Vietnam OpenCourseWare Module: m11119

Vietnam OpenCourseWare module: m11119 1
APPLICATIONS AND DESIGN

OF INTEGRATED CIRCUITS Version 1.1: Mar 10, 2008 5:30 pm GMT-5
Dinh Sy Hien
This work is produced by The Vietnam OpenCourseWare Project using Connexions software tools
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Tâm tt nëi dung

As an example of the application of op-amps in area of active filters, we will discuss
the Butterwort filter. The discussion is only an introduction to the subject of the filter
theory design. We will also discuss various types of oscillators, Schmitt trigger circuits,
and nonsinusoidal oscillators.
APPLICATIONS AND DESIGN OF INTEGRATED CIR-

CUITS
1 ACTIVE FILTERS
An important application of op-amp is the active filter. The word filter refers to the
process of removing undesired portion of the frequency spectrum. The word active implies
the use of one or more active devices, usually an operational amplifier, in the filter circuit.
As an example of the application of op-amps in area of active filters, we will discuss the
Butterworth filter. The discussion is only an introduction to the subject of the filter theory
design.
Two advantages of active filters over passive filters are:
1. The maximum gain or the maximum value of the transfer function may be greater
than unity.
2. The loading effect is minimum, which means that the output response or the filter is
essentially independent of the load driven by the filter.
1.1 Active Network Design
From our discussion of frequency response, we know that RC-networks form filters. Figure 1a
is a simple example of a coupling capacitor circuit. The voltage transfer function for this
circuit is
V0 (s) R sRC
T (s) = = = (1)
Vi (s) 1
R + sC 1 + sRC
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Figure 1: a) Simple high-pass filter and b) Bode plot of transfer function amplitude
Figure 2: a) Simple low pass filter and b) Bode plot of transfer function
The Bode plot of the voltage gain magnitude /T (jω) / is shown in Figure 1a. The circuit
is called a high-pass filter.
Figure 2(a) is another example of a simple RC network. Here, the voltage transfer func-
tion is
1
V0 (s) 1
T (s) = = 1 sC = (2)
Vi (s) sC
+ R 1 + sRC
The Bode plot of the voltage gain magnitude /T (jω) / for this circuit is shown in Fig-
ure 2(b). This circuit is called a low-pass filter.
Although these circuits both perform a basic filtering function, they may suffer from
loading effects, substantially reducing the magnitude gain from the unity value shown in
Figure 1(b) and Figure 2(b). Also, the cutoff frequency fL and fH may change when a
load is connected to the output. The loading effect can essentially be eliminated by using a
voltage follower as shown in Figure 3. In addition, a non-inverting amplifier configuration
can be incorporated to increase the gain, as well as eliminate the loading effects.
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Figure 3: a) High-pass filter with voltage follower and b) low pass filter with voltage
follower.
Figure 4: Ideal frequency characteristics: a) band pass filter and b) band reject filter.
These two filter circuits are called one-pole filters; the slope of the voltage gain magnitude
curve outside the passband is 6 dB/octave or 20 dB/decade. This characteristic is called the
rolloff. The rolloff becomes sharper or steeper with higher-order filters and is usually one of
the specifications given for active filters.
Two other categories of filters are bandpass and band-reject. The desired ideal frequency
characteristics are shown in Figure 4
1.2 General Two-Pole Active Filter
Consider Figure 5 with admittances Y1 through Y4 and an ideal voltage follower. We will
derive the transfer function for the general network and will then apply specific admittances
to obtain particular filter characteristics.
A KCL equation at node Va yields
(Vi − Va ) Y1 = (Va − Vb ) Y2 + (Va − V0 ) Y3 (3)
A KCL equation at node Vb produces
(Va − Vb ) Y2 = Vb Y4 (4)
Figure 5: General two pole active filter.
From the voltage follower characteristics, we have Vb = V0 . Therefore, Equation 4 be-

comes
Y2 + Y4 Y2 + Y4
Va = Vb = V0 (5)
Y2 Y2
Substituting Equation 5 into Equation 3 and again noting that Vb = V0 , we have

