an effort ready a pmof proper fire ground man-
supported by the International Asso- agementandconuoi. Theseguidelines
ciation of Fi e Chiefs(1AFC) and the do not necessarily represent the poli-
Scrap Ti e Management Council. sev- cies of the International Association of
enteenindividualsrepresenringthefie Fire Chiefs, ir staff or members, nor of
service, government and industry met the Rubber k1anufacrurersAssoci~tion,
in Washington. D.C. toexchange infor- its staff or members.
mation and experiences on manaxing
d
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The insight, willingness to share experiences and unique contribution of the
panicipanu is greatly appreciated. The participants included Ci alphabetical
order):
Mr. hiichael Blumenthal
Executive Director
Scnp Tire Management Council
\Vashington, D.C.
hlr. Oren Briese, Student Intern
International Association of
Fire Chiefs
Faitfax: Virginia
Mr. James CouLson
Office of the Fire Marshal
Toronto, Ontario
hir. James Ddoi a
US. EPA
Ediion, New Jersey
Chief Don Harkins
Gainesville Fi e Depanmenr
Gainesville, Florida
Deputy Fire Marshal WaddeU Hill
Pierce County Fire Protection District
Tacoma, Washington
Lt. Gary Homak
Pl;meville Fi e Protection District
Pfaneville. Colorado
Ms. Marian Huber
U.S. A m ~ y Corps of Engineers
Norfolk, Virginia
Chief David ICimball
DanviUe Fire Depament
Danville, New Hampshire
Chief Robert Lamson
Pontiac Fire Deparunent
Pontiac, Michigan
Chief Donald Marsh
Cana Fire Depament
Cana, Virginia
Mr. Tony McDowell
Intemationnt Associition of
Fire Chiefs
Mr. Don Rigger
US. EPA
Adanu, Georgia
Mr. Edward Schnee
Waste Recovery, Inc.
Baycown, Texas
Deputy Chief Dennis Smith
Sacnmento Fire Deparm~ent
Sammenro, California
Deputy Chief Dean Staberg
Lincoln Fire Department
Lincoln, Nebraska
Chief Dave Whitaker
Lancaster Fi e Deparmment
Lancaster, Ohio
Dr. Joseph Zelibor, Science Advisor
Scnp Tire Mana$!ement Council
Washington, D.C.
The service of Consrance Gilmore, Adminismtive Assistant, Scrap Tire Manage-
ment Council, is also adcnowled~ed.
Initial Action Checklist
P
re-incident plans are developed other impomnt consi?lerations.
to identify the special consider- Also included in the pre-fire plans
ations and hamrds of a patticu- should be anticipated assignments for
Inr sire or properr); so that responding mutual aid companies and organiza-
units ill know what to expect and tioml cham specifyiing che anticipated
how to proceed during initial opera- controlsectors.The means ofmaintain-
tions.Pre-plansmustaccommodatethe ing fireground and incident manage-
agenq~sstandardopentingprocedures ment, whether Incident Command Sys-
and specie e~actly how those proce-
tem, or by some ocher means, should
dures,are ro be applied should a fire be anticipated and included in the pre-
break our at a given location. fire plans.
All scrap tire and rubber products
This chaprer will discuss the fol-
storage facilities should be considered
lowing common elemenrs of tire fires
high-risk storage sires and pre-planned
that need to be consideredand included
accordingly-regardless of die sire's lo- in the pre-fire plans:
cation or the owneis attitudes. 1. The anticipated establishment of a
Physically includedwid~in the pre-
function31 incident management
fire plan is inforqation and resource system: to include command and
material thought to be of possible use control ofall responders and work-
to the incident commander. In the case ers.
of a tire fire, these resources would 2. Theearlyrecognitionoftirefiresas
include maps of the area, information potential hazardous materials
on the hydrographic conditions of the (haunar) incidents, wid1 consider-
soil, water supply contingency plans, ations given to treating them as
emergency contacrs and a variety of such.
7
Information regarding the site's lo-
cation, lay-out, size and composi-
tion.~lsoinFomationregardinga~-
cess and egress routes, the physi-
cal infnsmcmre of the roads and
other "access" considerations.
Access to local, state and federal
agencies or organizations wid1 en-
vironmental and/or emergency
management responsibilities.
Access ro local and regional con-
tractors with specialized equip-
ment.
Information managementplans, to
include resource request mc ki n~
forms. video recording of incident
progession and finmcial reim-
bursa1 requests.
Incident Management
Planning
1.1 ~ l l fue incidents should be man-
aged within the guidelines of an inci-
dent command system. A complete de-
scription of the components and struc-
ture ofthevarious commandsystems is
beyondthescopeof thisdocument, but
is available through the Fire Service
Incidenr Management System Consor-
tium and the National Fire Prorection
Association.
1.2
A system of personnel account-
ability must be established and utilized
from the earliest stages and continue
throughout the duration of the inci-
dent.This is panicularly imponantcon-
sidering the number of fue fi$ters and
other personnel operating at large tire
fires. Funherdiscussion ofaccountabil-
ity is contained within Chapter Five,
Health and Safety.
1.3 htutual-aid deparunents and out-
side agenciesshould be included in the
pre-fue planning process. All depan-
ments and personnel operating at the
fire should be familiar with the
fireground control and accounrability
systems. Drills should be conducted to
ensure dur all personnel are familiar
with their individual roles and respon-
sibilities on the fireground.
Recognition of Hazmat
Site Location, Laysut,
Potential Size and Composition
2.1 The pre-fue plans should note
that cire rues produce 3 variety of poi-
lutanrs, and although not always toxic,
shouidbe regarded with a high indexof
suspicion. Since it is recommended that
majortire fuesbe hancliedas hazardous
materials incidents, the pre-fire plans
should call for first-responder hazmar
precautions and and subsequent acti-
vation of department hazmar person-
nel and resources.
2.2 XIoreinfomauononhamtn1an-
agemenr is conrained in Chapter Five?
Health and Safety, and Chapter Seven.
Environmental Concerns.
3.1 The exact location and size of the
tire srorage yard or dump should be
determined. This is often difficult and
incompletely performed since many
sites are located in remote areasoraccu-
mulate as the result of illegal dumping.
3.2 Maps of [he site should be up-
daredandmadeavailable in the pre-fire
plan. Ingressand egress plans for appa-
r a ~ s a n d p e r ~ ~ ~ e l should be included.
The development of addicionai access
poinrsshould beplannedwithrherneans
of mainraining or expanding accisses
provided. The possible locations for a
command post and any usable on-site
buildings may also be idenrified.
3.3 Topographical, aerial and soil
composition maps should be obtained
andup&tedtoshowhy~nrsandwater
supply sources, accesses, interior lanes
or passages and fuel toad configuti-
[ions.
3.4 Schools. homes, crops and mans-
poirntion routes near the site should be
identitied as -high risk' esposures and
consideredshouldevacuationorpoliu-
tion conuol become necessar)..
3.9 Tile location of any utilities on or
near the site should be idenrified so
responders can quickly shut off power
to electrical or gas lines and prevent the
m-oRofcontamimted~~aterinrostorm
drains or plumbing systems.
3.6 The condition of roads and ac-
cesses should be considered in the pre-
fire plans in order to avoid the common
problem of fmt-arriving units becom-
ing stuck in mud or unable to exit a
narrow access. The fire deparunent
shouldidentify how access can be made
to remote sites. More information on
access roads is contained in Chapter
Two: Fire Prevention.
3.7 The composition of the pile
should be considered since impomnt
differencesexistindevelopingsuppres-
sion strategy. Shreddedor 'chip" tire
piles present different challenges than
whole tires, as would the existence of
plastics, metals, refuse or hazardous
chemicals/waste. Additionally, die age
of die pile and d ~ e local climate may
affect the amount of rodent and insect
infes~~tion of the particular site.
Local, State and Federal
Agencies or Organizations
4.1 Pre-fire plans should contain cur-
rent emergency contacts for all local,
state, and federal agencies or organiza-
tions with expertise or responsibility in
management of environmental disas-
ters. The lists should include phone
numbers, facsimile numbers, addresses
and radio frequencies if applicable.
4.2 Since emergency management
structures differacross stateand county
lines, each fire deparunent will have to
research its own government structure
and laws to deterniine the appropriate
agencies to involve. These agencies
should participate in: or at least be-
come farnilixr with the pie-fire plans.