Y2 + Y4
Vi Y1 + V0 (Y2 + Y3 ) = Va (Y1 + Y2 + Y3 ) = V0 (Y1 + Y2 + Y3 ) (6)
Y2
Multiplying Equation 6 and rearranging terms, we get the following expression for the
transfer function:
V0 (s) Y1 Y2
T (s) = = (7)
Vi (s) Y1 Y2 + Y4 (Y1 + Y2 + Y3 )
To obtain a low-pass filter, both Y1 and Y2 must be conductances, allowing the signal
to pass into the voltage follower at low frequencies. If element Y4 is a capacitor, then the
output rolloff at high frequencies.
To produce a two-pole function, element Y3 must also be a capacitor. On the other
hand, if elements Y1 and Y2 are capacitors, then the signal will be blocked at low frequencies
but will be passed into the voltage follower at high frequencies resulting in a high-pass
filter. Therefore, admittances Y3 and Y4 must both be conductances to produce a two-pole
high-pass transfer function.
1.3 Two-Pole Low-Pass Butterworth Filter
To form a low-pass filter, we set Y1 = G1 = 1/R1 , Y2 = G2 = 1/R2 , Y3 = sC3 and Y4 = sC4 ,

as shown in Figure 6. The transfer function, from Equation 7, becomes
V0 (s) G1 G2
T (s) = = (8)
Vi (s) G1 G2 + sC4 (G1 + G2 + sC3 )
At zero frequency, s = j ω = 0 and the transfer function is
G1 G2
T (s = 0) = =1 (9)
G1 G2
Figure 6: General two pass filter.
In the high frequency limit, s = jω → ∞ and the transfer function approaches zero. This
circuit therefore acts as a low-pass filter.
A butterworth filter is a maximally flat magnitude filter. The transfer function is designed
such that the magnitude of the transfer function is as flat as possible within the passband
of the filter. This objective is achieved by taking the derivatives of the transfer function
with respect to frequency and setting as many as possible equal to zero at the center of the
passband, which is at zero frequency for the low-pass filter.
Let G1 = G2 = G = 1/R. the transfer function is then
1
1
T (s) = R2 = (10)
1
R2 + sC4 2
R + sC3 1 + sRC4 (2 + sRC3 )
We define time constant as τ3 = RC3 and τ4 = RC4 . If we then set s = j ω , we obtain

1 1
T (jω) = = (11)
1 + jωτ 4 (2 + jωτ 3 ) (1 − ω 2 τ3 τ4 ) + j (2ωτ 4 )
The magnitude of the transfer function is therefore

h 2 i−1/2
/T (jω) / = 1 − ω 2 τ3 τ4 (12)
For the maximally flat filter (that is, a filter with a minimum rate of change), which
defines a Butterworth filter, we set
d/T /
/ω=0 = 0 (13)
dω
Taking the derivative, we find
d/T / 1h 2 i−3/2
2
1 − ω 2 τ3 τ4 + (2ωτ 4 ) −4ωτ 3 τ4 1 − ω 2 τ3 τ4 + 8ωτ 24 (14)

=
dω 2
Setting the derivative equal to zero at ω = 0 yields
d/T /
/ω=0 = −4ωτ 3 τ4 1 − ω 2 τ3 τ4 + 8ωτ 24 = 4ωτ 4 −τ3 1 − ω 2 τ 3 τ4 + 2τ 4 (15)

dω
Equation 15 is satisfied when 2τ 4 = τ3 , or

C3 = 2C 4 (16)
Based on this condition, the transfer function magnitude is, from Equation 12,
1/2
1
/T / = h i (17)
4
1 + 4 (ωτ 4 )
√
The 3 dB, or cutoff, frequency occurs when /T / = 1/ 2, or when 4 (ω3dB τ4 ) = 1. We
then find that
1 1
ω 3dB = 2πf 3dB = √ = √ (18)
τ4 2 2RC4
In general, we can write the cutoff frequency in the form
1
ω 3dB = (19)
RC
Finally, comparing Equation 19, Equation 18 and Equation 16 yields
C4 = 0.707C (20)
and
C3 = 1.414C (21)
The two-pole low-pass Butterworth filter is shown in Figure 7(a). The Bode plot of the
transfer function magnitude is shown in Figure 7(b). From Equation 17, the magnitude of
the voltage transfer function for the two pole low-pass Butterworth filter, can be written as
1
/T / = r (22)
4
1 + f3fdB
Equation 15 shows that the derivative of the voltage transfer function magnitude at
ω = 0 is zero even without setting 2τ 4 = τ3 . However, the added condition of 2τ 4 = τ3
produces the maximally flat transfer characteristics of the Butterworth filter.
1.4 Two-Pole High-Pass Butterworth Filter
To perform a high-pass filter, the resistors and capacitors are interchanging from those in
the low-pass filter. A two-pole high-pass Butterworth filter is shown in Figure 8(a). The
analysis proceeds exactly the same as in the last section, except that the derivative is set
equal to zero at s = jω = ∞. Also, the capacitors are set equal to each other. The 3dB or
cutoff frequency can be written in the general form
1
ω3dB = 2πf 3dB = (23)
RC
We find that R3 = 0.707R and R4 = 1.414R. The magnitude of the voltage transfer
function for the two-pole high-pass Butterworth is
1
/T / = r (24)
4
f3dB