4.3 Examplesofconcemedagencies:
State and local police
Public works agencies
State deparunent of emergency
n~anagement
Federal Emergency Mamgement
Agency (FEKA) regional offices
. Regional, state or fedenl environ-.
mental protection agency (EPA)
State division of nxunl resources
or state foresu-y agency
State fire marshal's office
Finance, purchasing and budget
agencies
4.4 The pre-fire plans should assign
the various government agencies to ap-
propriate sectors in the command sys-
tem. This will allow for smoother uan-
sition of sector conuol in areas such as
10
'environn~enml management" or 're- 5:
source managemenr" when those re-
spective experts arrive on scene.
Local and Regional
Contractors
5.1 Pre-fire plans should contain up-
todate emergency conraw for local
and regional companies/organiations
with access to heavy equipment or
materials useful formanagingscrap tire
fues. Companieswirh heavy earth-mov-
ing equipmenL froncond loaders, mck
excavatorj or mid-size dozers should
be identified and contacted for support
as pan of the pre-planning effon.
5.2 Other commonly used organiza-
tions include:
Construction and wood supply
companies
Equipmentrepairandmainrenance
conuactors
Fill dirt and gravel conuac-
tors
Canteenorfoodsenkespro-
viders
- ' Sanitation or "Pona-John"
companies
Public and private universi-
ties: deparunenrsofecolo~y,
environmental engineering,
etc:
- ~oa~dchemicaladditivesmanifac-
curers
- Oil reclamationandclenn-up com-
panies
Aerial photogmphy and infrared
reconnaissance (sometimes pro-
vided by state police or a univer-
sity)
5.3 Private contractors expected to
participate in fue suppression activi-
ties, such as tractoroperators, will need
to be trained in the use of fire fighting
personal protective clothing and gear,
including selfsontained breathing ap-
panrus. Provisionsshouldalsobemade
for eanh-moving equipment to accom-
modate SCBA cylinders or other such
equipment in a way thatwill not restrict
the operator.
5.4 The pre-fie plans should assi p
the various contncrors to appropriate
sectors in the comn~and system. This
will nllon. for more efficient operations
in areas such as 'maintenance" or ;re-
connaissance" when those respective
contractors arrive on scene. The con-
tractors identified in the pre-fie plans
should participate inor at least become
familiar rich those plans.
Information Management
and Resource Request
Tracking
6.1 The amount of information, both
written and oral- that is generated dur-
ingapmlongedincidentisoverwhelm-
ing - and can cripple the conunand
suucrureif itisnot mamgedeffectively.
Therefore. an orderly system of idor-
mation mnnagement should be de-
signed as part of the pre-fire plans. A
senior sector of the command system
should bededicatedto informationand
resource management.
6.2 nil requests for major materials,
supplies orresourcesshould be coordi-
nated by the Information and Resource
hlanagernent Sector. Similarly: all in-
coming resources and supplies should
be reported to the Sector. Wlen an-
orher sector commander pulls a re-
'source, notification should be immedi-
ately sent to the Resource Management
Sector. In turn, the Resource Sector
makes available the list of available
supplies.
6.3
The mnnaaement of this flow of
requesrs and notification ma). be best
handled by theuse of nrbon-copy -mck-
ingfom~s.'TheInfomtionandResour~e
hlan3gement Officer should have copies
of all rncking forms. Ideally this allows
for npid tracing of unflled requests and
missing mareriais. Afrer the incident, a
sysremof resourcetrackingwill beuirical
forrhereimbursalofthefie deparunentW
and all other concerned organizations by
feder~l and swte agencies.
6.4 Videotaping of the incident
should also be included in rhe pre-fie
plans. This will allow for post-incident
analysis as well as documentation of
fire depament activity. Videotaping
of requesrs and meetings wirh govem-
ment officials and private parries can
only assist in assuring that promised
resources are delivered.
he prevention of fue is a primnry Each tire storage site will have dif-
a of bod1 small and large fire ferent characterisrics. and individual T g o I
depamenrj.Indealingwidistockpiles cases will require special consider-
of scrap tires, prevention is of pnn- ations.
mount iniponance because of the po- This chnpter will discuss die fol-
rential size. environmental impact, du- lowing common elemenrs of fire pre-
ntion and cost of major tire fires. vention in tire storage sires:
Risk assessment and pre-fue plam 1.' The on-sirestorage design require-
may be used by local authorities to rnenrs for nnterials and resources.
develop policies regarding tire storage 2. Site securirj and fue department
site maintenance. Accordingly, the site access into the storage site.
o\meriopentor niay be required to 3. Fire department reconnnissnnce
provide necessary on-site resources and information-gathering in situ-
such as a water supply system, foam or ations where die site is an illegd
chemical agents, fd1 din and odier np- dump or the pam responsible for
propriare materials. the storage site is unknown or un-
This chapter iisrs the on-site condi- renchable.
tions and preventative requiremenrj all 4. Determining requiremenrj for wa-
s a p tire storage fzciiiries should have rer supply on or near d ~ e sire.
as a baseline. Special attention is given 5. lvlaintaining professional and pro-
to stonge confi~untion since a major ductive working rel~tionships with
objective during a fire is to limit the fue site owner/operators.
spread. Also, since most tire fues are
caused by arson, strong emphasis is on
site securiry is included.
I?
Security and
Fire Department Acces s
1.1 The perimeter of the facility
should have a chain-link fence at least
ten feet high with intruder controls on
the top (in accordance to applicable
local laws). Clearly visible signs with
business hours and regulations should
be posted near the facility enuance. A
qualifiedsecurityatten&ntorsitenian-
agershouldbeon-sire atall times when
the facilin. is open [some sites have
developed effective security off-hours
by using security dogs].
1.2 Each tire storage yard or pile
should be provided wid1 emer.. "encv
veliicIeaccessroiztes,soch
that no portion of the pile
is more than 150 feet from
anaccess roadorfirebreak.
Access routes diroughthe
piles should have a clear
width of at least 60 feet.
1.3 There should be
gates protecring each ac-
cess point that can be
locked when the facility is
closed. All gates sho~~lcl
have a 20-foot open width
and remain unobstructed
atall times.Thegatesshou1d have npid
entry design compatible wich f i e de-
panmentrequirements. Elecuical gates
should have default capabilities to the
unlockedposition.
1.4 All roads and accesses should be
designed to support the loads imposed
by f i e fighting fiquipmenr. All bndges
andstructures, includingdramagesrruc-
tures on access roads, should be ca-
pable of carrying a minimum design
load of HS-20 per AUFTO "Standard
Specifications for Highway Bridges."
Access routes should be surfxed with
material designed to permit accessibil-
ity under all clinutic conditions.
1.5 A11 emergency vehicle accesses
shouldhave unobstructedvenicalclear-
- ,
ance of 14 feet, or as
neededforpassageoflnge
fire fighting appanms. t\
rnininiurnmrningradiusof
45 feetshouldbe provided
for emergency vehicle ac-
cess.~lldead-endaccesses
in e x e s of 150 feet long
should be provided with a
turn-around area.
1.6 ' Accesses should be
well-maintained and re-
main accessible to die fire
depamient at all times.
15
-
St orage Site
Desi gn Requirements
2.1 Ti e piles should be limited to 20
feer in height with a maximum perim-
eter of 250 feet by 20 feet. The edges of
die pile should be at least 50 feet from
the perimeterfence, and thatarmshould
be clear of debris or vegetation. Since
rires tend ro slide down from-the sides
of the pile and close off the fire breaks.
all interiorfue breaks should be at leasr
60 feet wide.
2.2 hn area extending 200 feet from
dle outside perimeter of the pile(s)
should be torally voidof crees, plants or
vegeration. All exposures, including
buildings. vehicles or flammable mate-
rials should be at least 200 feet away
from the tire srockpiles. Piles or storage
mcks should nor be located near or
below power lines.
2.3 Scrap rires should not be stored
onwedmds, floodplains, ravines: can-
yons or on steeply graded surinces.
Ideally, the site should be flat wid1 a
concrete or hard packed clay surface
(not asphalr or grass) designed LO cap-
ture and conrain water run-off.
2.4 KO open-air burning should be
allowed wirhin 1000 feet of the tire pile
and no welding orother heat-generating
devices allowed within 200 feet of the
pile. Smoking should only be pernutted
in designaced arms well clear of the pile.
Lightening rods conforming to local and
state codes should be placed on the
facility, but away from the tire piles.
Wat er Supply
Requirements
3.1 When the "olurne of tires in stor-
age exceeds 50,000 cubic feer, a warer
supply sufficient to supply 1,000 gd-
Ions per minute (GPM) for six hours
should be made available.
3.2 If there is a scream, lake or orher
body of warer located in the vicinity of
the srorage area. fire depamenr dnft-
ing connecrions should be provided in
accordance n~itll the fire depanmenrs
response plan.
3.3 All water supply systems should
be approved by the responsible local
authority (fire mnrshal, fire chief, etc).
3.4 Each fuel-fired vehicle operating
at the storage yardshould be equipped
with at leasr .one 24,IOBC-rated or
higher ponabl; fire extinguisher.
Remote Site
Reconnaissance and
information Gathering
4.1 &tost large tire pilesarelocated in
remote, ~ n l areas. Many are the prod-
uct of years' of ille~al dumping. Since
rhese dumps sites are isolated and'out
of site" the local fue depanment very
often fails ro consider the fue preven-
tion issues that need ro be addressed.
4.2 Aerhl photography isvery useful
indetem~ining thelocations ofrire piles.
However, an on-site inspection n4l be
necessary for determining the site's ac-
tu31 size. Aerial photos may not reveal
[he deptii of the pile, especially if rues
have been dumped into a nvine or pit.
Photos also may not reveal stretches of
tires dumped in forested or wooded
areas.
4.3 Site inspections and reconnais-
sance should be conducted on a regu-
lar basis to determine whether the site
is growing in size, to determine the
composition of the pile's contents and
to record changes in ecologiul and
envuomnenml cbangesassociarednrith
the pile's existence.
4.4 Fire deparunent inspections and
fire prevention records may be useful
for persuading public agencies and le-
gal entities that appropriate clean-up
requirements mustbeset. Such records
mayalso justifyesmblishmgsuchclean-
up requirements.
Relationships with
Site Owner/Operators
5.1 Asigniftcanrnumberofmajorcire
fires have occurred just after stepped-
up regulatory or code enforcement ef-
forts were initiated againsr the faciliry
or property. Nearly all diese fires were
attribunble to arson.
5.2 When approaching the owner/
operator of a scnp tire tire storage or
disposal sire, iris strongly advised that
effom are made to assure him that the
planningand fiepreventioneffom are
not necessarily pan of any punitive
action or a precursor to legal action.
5.3 Pre-fie planning and fue preven-
[ion effom should foster a sood work-
ingrelationshipwidid~efacilir);orprop-
erry owners and openrors. Ir is impor-
tant to have such a relationshipesmb-
lished.
he responslbllmes of the fust-arriv- 1. Identification of dangers to civil-
T. . ' . "
lngunlt or member to assume conl-
iens and firefighters at the scene
mand of the incident is a fun~rnenml and potenti:d threars to dle local
concept of the Incident Command Sys- community.
tem. The company officer on the first 2. The reco~nition of the f i e as a
arriving unit will need to "size-up" the potential hazmat incident.
scale of the incident and communicate 3. The extent of fire involvement and
dle extent of emergency to the dis-
irs rate ofspread through'available
pntcher and other responding units. fuel.
The oficer'ssize-updirecrs h e ini- 4. Theloationandprosimityofbuild-
rial operations of the incident and pro- ings, uansponarionroutes, utilities
vides the groundwork for developing or other complicating exposures.
an effecrive commandsystem. Thesuc- j. Recognition ofinunediate environ-
cess of initial communications, safety. rnenml concerns.
water supply, suppression and prop-
6. An initinl estimate of the need for
e m conservation efforts will depend additiomlresources,appannannd
on accurate size-up and early coordi- personnel.
natedactions by *e first-arriving unirs.
Size-up is an imponant on-going
function that does not end until the
incident is resolved and fue depan-
ment activities have terminated.
This chapter will address rhe fol-
lowing concerns that need to be ad-
dressed durins initial size-up:
18
Dangers Recognition of t he Fire
t o Life Safety as a Hazmat incident
1.1 The first arriving units should de- 2.1 The sceneshould be approached
termine whether any threaw to rheir andsized-upasahazn~atincidenr.More
ownsaferyevis~Perso~elshouldkeep details on this aspect are contained in
a safe distance from any scene thought Chapter Five. Health and Safety.
to be unsafe because of criminal ues-
passers orhosrileproperiyowners. Fi t
respondersalso need to assess the kin-
gers of lit-e wires, hozniar or environ-
mental exposures and orher possible
coniplicarions.
1.2 The incident commander should
tour of the site's perimeter (if possible)
in order to view all angles of the fire,
derermine the location and nt e of fire
spread, amount of available fuel and
the location of exposures. Durins this
initial survey, a determination should
be made whether any persons have
been injured orifanyonear thesire is in
danger.
1.3 Nearby homes, commercial build-
ings or public places should be consid-
ered for evacuation depending on rhe
amount and direction of the smoke
plum. Any area likely to be conncred
by direct smoke should be eclcuared
as a precaution. Consider closing r ods
ortnnspomtion rouresaffectedby thick
smoke.
3: 4:
Fire Involvement Location and Proximity
and Rate of Spread of Exposures
3.1 During size-up the incident corn- 4.1 After life safety considerations
manderneedstodetermined~eamount have been addressed, the fire
of fuel actively burning and dle tom1 depanment's second priority is prop-
amount of fuel available. The incident erty conservation. During the incident
commander will have to estimate the commander's initial tour of thesite, d ~ e
rate of spread in order to decide where location and types of e~posuresshould
fire breaks mAl be cut through the pile. be noted.
3.2 The composition of the pile will
affect d ~ e rate and direction of fire
spread. Fues occurring inpilesofwhole
tires tend to bum down into the middle
of the pile where pockets of air allow
for continued combustion. In piles in-
volving chipped or shredded ures, the
fire tends to spread over the surface of
the pile and then cause surface
crustation; inhibiting the downward
spread of fue into the pile.
3.3 Attention should be given to the
significance of burning embers during
size-up. Embers of scrap rubber may
travel considerablediswnces (1/4 miles
or more) and must be controlled.
3.4 During size-up dlt incident com-
mander n i l 1 have to determine the ac-
cessibility of sections of the pile, and
will have to determine the need to cre-
ate additional access points.
4.2 Buildings, equipment and utili-
ties in the proximity ofthe fuewili need
to be protected by water cumin or
duectapplicationofwarerby fog strem
in order to lessen the effects of the
intense radiant heat from buminrrrub-
bet. If multiple
exposures exist,
the incident com-
mander will have
to prioritize their
importance dur-
in9 size-uu. Con-
sideration; of the
exposures should include the possible
existence of heavy fue loads, haznrd-
ous materials or vital fire fighting equip-
ment (such as water supply pumps,
etc).
4.3 The proximity of utilities, over-
head and below-grade, needs to be
accessed during size up. Service inter-
ruptions should be made as necessary,
but consideration should be given to
the impactsuch intemptionsmay have
on existing fue protection systems,
phone lines and other utilities.
Immediate Environmental Additional Resources,
Concerns Apparatus and Personnel
5.1
The proximity of wildlands, for-
estedareas, bodiesofwaterandsimilar
natural boundaries should be noted by
the incident commander during size-
UP.
5.2 Given the rural location of many
tire piles, d ~ e potential for fire spread
into wooded areas is often great. The
prevention of heavy brush fire: forest
fire or wildland-urban interface fire
should be a very high priority. In the
case of such fire spread, additional re-
sources wiU be required, drawing from
die already strained resources of the
local f i e protection agencies.
5.3 The potential forrun-off into, and
pollution of natural resources is a six-
nificant concern and should be ad-
dressed during size-up. If necessary,
immediate effons should be made to
contain pollution from the fire and
master-stream rumoff.
5.4 The incident corn-
mander should size-up
the potential environ-
mental conseciuences of
thefieandbeginnotify-
ing the appropriate
agencies as ourlined in
the pre-fie plans.
6.1 An inimediate assessment for the
need for additional resources and the
summoning of diose resources should
be included in the size-up report. The
early notification of allied agencies (as
established in the Pre-Fire Plans) will
facilitate dieir timely placement into
the comrnmd srnlcrure and involve-
ment in the incident.