1+ f
The Bode plot of the transfer function magnitude for the two-pole high-pass Butterworth
filter is shown in Figure 8(b).
Figure 7: a) Two-pole low-pass Butterworth filter and b)Bote plot transfer function
magnitude.
Figure 8: a) Two-pole high-pass Butterworth filter and b) Bode plot transfer function
magnitude.
1.5 High-Order Butterworth Filters
The filter order is the number of poles and is usually dictated by the application require-
ments. An N-pole active low-pass filter has a high-frequency rolloff rate of Nx6 dB/octave.
Similarly, the response of an N-pole high-pass filter increases at a rate of Nx6 dB/octave,
up to the cutoff frequency. In each case, the 3 dB frequency is defined as
1
f3dB = (25)
2π RC
The magnitude of the voltage transfer function for a Butterworth Nth-order low-pass
filter is
1
/T / = r (26)
2N
f
1 + f3dB
For a Butterworth Nth-order high-pass filter, the voltage transfer function magnitude is
1
/T / = r (27)
2N
f3dB

1+ f
Figure 9(a) shows a three-pole low-pass Butterworth filter. The three resistors are equal,
and the relationship between the capacitors is found by taking the first and second deriva-
tives of the voltage gain magnitude with respect to frequency and setting those derivatives
equal to zero at s = jω = 0. Figure 9(b) shows a three-pole high-pass Butterworth filter. In
this case, the three capacitors are equal and the relationship between the resistors is also
found through the derivatives.
Higher-order filters can be created by adding additional RC networks. However, the
loading effect on each additional RC circuit becomes more severe. The usefulness of active
filters is realized when two or more op-amp filter circuits are cascaded to produce one large
higher-order active filter. Because of the low output impedance of the op-amp, there is
virtually no loading effect between cascaded stages.
Figure 10(a) shows a four-pole low-pass Butterworth filter. The maximally flat response
of this filter is not obtained by simply cascading two two-pole filters. The relationship
between the capacitors is found through the first three derivatives of the transfer function.
The four-pole high-pass Butterworth filter is shown in Figure 10(b).
Higher-order filters can be designed but are not considered here. Bandpass and band-
reject filters use similar circuit configurations.
2 OSCILLATORS
In this section, we will look at the basic principles of sine-wave oscillators. In our study of
feedback, we emphasized the need for negative feedback to provide a stable circuit. Oscil-
lators, however, use positive feedback and, as such, are actually nonlinear circuits in some
cases. The analysis and design of oscillator circuits are divided into two parts. In this first
part, the condition and frequency for oscillation are determined; in the second part, means
for amplitude control is addressed. We consider only the first step in this section to gain
insight into the basic operation of oscillators.
2.1 Basic Principle of Oscillation
The basic oscillator consists of an amplifier and a frequency-selective network connected in

a feedback loop. Figure 11 shows a block diagram the fundamental feedback circuit, in which
Figure 9: a) Three-pole low-pass Butterworth fielter and b)Three-pole high-pass But-

terworth fielter.
Figure 10: Four-pole low pass Butterworth filter and b)four-pole high-pass Butterworth
filter.
Figure 11: Block diagram of the fundamental feedback circuit.
we are implicitly assuming that negative feedback is employed. Although actual oscillator
circuits do not have an input signal, we initially include one here to help in the analysis. In
previous feedback circuits, we assumed the feedback transfer function β was independent of
frequency. In oscillator circuits, however, β is the principal portion of the loop gain that is
dependent on frequency.
For the circuit shown, the ideal closed-loop transfer function is given by
A (s)
Af (s) = (28)
1 + A (s) β (s)
And the loop gain of the feedback circuit is
T (s) = A (s) β (s) (29)
We know that the loop gain T(s) is positive for negative feedback, which means that the
feedback signal vfb subtracts from the input signal vs . If T(s) = - 1, the closed-loop transfer
function goes to infinity, which means that the circuit can have a finite output for a zero
input signal.
Figure 12: Phase-shift oscillator circuit with voltage follower buffer stages.
As T(s) approaches -1, an actual circuit becomes nonlinear, which means that the gain
does not go to infinity. Assume that T(s) = -1 so that positive feedback exists over a
particular frequency range. If a spontaneous signal (due to noise) is created at vs , and the
error signal vs is reinforced and increased. This reinforcement process continues at only those
frequencies for which the total phase shift around the feedback loop is zero. Therefore, the
condition for oscillation is that, at a specific frequency, we have
T (jω 0 ) = A (jω 0 ) β (jω 0 ) = −1 (30)
The condition that T (jω 0 ) = −1 is called the Barkhausen criterion.