6.2 An inithl size-up report should
be radioed by the incident commander
so that other respondins units and the
controlling dispatcher undersnnd the
extent of the incident. The size-up re-
port should include dle designation of
theunifs) on d~escene, a briefdescrip-
tion of the incident, any safety con-
cer ns, ~ briefdescriptionofacuon taken,
a declaration of strategy, and die loca-
tion of the command post.
lie organization of fireground corn
nand must develop at a pace that
stays ahead of the tactical deployment
of personnel and resources. In order to
manage 3 niajor tire fire rhe incident
commandermust be able todirect, con-
trol, and track the positions and func-
tions of all operating companies.
An intact commandstructure is rhe
most effective tool the incident coni-
mander can utilize ro combat a niajor
tire fire.Thecomniandsuuctureshould
aid the incident commander in:
Establishing overall incidenr ob-
jecth-es
Determining appropriate strateS.i
Developing action plans
Obuining and assigning resources
. ~ssigningspecificobjectivesto uc-
tical sectors
Predicting outcomes
Continually sizing-up the incident
and revising plans
This chapter will address die fol-
lowing issues as they pemin to estnh-
lishiig control of a major tire fire:
1. Assigning ractical sectors and es-
tablishinaa comnzmd post early in
the incident.
2. develop in^ effective cornrnunic:i-
tions among fireground units, mu-
tual aid companies and dispatch.
3. Deploying initial suppression re-
sources to 'knock-down" or con-
win die fire.
4. Evacuation of civilians who may
potentially be in &nger of espo-
sure ro smoke or odier haurdous
producrs.
5. Contactins public agencies and
privare conmctors, andcoordinx-
ing resources from outside agen-
cies.
6. Coordmtingmurual aid resources
and developing accurate sire infor-
mation
Assignment of Development of
Tactical Sectors and Communications
Command Post
1.1 The incident commander will 2.1 It is vital to the success of the
need to sector out the tactical responsi- opentionthataneffectivecommunica-
bilities of the incident. Experience has tions system be established early in the
s h o w that the following functions incident, and utilized by all personnel.
should be sectored, if possible, from Hand-heldandmobiiendioswithdedi-
the earliest sages: cated frequencies provide the most ef-
Water supply fective means of conununications on
. Information and conununications the fireground; while cellular and fixed
Materials and resources telephone and facsimile are useful for
. klutual aid and staging rnnnaging infornmion and contactins
- Environmental conservation outside agencies.
Health and Safety
Suppression 2.2 Ideally, the radio system should
match the commancl system, limiting
1.2 A conunand post should be es- radio traffic to the incident commander
tablished with appropriate lighting, on one primary channel, while assign-
phone and radio communications. ing alternate channels to the various
ChansormapsoFthefiregmundshould sectors for tactical operations. Person-
beposted, with the locationsofappata- nelengagedintiresuppressionorother
tus, exposures and water supplies potentially hawrdous activities should
clear1ymarked.Personnelaccounabil- remain in direct communication with
ity measures should be monitored petsonneloutsideofdieha;.~rdousarea,
through the command post. as providedforby the firedepartment's
personnel accountabiiity system.
1.3 Thecomandpostshoulda1mays
remain accessible and identified, 2.3 h.lutua1 aid companies and out-
whether it is located on appanrus or in side agenciessl~ouldbeincluded in the
a swcrure. The location of the com- communications swcnire as needed,
nrand post should be out of the way, based on dieir deployment ni d~i n the
but close enough to allow the incident comnland system. Esrn portable m-
commander to vieni of the incideni dios prognmmed to the appropriae
frequency(ies) should be made avail-
1.4 Be prepared to move the com- able to murual aid personnel by the
mand post if wind direct shifrs, expos- comunicationsofficer.Radiocomu-
ing personnel to the products of com- nications should be articulated in clear
bustion (accunte weather forecasting dialosue Ci t ead of codes) in order to
is an asset). avoid confusion.
23
2.4 The incident commander and the
communications officer should antici-
pate the need to expand the communi-
cations system as the incidentgrows in
size. Manufacturers, rental companies
and large public safety organizations
may be considered as sources for ob-
taining exrn radios. Additionally, the
need to coordinate phone, facsimile
and ndio resources with the Public
Information Officer's responsibilities
should be anticipated.
Deploying Initial
Suppression Resources
3.1 A water slipply capable of pro-
viding at least 1,000 gallons per minute
(gpm) should be esnblished for every
50. 000~bi c feet or more ofwhole tires
involved. In most areas the remote lo-
cation of tire storase yards will necessi-
tate usingwater tankers orotherspecinl
measures.
3.2 In a major fire, it is unlikely dint
initial resources will be sufficient to
completely control the fire. In this case
the goal of initial suppression opern-
tions n4l be to limit fire spread anti
protect exposures. Radiant heat will
enhance fi e spread and complicate
exposure conuol, while limiting the
ability of fire fighters to approach the
fire with hand lines (1 3!4 to 2 1/2 inch
lines).
3.3 The intense heat created by tire
fires, and the bum characteristics of
rubber will lessen the effectiveness of
direct water applicztion as a cooling or
suppression uctic. In general, variable
gallonageconstlnt pressure fog nozzles
are more effective than solid suemis.
Solid streams tend to spn): off the tires
without reducing the surface tempera-
tures, andmuse increased run-offwhile
depletingnmer supplies morequickly.
3.4 The benefits of master streams
and ladder pipes should be weighed
against the potential for 'pushing die
fire" and the heavy taxation of water
supplies. Ideally, the unburned Fuel
should be separated from the pile be-
fore, or as soon as, large lines are ap-
plied diiecdy ro the burning surface.
3. j Theuseofwettingagentsorfoam
additives is controversial, butgenerally
considered to be of little immediate
value for fighting tire Fies, especially
during inirial opentions. The cosrs in-
volved suggest the use of such addi-
tives mny beefficient only for exposure
conrrol.
Evacuation of Civilians
4.1 Evacuarion of civilians, ns a life
safety consideration, should be consid-
ered as a highest priority by the inci-
dent commander. No suaregy for man-
aging the incident should by-pass
evacuation considerations. Since burn-
ing tiresare es~remely difficult to estin-
guisli, the incident cornmrtnder should
nor attempt to "beat the clock' - nmke
early evacuations a higher priority.
4.2 Areassubjentoevacurttionshould
be anticipated during the pre-fire plan-
ning process. Any areas esposed t~ the
smoke plum, or subject to such espo-
sure from shifting winds, should be
evacuated as a precaution.
4.3 The s u g i n ~ locations for emcu-
ees shouldbe identified during die pre-
fire planning process. The rinie needed
to conduct the evacuarions in an or-
dedy mannershould be consideredarid
factored into calculations for tnnspor-
tation requiremenrs. Liaison wid1 law
enforcement and eniergencyprepared-
ness orgmimtions will be necessary to
frtcilitatehii activity. Medical andhe~lth
care agencies should also be involvecl
ro assist [he elderly, especinlly if the
evacuation time is prolonged.
4.4 No evacuees should be allowed
to return to the vicin'ity until environ-
mental monitoring has been performed
by the appropriate audiorities and the
area is deemed safe and habiuble.
5:
prior to dieir arrival on the fireground.
If possible, all meetings and uansac-
Coordinating [ions with outside representatives
Public Agencies and
should be recorded in order to clarify
Private Contractors
any conflicts which arise after the inci-
dent.
5.1
Public agencies and private con-
tractors, as identified in the pre-fire
plans, should be contacted in the earli-
est possible srages of the incident. If the
resources of a given agency or com-
pany are not needed initially, those
agencies should still be placed on
*snnd-by" since the fire may progress
to larger proponions than expected.
5.2 Agencies or companies should
be contacted by the resource sector
conunander via phone or facsimile.
Notes or recordings should be made to
list the specific services each aaency
can offer, with an anticipated time of
arrival for each item. If possible, each
ourside organizationshould be given a
specific assignmeng a point of conract
and any peninent incident infomiation
5.3 Private contractors expected to
panicipate in fse suppression activi-
ties, suchas rnctor operators, will need
to be trained in the use of fire fighting
personal protective clothing and gear,
including self-conrained breadiin~ ap-
paratus. Provisionsshouldalso be made
for eanh-movina equipment to accom-
modate SCBA cylinders or other such
equipment ina nqahatwill not resuict
the operator.
5.4 The resources or services avail-
able from each outside organization
should be communicated to the inci-
dent commander in a concise and sys-
tematic manner. The resource sector
will have to "weed out' extraneous
information and well-meant but un-
necessary conuibutions.
Mutual Aid Resources
and Site Information
6.1 Thecommandseaorresponsible
for coordinating mutual aid companies
should be established as soon as the
call for mutual aid is issued. In the u s e
of large fires the sector commander
should anticipate the inRu?cof a great
number of personnel and resources
from ocher departments, and realize
that mutual aid companies will require
direction and management from the
moment they arrive.
6.2 Directions to the incident should
be marked along the major tnnspom-
tion routes for incoming murual aid
companies. S i g ~ , flaresorothermeans
can be usedeffectively forthis purpose.
A suging area should be established
and cleariy designated; all incoming
uniu should report to the staging area
before receiving assignments on the
fireground.
6.3 All incoming mutual aid comp2-
nies and outside organizations should
be directed to report in to the murual
aid sector commander. During sign-in,
each company should indicate-on a
cliarr-infonation such as:
. The individual in charge of the
group
Types ofappantus or equipment
The number of personnel
Levels of mining
How long they wiU commit to the
incident
- Any special needs
i
6.4 The mutual aid commander
should assign specific tasks to indi-
vidual mutual aid team, as directed by
the incident commander. Each team
operating on the fueground should be
provided with maps, cham or other
materials which convey information
aboutthesizeandextentofthe fire,and
indicaten.herecommand, rehab,water
supply and other sectors are located.
6.5 Radios or protective equipment
may need to be distributed to ensure
the mutual aid con~panies are properiy
prorecredandaccounted for. Consider-
ation may be given to assignins one
local fire depamient member to each
mutual aid company to improve com-
munications andcoordinate fireground
activities.
6.6 hiutual aid companies may re-
quire food: shelter and rehabilitation
services nearly immediately upon ar-
rival. ConsidenuonsRould begiven by
the mutual aid sector commander to
addressing these needs.
S
crap tire fires present a number of
uncommon dangers to the health
and safer). of f i e fighters, in pan due to
rhelack ofexperiencemostfire fighters
and fire officers have in dealing with
such incidents. The potentidly hamrd-
ous effects of rubberfire emissions, the
physical exenion required to fight such
fires, the intense heat and the often
unsanitaty conditions of dumps all
present unique dmgers to fire fighters
that need to be recognized as priority
health and safety concems.
National andlocalsaferystandards
suchas thosecontainedNFPA 1500and
OSHMEPA Rules and Regulations
should constitute the fundamenmi base
of f i e depanment safer). operations,
andshouldbe applied toall operations,
includingd>osecommencingatrire fies.
This chapter will discuss the fol-
lowing health and safety concerns in
fighring tire fues:
1. Understanding the hazardous ele-
menu of scrap tire bum emissions
and h e appropriate development
of hnzmat procedures.
2. Establishing appropriate levels of
protection for personnel operating
on d ~ e fieground.
3. Rehabilitation and rotaion of per-
sonnel and main~lining account-
ability of all men~bers.
4. Safe procedures for use and main-
tenance of fire fighting and e:irih-
moving equipment.
5.
Recognizing the dangers posed by
snxkes, rodents and insects living
in tire and rubber dumps.
Hazardous Emissions and
Hazmat Procedures
1.1 As the tire f i e grows in intensity,
it generates higher tenipentures and
voluminous amounts of thick, black
acrid smoke. The plume (smoke col-
umn) mny become even more dense
due to the accumulation of hydronr-
bon p001j.
1.2 Rubber has a heating value of
15,000 Bru per pound, which is similar
to petroleum. However, as combustion
becomes less complete, the amount of
organics emined tends to increase.This
suggesrj that smouldering tires may
present more danger dun those fully
involved.
1.3
Studies of tire fires have ldmti-
fied the emission of significant quanti-
ties of bezo(a)pyrene, a reported nr -
cinogen, and high emissions of other
noxious compounds, particularly ben-
zene (anotherknownnrcinogen), with
concentrations often exceeding 1 part
per million (ppm). Additional dicus-
sion of the bum chancteristics are pre-
sented in Chapter Seven, Environmen-
tal Concern.
1.4 Given the potential health and
safety dangers of tire fires: the incident
commander should enact all appropri-
arehamat procedures, to includeseal-
ing off the areas with well-marked hot;
warmandcool zones. Each zoneshould
be dearly marked with fire-line tape.
cones or other highly visible means.
Personnel entering the hot zone should
be equippedwithappropriare person31
protective gear, as described in the fol-
lowing section.
1.5 Sanimtionfacilities(soap and wa-
ter) should be provided fordeconwnii-
nation of personnel exiting die hot and
warmzones.Soakedorheavilyesposed
gear should be dropped by f i e fighters
inrhe warm zone and decontarninnted
before re-use.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - . .
'Zubber has a heating .ua(ue
o f 15,0#:3tu . . perpound. . . . . . . . .
-which 3simdar to pet
............... .. -. - ." . .
Establishing Appropriate
Levels of Protection
2.1 Personalprotectivecloih'~~g(~rn-
our gear) and self-contained breathing
app&rus (SCBA) meeting NFPA sun-
dards should be worn by all personnel
working in or evposed to the products
of combustion. All non-fire depamenr
personnelsimilarly exposedto the prod-
ucts of conibustionshould be provided
with ~r n- our gear and SCBA, and the
appropriate mining required to use
that gear.
2.2 Respiratory equipment for heavy
machine operarorsshouldhe provided.
This may be best accomplished by af-
f ~ ~ i n g bnckets in thecab of the vehicles
for holding air cylinders.
2.3
If it rains during the incident. iris
likely thar a 'black nin" will cover per-
sonnel and equipment below the area
of the smoke plum. Since this IT' tn con-
rains potentially hazardous orpni c
compoiuids from the smoke, full turn-
out clothing should be worn by all
personnel. Decontaminationofperson-
nel and equipment fmm this residual
should be a health and safety priorin;.
Rehabilitation, Rotation
and Accountability of
Personnel
3.1 Personnel operating on the fire-
gmund should be accounted for at all
times by command. All personnelshould
be nlonitored for exposure times, time
on task and last period of rest. It is
advisable for the incident commander
to assign safety officers early in the inci-
dent to monitor these and other areas.
3.2 prolonged t i e fues will require a
great deal of physical exertion on be-
half of the fire fi.ghters. Therefore, per-
sonnel should be regularly rotated with
only limited work time in the hot ?one.
This amount of time should be based
on die hazardous products risk and
task to be performed. Personnel should
then be assigned to a rest and rehabili-
tation sector where food, water and
medical evaluations are available.
3.3 Command should regularly ro-
ute and relieve personnel, and lunir
operational time of personnel at the
incidentscene. During the briefing pro-
cess, specific rotation time lines should
be given; this aids in scheduling, reha-
biliution and healdl (environnienral)
monitoring.
3.4
tn many past incidents the first
respondins fue fighters mere volun-
teers, with regular jobs and other com-
mitments that limited the ability of the
fire depament to maintain the staffing
levels neededrodevelop rotaringshifis.
E m assistance may be needed, but in
no case should the health and safety of
4:
fire fighters be risked by under-staffing
particular tasks or skipping proper rest
Us e and Maintenance
and rehabilitation. of Equipment
4.1 Mostequipment, indudiingSCB.\
shouldbedecontaminatedaherremoval
from the hot zone and before re-use.
Although on-site cleaning of rurn-out
gear is not usually necessary (unless
thegearissoakedorheavily soiledwith
residual), all gear used during the fire
should be professionally cleaned after
the incident and before storage in rhe
fire station or private residences.
4.2 hlultiple sets of Nm-out gear and
equipment, including SCBA, should be
provided ro replace equipment that be-
comes soaked. contaminatedorothemise
rendered nor appropri~te for service.
4.3 Respiraton. equipmenr for heavy
machine operators shouldbe provided.
This may be best accomplished by af-
flying brackets in the cab ofthe vehicles
for holding air cylinders.
4.4 Safe operating zones around the
paths of hen\$ equipmenrand machin-
ery should be provided; a guide person
on the pound and radio communiu-
tions with operators is useful.
4.5 Dangerous conditions (ie; work-
ing in the proximity of moving equip-
ment, rripping hazards from wire rings,
unstable footing) on the scene dictate
that operations be conducted with ad-
equate visibility; if lighting cannot be
providedduringdarkness. serious con-
siderationshould be given to suspend-
ing night operations.