Equation 30 shows that two conditions must be satisfied to sustain oscillation:
1. The total phase shift through the amplifier and feedback network must be Nx 3600 ,
where N = 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
2. The magnitude of the loop gain must be unity.
In the feedback circuit block diagram shown in Figure 11, we implicitly assume negative
feedback. For an oscillator, the feedback transfer function, or the frequency-selective net-
work, must introduce an additional 180 degree phase shift such that the net phase around
the entire loop is zero. For the circuit to oscillate at a single frequency ω0 , the condition for
oscillation, from Equation 30, should be satisfied at only that one frequency.
2.2 Phase-Shift Oscillator
An example of an op-amp oscillator is the phase-shift oscillator. One configuration of this

oscillator circuit is shown in Figure 12. The basic amplifier of the circuit is the op-amp A3 ,
which is connected as an inverting amplifier with its output connected to a three-stage RC
filter. The voltage followers in the circuit eliminate loading effects between each RC filter
stage.
The inverting amplifier introduces a 180 degree phase shift, which means that each
RC network must provide 60 degrees of phase shift to produce 180 degrees required of the
frequency-sensitive feedback network in order to produce positive feedback. Note that the
inverting terminal of op-amp A3 is at virtual ground; therefore, the RC network between
op-amps A2 and A3 functions exactly as the other two RC networks. We assume that the
frequency effects of the op-amps themselves occur at much higher frequencies than the
response due to the RC networks. Also, to aid in the analysis, we assume an input signal (
vi ) exists at one node as shown in the figure.
The transfer function of the first RC network is
sRC

v1 = (vi ) (31)
1 + sRC
Since the RC networks are assumed to be identical, and since there is no loading effect
of one RC stage on another, we have
3
sRC

v3
= = β (s) (32)
vi 1 + sRC
where β (s) is the feedback transfer function. The amplifier gain A(s) in Equation 28 and
Equation 29 is actually the magnitude of the gain, or
v0 R2
A (s) = / /= (33)
vi R
The loop gain is then
3
sRC

R2
T (s) = A (s) β (s) = (34)
R 1 + sRC
From Equation 31, the condition for oscillation is that /T (jω 0 ) / = 1 and the phase of
T (jω 0 ) must be 180 degrees. When these requirements are satisfied, then v0 will equal ( vi )
and a separate input signal will not be required.
If we set s = j, Equation 33 becomes
3 2
jω RC (jω RC) (ω RC)

R2 R2
T (jω) = =− (35)
R 1 + jω RC 1 − 3ω R2 C 2 + jω RC [3 − ω 2 R2 C 2 ]
2

R
To satisfy the condition T (jω 0 ) = −1, the imaginary component of Equation 32 must
equal zero. Since
the numerator is purely imaginary, the denominator must become purely
imaginary, or 1 − 3ω 2 R2 C 2 = 0 which yields
1
ω=√ (36)
3RC
where ω is the oscillation frequency. At this frequency, Equation 35 becomes
√
R2 j/ 3 (1/3) R2 1
T (jω) = − √ =− (37)
R 0 + j/ 3 [3 − (1/3)] R 8
Consequently, the condition T (jω) ==1 is satisfied when

R2
=8 (38)
R
Equation 38 implies that if the magnitude of the inverting amplifier gain is greater than
8, the circuit will spontaneous begin oscillating and will sustain oscillation.
Using Equation 31, we can determine the effect of each RC network in the phase-shift
oscillator. At the oscillation frequency ω0 , the transfer function of each RC network stage is
√
jω 0 RC j/ 3 j
= √ =√ (39)
1 + jω 0 RC 1 + j/ 3 3+j
Figure 13: Phase shift oscillator circuit.
which can be written in terms of the magnitude and phase, as follows:

1 1
× < 900 − 300 = × 600 (40)
2 2
or
1 1
× < 900 − 300 = × 600 (41)
2 2
as required each RC network introduces a 60 degree phase shift, but they each also
introduce an attenuation factor of (1/2) for which the amplifier must compensate.
The two voltage followers shown in the circuit in Figure 12 need not be included in a
practical phase shift oscillator. Figure 13 shows a phase shift oscillator without the voltage-
follower buffer stages. The three RC network stages and the inverting amplifier are still
included. The loading effect of each successive RC network complicates the analysis, but the
same principle of operation applies. The analysis shows that the oscillation frequency is
1
ω0 = √ (42)
6RC
and the amplifier resistor ratio must be

R2
= 29 (43)
R
in order to sustain oscillation.
2.3 Wien-Bridge Oscillator
Another basic oscillator is the Wien-bridge circuit, shown in Figure 14. The circuit consists
of an op-amp connected in a non-inverting configuration and two RC networks connected
as the frequency-selecting feedback circuit.
Again, we initially assume that an input signal exists at the non-inverting terminal
of the op-amp. Since the non-inverting amplifier introduces zero phase shift, the frequency-
selective feedback circuit must also introduce zero phase shift to create the positive feedback
condition.
The loop gain is the product of the amplifier gain and the feedback transfer function, or

R2 Zp
T (s) = 1 + (44)
R1 Zp + Zs
Figure 14: Wien-bridge oscillation.
where Zp and Zs are the parallel and series RC network impedances, respectively. These
impedances are
R
Zp = (45)
1 + sRC
and
1 + sRC
Zs = (46)
sRC
Combining Equation 45(a), Equation 46(b) and Equation 44, we get expression for the
loop gain function,
!
R2 1
T (s) = 1 + (47)
R1 3 + sRC + { 3+sRC+(1/
1
sRC)
}
Since this circuit has no explicit negative feedback, as was assumed in the general network
shown in Figure 11, the condition for oscillation is given by

R2 1
T (jω 0 ) = 1 = 1 + (48)
R1 3 + jω 0 RC + (1/jω 0 RC)
Since T (jω 0 ) must be real, the imaginary component of Equation 48 must be zero;
therefore,
1
jω 0 RC + =0 (49)
jω 0 RC
which gives the frequency of oscillation as
1
ω0 = (50)
RC
The magnitude condition is then

R2 1
1= 1+ (51)
R1 3
or
R2
=2 (52)
R1
Equation 52 (b) states that to ensure the startup of oscillation, we must have (R2/R1)
>2.
Figure 15: The ac equivalent circuit, MOSFET Colpitts oscillator.
Figure 16: Small-signal equivalent circuit, MOSFET Colpitts oscillator.
2.4 Additional Oscillator Configurations
Oscillators that use transistors and LC tuned circuits or crystals in their feedback networks
can be used in the hundreds of kHz to hundreds of MHz frequency range. Although these
oscillators do not typically contain an op-amp, we include a brief discussion of such circuits
for completeness. We will examine the Colpitts, Harley, and crystal oscillators.
Colpitts Oscillators
The ac equivalent circuit of the Colpitts oscillator with an FET is shown in Figure 15.
A circuit with BJT can be designed. A parallel LC resonant circuit is used to establish the
oscillator frequency, and feedback is provided by a voltage divider between capacitors C1 and
C2 . Resistor R in conjunction with the transistor provides the necessary gain at resonance.
We assume that the transistor frequency response occurs at a high enough frequency that
the oscillation frequency is determined by the external elements only.
Figure 16 shows the small-signal equivalent circuit of the Colpitts oscillator. The tran-
sistor output resistance r0 can be included in R. A KCL equation at the output node yields
V0 V0 V0
+ + gm Vgs + =0 (53)
sL + sC1 2

1 R
sC1
And a voltage divider produces

1
Vgs = sC2
V0 (54)
sC2
1
+ sL
Substituting Equation 54 into Equation 53, we find that

1
V0 gm + sC2 + 1 + s LC2
2
+ sC1 =0 (55)
R
If we assume that oscillation has started, then V0 6= 0 and can be eliminated from
Equation 55. We then have
s2 LC2

1
s3 LC1 C2 + + s (C1 + C2 ) + gm + =0 (56)
R R
Letting s = j ω , we obtain
ω 2 LC2