31
5:
Snakes, Rodents and
Insects
5.1 Scrap tire piles are breeding
rounds for millions of mosquiros, ro-
dents andsnakes. Personnel may need
special prorection from fleeing rodents
and repriles or insecrs. Food prepxra-
tion facilities should be enclosed.
onvenuonal fire suppression tac
'.C . - ' 1:
ucs are notcompletely effectivein
scrap tire fires. It is difficult to reach all
Tactics and Strategy
the burning surfaces, and dle unique
shspe of tires allows the storage of
enough air to support combustion 1.1 ~rnajorobjectirewillbetosepa-
throughout the pile. Because of these rate the unburned Fuel (tires) from the
complications tire fires can burn for burning fuell let ha t which is burnins
weeks, and even months despite ag- burn as freely as possible while con-
gressive fire suppression tacrics. tinuing efforts to separate fuel from the
The environmental consequences fire. Ctilization of entrained air m y be
of all suppression techniques Should helpful in ensuring a more complete
beevduatedcarefuUy.Communi~tions combustion procw, though it is un-
b e me n the intident commander and rested 3% present. Establishment of an
on-scene environmental speaalisrs is conuol poinr to stop fire
critical.
spread is an imponant suatep.
This chapter sill discuss the fol-
lowing fire suppression issues: 1.2 Theuse ofheavy equipmentsuch
1. Tactics and strategy. as front-end loaders: mck excavnton
2. Protectionof e~posures, indudig (CAT 225 long-reach boom) and
out-buildings, unburned tires and
mid-size buudozen are necessary in
fire fighting equipment.
gaining access and removing unburned
3. Reconnaissance of "hotspots" and
tires from the pile. Burning seaions of
fire spread during the i ndent .
rubber can be pulled off the pile, iso-
lated and effectively extinguished us-
33
inghandlinesseton fog pattern- orcan
be submerged in a large drop tank or
depression filled with water.
1.3 The intense heat created by tire
fires, and the bum characteristics of
rubber niU l we n the effectiveness of
dienwarer application asa cooling or
suppression tactic However, once the
decision is made to mount a conven-
tional n-ater-attack on the fire, variable
gallonage - constant pressure fog
nozzles are more effective than solid
stream.
1.4 Solidsueamstend tospray offche
tires without reduang the surface tem-
peratures: and cause inaeased run-off
while depleting water supplies more
quickly. Theuse ofair ranker sforwater
andremrdantdrops havenotproven to
be of any significant value.
1.5 The benefits of master sueams
and ladder pipes should be weighed
against the potential for "pushing the
fire" and the heavy taxation of water
supplies. Ideally, the unburned fuel
should be separated from the pile be-
fore, or as soon as, large lines are ap-
plied direcdy to the burning surface.
The fire should be attadied from the
windward side.
1.6 Theuse ofwetringagentsor foam
additives is conuoversial, bur generally
considered to be of little immediate
value for fighring &e fires. The costs
involved suggest the use of such addi-
tives may be efficientonly for exposure
conuol.
1.7 In many cases the only effective
means ofmanaging majortire firesisby
smothering the burning portions with
dinorfdlmatmal.However, evenwhen
com~letelv covered. it is estimated tire
fires can continue to smoulder deep in
thebase ofthepileforweeks,requin'ng
continued observation and environ-
mental monitoring.
1.8 It may be necessary to aeate fire
breaks and alternative access points
into the storage area and rhrough the
pile. Fire br e~ks should be cleared to a
width of at l es t 60 feet, and if high
wind is a factor lane widths should be
increased nccordingly.
1.9 Fire fighters operating atop the
pile should be provided stable plat-
forms on which to stand, since the piles
tend tobeunstable.Wooden pallers are
light-weight. eu). to obnin and work
well for this purpose. It may also be
feasible to mountmonitor lines toheavy
pallets.
Protection of Exposures
2.1 Buildings, equipment and other
exposures should be protected with
direct application of water, possibly
mixed with foam or other water addi-
tives. Fo$ panems use less water, re-
sulting in less run-off and reducing
potential soil contamination.
2.2 Equipmentoperating in the pros-
imity of the fire or in avenues of fire
spread should be protected nirh hose
lines. Appropriatesizewreckersshould
alsobenear-by to quidtly remorestuck
appararus or heavy machinery.
Reconnaissance of "Hot
Spots" and Fire Spread
3.1' Since size-up will continue
rhroughout the incident, accurate in-
formation g a t h e ~g i s essential. Owing
to the size ofsome tire piles, the ability
offire fighters to gauge the amount and
locationoffiieusingconventiondmeth-
ods is severely limited.
3.2 It may be very difficult for the
incident commander to gauge the fire's
location, rate of spread and estension
within the pile. The most effective way
of tracking "hot spors' is aerial recon-
naissmce and photognphy,usingboth
regular and infra-red (IR) film. IR film
will show hot spors below the surface
ofthe pileandbelow the corerofdin or
fill mterial. Aerial photos also make
exellent maps for suppression and
conuol sectors.
3.3 Fire depanment reconnaissance
effow should also include monitoring
ofenvironmental exposures, including
pollurion ofwaterandsoi! nearthesite.
Weather conditions and forecasts
should~lsobemonitoredbycommand
to anticipate problems associated with
wind, extreme temperacures and rain.
Ire deparunenrs are playing an in cials'recommendationsintheformula-
F ' creasingly greater role in the pro- tion of operauond plans.
tection oftheenvironmenthoughhaz- This chapterwill highlight d~e'fol-
ardous materials emergency response lowing issues environmental concerns
andcon~oloperations.Scraptirepi1es~ that the incident commander should
both before and after a fire, generally consider in deciding on courses of ac-
have notbeen categorized asa hazard- tion or in implementins operational
ous material. though they do present a plans:
h e a t to the environment- particularly 1. What happens when a tire bums
when being pyrolitically decomposed 2. Tire composition and decomposi-
&rough fire. tion products
It is important to involve envuon-
3.
Scrap tire pile bum ch~racteristics
mental protection officials in all phases 4. Environmental priorities of the fire
of b e department operations - plan- depanment
ning and emergency operations - so
that their expert advice can be consid-
ered by f ue ~ound commanders as de-
cisions aremadeon themanagement of
the incident. It is imporunt to remem-
ber that the residual producrs from the
fire become the concern, and often
become the responsibility of scare and
federal environmencalproteaion agen-
cies. Iris therefore appropriate to seek
out and carefully consider hose offi-
36
What Happens When a Tire Composition and
Tire Burns Decomposition Products
1.1 Scrap tiresarenotsubjenrospon- 2.1 Tires composiuonvarieswith the
taneous combustion. Under high tem- typeandnunufac~rerbuttypicaUy con-
peramre and controlled conhitions
foundin certain indusuial furnacesand
boilers (cement kilns, paper and pulp
miiis and coal-fired utilities) complere
combustion of scrap tires produceuse-
ful energy, oxidesof carbon,sulfurand
niuogen, nrater,andinertresidues. Con-
versely: uncontrolled burning of tire,
such as in 'open field scrap tire pile
fires produces incomplete.combustion
products and the release of dense
smoke, a wide range of pyrolytic hy-
drocarbons and ash residues rhar can
pose environmental and human healrh
concerns.
1.2 Analyses of emissions, oil ~ n o f f
and ash from scrap tire pile fires have
been reported for a number of scrap
tire pile firesites. Reports ofsomescrap
tire fire episodes may be obtained from
the Scrap Tire Management Coundl
and U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. as well as other sources.
1.3 Generally, the cost of recovery
after a scrap tire pile fire episode is
extremely high and argues favorably
for fire prevention measures and ap-
propriarescrap cirestoragestandards to
minimize the risk to fire fighters and
adverse human healthandenvimnmen-
tal effects.
t ~i ~na mnl a nds ynt he t i c ~bbe ~~o1y-
mers, oil, fillers, sulfur and sulfur com-
pounds, phenolic resin, day, aromatic,
naphrhenic and paraifinic oil, fabric,
petroleumwaues, pigmentssuchas zinc
oxide and titanium dioxide, carbon
bladi, fatty adds, inerr materials and
fiber made from steel, nylon, polyester
or rayon.
2.2 A wide variety of decomposition
produccs are generated durincg scrap
tire fires. Many of the decomposition
products have been characterized in
testburns andindude ash(ufoon, zinc
oxide, titanium dioxide, silicon diox-
ides, etc.), sulfur compounds (carbon
disulfide,sulfur dioxide, hydrogensul-
fide), pol~nuclear aromatic hydrocar-
bonsusuallydetectedin oil runoff(such
as benzo(a)ppene, chrysene,
.benzo(a)anthracene, etc), aromxic:
naphthenic and parafiinic oils, oxides
of carbon and nitrogen: parricul3tes
andvarious aromatic hydrocarbons in-
duding toluene, .ylene_ benzene. etc.
These decomposition products 3re ex-
tensive and varied depending on 3 va-
riety of factors such as Lire w e , burn
rate, pilesize, ambienttempenrureand
humidity, among orhen.
Scrap Tire Pile
Burn Characteristics
3.1
Saap riie pile bum characteris-
tics has been smdied and can be di-
vided into stages such as ignition and
propagarion, compression, equilibrium
and pyrolysis.
3.2 Ignition and Propagat i on
Stage: Scrap tire piles require an
accelerant to aeat e enough sustained
heat in order to emitflammzble vapors.
According to the laws of combustion
for solids, solids must pass through a
liquid to gas phase prior to open flame
occurrence. Scrap tires do not readily
show this liquid to gas phasing during
their decomposition. In the open air:
scrap tires decompose and f om flam-
mable vapors at temperanires around
538' C.
3.3
Once a s aap tire pile has gzined
an open flame front and elevated tem-
peratures are applied to a fairly large
area with constant radiant heat flow,
tires not acmally in the open flame
snge decomposeat a fairly rapid race at
temperanires as low as 210' C. Thus,
those tires direcdy in the path of the
radiant heat flow decompose at3 fmer
rate than those upwind of the open
flame.
3.4 Once ignited, a tire pile initially
propagates at abouttwosquare feetper
minute to a deprh of about two cubic
feet every five minutes, all in the wind-
nard direction. Duringrhisinicid phase,
the fire has litde forward pressure and
no downward pressure as most of the
heatis being absorbed by thesurround-
ing tires. In large piles the propagation
effect is accelerated after the fist ten
minutes toapproximatelyone-halftime.
3.5 Compression Pl ~ me : After the
first several minutes of the fire, the top
layers of tires collapse into suips (some
ofrhe tires areshreddingand a few lose
their round shape and begin to flatten
out). This is the beginning of the tire
pile compression effecr During his
phase and spread of the fire, the heat
andsmokeeffectinaeasedclmaticaliy.
Open flaming and forward pre-re is
produced (the tires are converting into
flammable gas at a much higher rate
resulting in increasing radiant heat
flow). As the tire pile fire grows in
intensity, it generates higher tempera-
tures and roiuminous amounts of
smoke. Smokefromthe unburnedprod-
ucts of combustion is the greatest dur-
ins rhis phase.
3.6 A greater potential for hrmful
organic emissions exist at lower bum
rates. Although it is difficult to isolate
consistent trends in the types and
amounts of speci k volatile organic
compounds fomedduring combustion
of s a a p tires under varied burn rates,
rhe potentially h d u l products of in-
complete combustion emitted into the
atmosphere are mainly polyaromatic
hydrocarbons. In general, as the burn
rate increases, the amount of CO, SO.
and unburned hydrocarbons also in-
creases. As the bum rate decreases, the
amount of organics potentially emitted
tends to increase with respect to the
amount of tire material combusted.
3.7 The US. Enviro~lentLd Protec-
tion Agency examined emissions from
simulated open burning of scrap tires.
During high bum rates, more than 50
potentially harmFul organiccompounds
a n beidentifiedinrestburn emissions.
Mostofthecompoundsarealiphatica~ly,
olefinically oracerylenicallysubstintted
aromatics. Cyclic and chained alkanes,
alkenes, dienes as well as sulfonated,
niuogenated compounds, rhiophene,
substituted thiophenes, isocyano-
benzene and benzodiazine are also
identified.
3.8 Resulrs of the EPA study show
reasonableagreementwithcompounds
wereideniifiedinacntalplumesamples.
In general, elevated levels of CO, par-
ticulates, carbon, zinc, benzene, tolu-
ene, xylene and polyaromatic hydro-
carbons are measured. Polynucleararo-
matic hydrocarbons may include naph-
thalene, benzo(a)pyreae, pyrene,
crysene, fluorene, anthracene and
phenanthrene. Merals in plumes con-
sist primarily of lead, iron and zinc.
3.9 In very hrge tire piles, the initial
compressionstageis the timewhen the
surrounding air cannot quickly absorb
the heatflowfromthefire.Atihis point
there is very little domvar d pressure.
The tire fire is basically an open breath-
ing fire nith uneven and incomplete
combustion. The heat outpur in BlXs
per square foot is relatively ION be-
cause the fire is not very deep seated
(most ofthe tiresare stiU in a doughnut
shape). The actual temperature is near
the ignition temperantre and heat out-
putisapproximately 60 Bus persquare
foot per minute.
3.10 In large high-piled tires it is im-
portant to be aware that within thirty
minutes to one hour these piles will
s un to collapse in on themselves. In
low piles, the tendency is to conven
muchofthefuelwirhinthefirsthour,so
the sequence, fire effect and rempera-
ntre are different in large collapsing
tire piles the sintation changes over
time.
3.11 Sever31 hoursafter the firestansa
visible collapse ofthe pilebegins. Com-
pression causes the open fame to slow
as the internal portion of the fire re-
ceives less air. The pile continues to
collapse building downward pressure
and continuing to form a semi-solid
mass of rubber, cord and steel. At the
same time: an equilibrium is srming to
occur.
3.12 Eq~rilibn.um and Pyrol ysi s
Stage The fire takes on an appearance
oflow open flame, deep seatedintemal
fire nith a top coating of ash. The f i e
has taken on 3 chemical equilibrium or
it has reacheda level offuel conversion
approximately equal to the amount of
fuel: heat and oxygen available. The
temperature internally increase up to
11W C and eventually will read1 i GO
BNS per square foot per minute.
3.13 Initiallythepilehasabout60Brus
per square foot, even on high piles,
however, even though the pile has col-
lapsed inward and decreased in depth
the overall heat that must be removed
for extinguishment is now greater.
Based on 460 Btus per square foot per cyanide and polynuclear aron~atic hy-
minute, the rate of heat removal re- drocarbons.Surfacewaterandground-
quired has not increased to 5520 per waternearthetire firesitemaybecome
cubic foot of deep seated fire. Ti e fires contaminated with benzene, toluene
in this stage consume their fuel much and xylene as well as zinc, phenol,
more slowly and completely. ammonia and other compounds.
3.15 The downward pr wur e pushes
oil out of the fire and possibly into the
ground, waterandotherareas depend-
ing on the location of the fire. Large
amouncs of pyrolytic oil can be pro-
duced during a scrap tire pile fire de-
pending on the bum channeristics and
amountofwesin thepile. Theextentof
environmental damage will vary and
depends upon many environmental
such as soil characteristics and type.
permeability, levelofwatercolumn etc.
The reader is encouraged to consult the
US. Environmental Protection Agency
for detailed information on steps that
can be taken to minimize the adverse
effecrs to the environment.
stituenrs found in the oil, steps should
bet akent oco~eaoi l ~noff andhanded
as a hazardous waste oil. Analysis of oil
samples collected from the suap tire
pile fire sites vary but typically reveal
the presence of heavy metals (arsenic:
cadmium. chromium, lead) and poly-
nudear aromatichydrowbons (naph-
thalene. acenaphthylene, fluorene,
phenanthrene, anthracene, fluro-
anthene, pyrene, c,hrsene, benzo(a)-
pyrene, benzo (a)anthracene).
3.18 TueresidueconrainpmiaUy com-
busredtires, ash,steelandthousands of
individual chemial compounds. h
analysis of residues from some tire fire
siteshasre~~ealedthepresenceofhm~-)-
metalsandorganicsindudingbenzene,
styrene, toluene, xylene, and pol p
aromatic hydrocarbons. The residue
should be evaluated to determine ap-
propriate disposal procedures. Of the
environmental considerations should
betheleachingofchemical compounds
that can-potentially contaminate soil.
and ground nater.
3.19 As the fire burns icself out. the
high pilesshow an marked decrease in
fire propagation at the edges nith de-
creasing temperatures while internally
the temperatures remain very high. If
the fireis opened it become hzzardous
with high emission rate of fire gasses
which flash up at high speed when
involved with increase oxygen.