1
+ jω (C1 + C2 ) − ω 2 LC1 C2 = 0 (57)

gm + −
R R
The condition for oscillation implies that both the real and imaginary components of
Equation 57 must be zero. From the imaginary component, the oscillation frequency is
1
ω0 = r (58)
L CC11+C
C2
2
which is the resonant frequency of the LC circuit. From the real part of Equation 57,
the condition for oscillation is
ω02 LC2 1
= gm + (59)
R R
Combining Equation 58 and Equation 59 yields
C2
= gm R (60)
C1
where gm R is the magnitude of the gain. Equation 61 states that to initiate oscillations
spontaneously, we must have gm R >(C2/C1).
Harley Oscillator
Figure 17 shows the ac equivalent circuit of the Harley oscillator with a BJT. An FET
can also be used. Again, a parallel LC resonant circuit establishes the oscillation frequency,
and feedback is provided by a voltage divider between inductors L1 and L2 .
The analysis of the Harley oscillator is essentially identical to that of the Colpitts oscil-
lator. The frequency of oscillation, neglecting transistor frequency effects, is
1
ω0 = p (61)
(L1 + L2 ) C
Crystal Oscillator
A piezoelectric crystal, such as quartz, exhibits electromechanical resonance characteris-
tics in response to a voltage applied across the crystal. The oscillations are very stable over
time and temperature coefficients on the order of 1 ppm per 0 C . The oscillation frequency is
determined by the crystal dimensions. This means that crystal oscillators are fixed-frequency
devices.
Figure 17: The ac equivalent circuit, BJT Harley oscillator.
Figure 18: a) Piezoelectric crystal circuit symbol and b) piezoelectric crystal equivalent
circuit.
The circuit symbol for the piezoelectric crystal is shown in Figure 18(a), and the equiv-
alent circuit is shown in Figure 18(b). The inductance L can be as high as a few hundred
Henrys, the capacitance C, can be on the order of 0.001 pF, and the capacitance Cp can be
on the order of a few pF. Also, the Q-factor can be on the order of 104 , which means that
the series resistance r can be neglected.
The impedance of the equivalent circuit in Figure 18(b) is
1 s2 + (1/LCs )
Z (s) = (62)
sCp s2 + [(Cp + Cs ) / (LCs Cp )]
Equation 62 indicates that the crystal has two resonant frequencies, which are very close
together. At the series-resonant frequency fs , the reactance of the series branch is zero; at
the parallel-resonant frequency fp , the reactance of the crystal approaches infinity.
Between the resonant frequencies fs and fp , the crystal reactance is inductive, so the
crystal can be substituted for an inductance, such as that in a Colpitts oscillator. Figure 19
shows the ac equivalent circuit of a Pierce oscillator, which is similar to the Colpitts oscillator
shown in Figure 15 but with the inductor replaced by the crystal. Since the crystal reactance
is inductive over a very narrow frequency range, the frequency of oscillation is also confined
to this narrow range and is quite constant relative to changes in bias current of temperature.
Crystal oscillator frequencies are usually in the range of tens of kHz to tens of MHz.
3 SCHMITT TRIGGER CIRCUITS

In this section, we will analyze another class of circuits that utilize positive feedback. The
basic circuit is commonly called a Schmitt trigger, which can be used in the class of waveform
generators called multivibrators. The three general types of multivibrators are: bistable,
monostable, and astable. In this section, we will examine the bistable multivibrator, which
has a comparator with positive feedback and has two stable states. We will discuss the
comparator first, and will then describe various applications of the Schmitt trigger.
3.1 Comparator
The comparator is essentially an op-amp operated in an open-loop configuration, as shown

in Figure 19(a). As the name implies, a comparator compares two voltages to determine
which is larger. The comparator is usually biased at voltages +VS and −VS , although other
biases are possible.
The voltage transfer characteristics, neglecting any offset voltage effects, are shown in
Figure 19(b). When v2 is slightly greater than v1 , the output is driven to a high saturated
state VH ; when v2 is slightly less than v1 , the output is driven to a low saturated state
VL . The saturated output voltages VH and VL may be close to the supply voltages +VS
and −VS , respectively, which means that VL may be negative. The transition region is the
region in which the output voltage is in neither of its saturation states. This region occurs
when the input differential voltage is in the range −δ < (v2 − v1 ) <+δ . If, for example, the
open-loop gain is 105 and the difference between the two output states is (VH − VL ) = 10V ,
then
2 δ = 10/ 105 = 10−4 V = 0.1 mV
The range of input differential voltage in the transition region is normally very small.
One major difference between a comparator and op-amp is that a comparator need not to
be frequency compensated. Frequency stability is not a consideration since the comparator
is being driven into one of two states. Since a comparator does not contain a frequency
compensation capacitor, it is not slew-rate-limited by the compensation capacitor as is the
op-amp. Typical response times for the comparator output to change states are in the range
Figure 19: A) Open-loop comparator and b) voltage transfer characteristics of voltage

comparator.
of 30 to 200 ns. An expected response time for a 741 op-amp with a slew rate of 0.7 V/ µs
would be on the order of 30 µs, which is factor of 1000 times greater.
Figure 20 shows two comparator configurations along with their voltage transfer charac-
teristics. In both, the input transition region width is assumed to be negligibly small. The
reference voltage may be either positive or negative, and the output saturation voltages are
assumed to be symmetrical about zero. The crossover voltage is defined as the input voltage
at which the output changes states.
Two other comparator configurations, in which the crossover voltage is a function of
resistor ratios, are shown in Figure 21. Input bias current compensation is also included in
this figure. From Figure 21(a), we use superposition to obtain

R2 R1
v+ = VREF + vi (63)
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
The ideal crossover voltage occurs when v+ = 0, or
R2 VREF + R1 vi = 0 (64)
Which can be written as

R2
vi = − VREF (65)
R1
The output goes high when v+ > 0. From Equation 63, we see that v0 = high when vI
is greater than the crossover voltage. A similar analysis produces the characteristics shown
in Figure 21(b).
Figure 22 shows one application of a comparator, to control street lights. The input
signal is the output of a photodetector circuit. Voltage vI is directly proportional to the
amount of light incident on the photodetector. During the night, vI < VREF , and v0 is on
the order of VS =+15V ; the transistor turns on. The current in the relay switch then turns
the street lights on. During the day, the light incident on the photodetector produces an
output signal such that vI > VREF . In this case, v0 is on the order of −VS = −15V , and the
transistor turns off.
Figure 20: a) Non-inverting comparartor circuit and b) inverting circuit.
Figure 21: Other comparator circuits: a) non-inveting and b) inverting.
Figure 22: Comparator application.
Diode D1 is used as a protection device, preventing reverse bias breakdown in the B-E
junction. With zero output current, the relay switch is open and the street lights are off. At
dusk and dawn, vI = VREF .
The open-loop comparator circuit shown in Figure 22 may exhibit unacceptable behavior
in response to noise in the system. Figure 23(a) shows the same comparator circuit, but
with a variable light source, such as clouds causing the light intensity to fluctuate over
a short period of time. A variable light intensity would be equivalent to a noise source
vn in series with the signal source vI . If we assume that vI is increasing linearly with time
(corresponding to dawn), then the total input signal vI' versus time is shown in Figure 23(b).
When vI' > VREF , the output switches low; when vI' < VREF , the output switches high,
producing a chatter effect in the output signal as shown in Figure 23(c). This effect would
turn the street lights off and on over a relatively short time period. If the amplitude of the
noise signal increases, the chatter becomes more severe. This chatter can be eliminated by
using a Schmitt trigger.
3.2 Basic Inverting Schmitt Trigger
The Schmitt trigger or bistable multivibrator uses positive feedback with a loop-gain greater
than unity to produce a bistable characteristic. Figure 24(a) shows one configuration of a
Schmitt trigger. Positive feedback occurs because the feedback resistor is connected between
the output and noninverting input terminals. Voltage v2 , in terms of the output voltage,
can be found by using a voltage divider equation, to yield

R1
v± = v0 (66)
R1 + R2
Voltage v± does not remain constant, it is a function of the output voltage. Input signal
v1 is applied to the inverting terminal.
Additional Schmitt Trigger Configurations
Voltage transfer characteristics
To determine the voltage transfer characteristics, we assume that the output of the
Figure 23: a) Comparator circuit including input noise source, b) input signal, and c)
output signal,showing chatter effect.
Figure 24: a) Schmiit trigger circuit, b) voltage trnasfer characteristics as input voltage
increase, c) voltage transfer characteristic as input voltage decreases, and d) net voltage
transfer characteristics, showing hysteresis effect.
comparator is in one state, namely v0 = VH , which is the high state. Then

R1
v± = VH (67)
R1 + R2
As long as the input signal is less than v±, the output remains in its high state. The
crossover voltage occurs when vi = v±, and is defined as VTH . We have