3.17 Conmninatemn-offwaterdue to
the fire fighting and rain should be
contained and treated. Water mnoff
s mpl e analysis shows heavy metals,
The Enviwnmental Role of
the Fire Department
4.1 Early notificationofenvironmen-
tal protection agencies at theloca1,state
and federal levels is critical. Risk com-
munication and threat assessments
should be coordinated between
fireground commanders and environ-
mentalspeciaiisrs. Theinput from these
officials should be sought in develop-
ing strategic and tactical alternatives
and determining operational plans.
4.2 Environmental contamination
must be monitored for groundwater,
surface water, soil and air conumina-
tion or poliution. The results of this
monitoring data should aid command-
ers in making decisions on evacuation.
diking and possible neutralization of
contaminants. Generally, environmen-
tal agency personnel have the capabil-
ity or a n acquire the capability to ini-
tiate such monitoring or sampling and
interpret the data from suchprocesses.
4.3 Changingdimaticconditionswill
significandy affect environmenLa1 con-
siderations. Iris therefore important to
monitor ambient conditions on and
around the incident site.
4.4 Containment and diking of run-
off may be importanr There are a vari-
ety of containmentsystems that can be
deployed with speed at the scene. In
oneinddentthefue deppanmemstacked
columns of tires alongside each other,
covered with tarps and soil to form a
dike. Hydrocarbons (oil) can be
skimmed off runoff and the residual
water recycled for use on the incident
4.5 There will be great concern over
the polluting of the air primarily due to
the highly visible, thick, black smoke
plume from the fire. Thisis ashorr term
problem. Thelonger term problems are
in groundwater, surface water and soil
Contamination.
4.6 Some state: and most federal en-
vironmental protection ageno; repre-
sentatives have pre-authorized spend-
ing authorityto mitigate environrnentnl
damage (for example, ESEPA h s a
method to reimburselocalgovemmenis
that respond to tire fire incidenrs,up to
S25,OM) for each incident).
4.7 State and federal EPA offices have
environmental waste recover). and re-
moval firms onreuiners which they are
authorized to summon to assist at inci-
dents of his type. They can signifi-
cantly reduce the costs to local govem-
ments through cost avoidance and the
early deployment of specidired re-
sources.
M
ode1 incident management sys- This chapter will address the iol-
terns call for the designation of a lowing considerations in managing in-
publicinformationofficer (PI0)orinci- cident informxion dissemination:
dent informtion officer (IIO) whose 1. Developing an information disui-
duties and responsibilities are well de- bution system
fined. These designatedofficers formu- 2. Responding to the needs of repon-
late and release information about the ers and press.
incident to the news media and other
appropriateagenciesandorganiutions.
AS a member ofthe command snff. the
PI0 or 110 closely coordinates the re-
lease of information with the incidenr
commander.
The size, high-visibility and wide-
spread efiecr major scrap tire fires have
on local communities often rums them
into significant media events with n3-
tional coverage. The proper manage-
ment of the media is importmr both in
building a positive image for the fire
department and its opentions at the
incident and minimizing the impacr on
operaring forces of reporters on the
scene.
1:
Such "hot lines' will gready relieve the
communications center personnel of
Developing an information
rhe added burden presented by thou-
Distribution System
sands of calls for information. These
numbers should be well publicized.
1.1 . A PI0 or I10 should be desig-
nated in the earliest stages of che incil
dent. Prwsragingareasshould be des-
ignated and communicated to commu-
nications centerperso~e1,lawenforce-
ment agencies and subordinate com-
manders so media personnel can be
diverted or escorted to that specific
a m.
1.2 Adequate support staff for the in-
formation officersshouldbemainrained
as the incident gronrs. 'Hot lines" or
sep3rare tdephone lines should be es-
tablished early in the incident for both
themedia andmembers ofthe public to
call for information about the incident,
to clarify eracuation insuuctions. etc.
1.3 Information should be prepared
in advance of the intident and be ap-
propriatelyreleased as theincident un-
folds. Whenrhese incidencsevrendinto
da)-;orweeks.arotationplanwi1lneed
to be established for information offic-
ers to ensure continuity in the manage-
ment of the media. It will be necessar).
to disuibure information on the StaNS
of regulatoy. code enforcement and
ha md abatement activities by local or
state governments, as media interest
nil1 quickly focus on that aspect. Inter-
viewswith local publicoffiuals should
be coordinated by the information of-
ficer: and special briefings should be
given to the local official by the infor-
mation officer prior to the interview.
Responding t o Reporters
and the Press
2.1 Formal aedentialing and identi-
fication ar the local level may be of
assistance in limiting the numbers of
media personnel who will be given
escorted access ro the scene.
2.2 ThePIOshould be awareof pub-
lication and production deadlines of
the media providing coverage and ar-
range briefings ro accommodate their
needs as much as possible. Media per-
sonnel may also require access to rele-
phones and information on local ac-
commodations whilecovering theinci-
dent.
2.3 \Trinen press releases should be
prepared and distributed. Briefings
should be given at regular publicized
intervals to reduce the barrage of re-
quests for interviews and information.
ThePIO should be mrhful and honest
in all releases andstatements IfthePIO
does not have an answer, thar should
be stated and an answer obtained as
soon aspossible.ThePIOshou1davoid
saying "no comment."
2.4 Photo and video oppormnities
should be provided regularly formem-
bers of the media. All uips inro and our
of theinadenr operational area should
be fully escorred by the information
officer and law enforcement.
2.5 The PI0 should respond ro and
dispel rumor and innuendo; the fire
departmenr should follow up taped or
live inrerviewwith a wrirrensratement
of the actual facts of the simatiqn. All
fire department command personnel
shouldmaintain a positive, professions1
demeanor, especially in the presence
of the press.
Standard For Storage Of Rubber Tires, NFPA 23 ID, National Fire Protection
Association, 1989.
Scrao Tires ... Understanding the Challenge, the Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company,
Corporate Environmental, Safety and Health Division, 1990.
Fire Command, Alan V. Brunacini, National Fire Protection Association, 1985.
Incident Management Svstem, first draft and "model", Fire Service Incident Management
System Consortium, Volunteer Fiemen's Insurance Services, Inc. 1991.
"Fiefighter Passport Accountability System," published manuscript for the Phoenix Fire
Department ICS Seminar, 1991 by Seattle, WA Fire Department.
Fire Protection Handbook, 17th Edition, National Fire Protection Association, 1991.
Field Ooerations Guide CICS-420-11 Incident Command System Publication, Fire
Protection Publications, Oklahoma State University, 1983.
"Characterization of Emissions From the Simulated Open Burning of Scrap Tires," J e 5 y
V. Ryan, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Technical Information Service,
1990.
Ontario Fire Code. 0-Ree: 281190. Regulations made under the Fire Marshals Act
NIOSH. Rhhehart Tire Fire, Winchester, Virginia. Health Hazard Evaluation Report.
HETA 84-044-1441, March 1984.
Roy F. Weston, Inc. Ti e Fi e Investigation, Everett, Washington. TAT Activities Report.
TDD 10-8410-07. October 1984.
USEPA "Characterization of Emissions from the Simulated Open Burning of Scrap
Tires." EPN600IS2-891054. January 1990.
Socha, AC. "Background Information on Benzene, PAHs, Dioxins and Furans and
Review of the Potential Health Risks Associated with the "Tyre King" Fire." Ontario
Ministry of the Environment. March 1990.
The Goodyear Ti e & Rubber Company. "Scrap Tires ... Understanding the Challenge."
Corporate Environmental, Safety and Health Division. Akron, OH. 1990.
Environmental Sciences International, Inc. "The Science of Tire Fires Prevention and
Recovely Measures." Section 1. The Science of Tire Fires. Technical Bulletin Number
Seven. Glouchester, MA.
For more information, contact the IAFC or the STMC:
International Association
of Fire Chiefs
Management Information Center
4025 Fair Ridge Drive
Fairfax. Virginia 220332868
(703) 273-091 1 ext. 332
FAX (703) 273-9363
The Scrap Tire
Management Council
1400 K Street, N.W.
Suite 900
Washington, DC 20005
(202) 408-7781
FAX (202) 682-4854
For more information, contact the IAFC or the STMC:
International Association
of Fire Chiefs
Management information Center
4025 Fair Ridge Drive
Fairfax. Virginia 220332868
(703) 273-091 1 ext. 332
FAX (703) 273-9363
The Scrap Tire
Management Council
1400 K Street, N.W.
Suite 900
Washington. DC 20005
(202) 408-7781
FAX (202) 682-4854