R1
vTH = VH (68)
R1 + R2
When vi is greater than VTH , the voltage at the inverting terminal is greater than that
at the noninverting terminal. The differential input voltage ( v± = VTH ) is amplified by
the open-loop gain of the comparator, and the output switches to its low state, or v0 = VL .
Voltage v± then becomes
R1
v± = VL (69)
R1 + R2
Since VL < VH , the input voltage vi is still greater than v± , and the output remains
in its low state as vi continues to increase. This voltage transfer characteristic is shown in
Figure 24(b). Implicit in these transfer characteristics is the assumption that VH is positive
and VL is negative.
Now consider the transfer characteristic as vi decreases. As long as vi is larger than
(R1 + R2 )
R1 /VL
, the output remains in its low saturation state. The crossover voltage now occurs
v±
when vi = v± , and is defined as VTL . We have

R1
VTL = VL (70)
R1 + R2
As vi drops below this value, the voltage at the noninverting terminal is greater than that
at the inverting terminal. The differential voltage at the comparator terminals is amplified
by the open-loop gain, and the output switches to its high state, or v0 = VH . As vi continues
to decrease, it remains less than v± , therefore, v0 remains in its high state. This voltage
transfer characteristic is shown in Figure 24(c).
Complete voltage transfer and bistable characteristics
The complete voltage transfer characteristics of the Schmitt trigger shown in Figure 24(a)
combine the characteristics shown in Figure 24(b) and Figure 24(c). These complete char-
acteristics are shown in Figure 24(d). As shown, the crossover voltages depend on whether
the input voltage is increasing or decreasing. The complete transfer characteristics therefore
show a hysteresis effect. The width of the hysteresis is the difference between the two
crossover voltages VTH and VTL .
The bistable characteristic of the circuit occurs around the point vi = 0, at which the
output may be in either its high or low state. The output remains in either state as long
as vi remains in the range VTL < vi < VTH . The output switches states only if the input
increases above VTH or decreases below VTL .
The complete voltage transfer characteristics given in Figure 24(d) show the inverting
characteristics of this particular Schmitt trigger. When the input signal becomes sufficiently
positive, the output is in its low state; when the input signal is sufficiently negative, the out-
put is its high state. Since the input signal is applied to the inverting terminal of comparator,
this characteristic is as expected.
Figure 25: Noninverting Schmitt trigger circuit and b) voltage transfer characteristics.
3.3 Additional Schmitt Trigger Configurations
A noninverting Schmitt trigger can be designed by applying the input signal to the net-
work connected to the comparator noninverting terminal. Also, both crossover voltages of a
Schmitt trigger circuit can be shifted in either a positive or negative direction by applying
a reference voltage. We will study these general circuit configurations, the resulting voltage
transfer characteristics, and an application of a Schmitt trigger circuit in this section.
Noninverting Schmitt trigger circuit
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 25(a). The inverting terminal is held essentially at
ground potential, and the input signal is applied to resistor R1 , which is connected to the
comparator noninverting terminal. Voltage v± at the noninverting terminal then becomes a
function of both the input signal vi and the output voltage v0 . using superposition, we find
that
R2 R1
v± = vi + v0 (71)
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
If vi is negative and the output is in its low state, then v0 = VL (assumed to be negative),
v+ is negative, and the output remains in its low saturation state. Crossover voltage vi = VTH
occurs when v+ = 0 and v0 = VL , or, from Equation 71,
0 = R2 VTH + R1 VL (72)
Which can be written

R1
VTH = − VL (73)
R2
Since VL is negative, VTH is positive.
If we let vi = VTH + δ , where δ is a small positive voltage; the input voltage is just
greater than the crossover voltage and Equation 71 becomes

R2 R1
v+ = (VTH + δ) + VL (74)
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
Equation 74 then becomes

R2 −R1 R2 R1
v+ = VL + δ+ VL (75)
R1 + R2 R2 R1 + R 2 R1 + R2
Figure 26: a) Inverting Schmitt trigger circuit with applied reference voltage and b)
voltage transfer characteristics.
Or
R2
v+ = δ>0 (76)
R1 + R2
When v+ >0, the output switches to its high saturation state.
The lower crossover voltage vi = VTL occurs when v+ = 0 and v0 = VH . From Equa-
tion 71, we have
0 = R2 VTL + R1 VH (77)
Which can be written
R1
VTL = − VH (78)
R2
Since VH >0, then VTL <0.
The complete voltage transfer characteristics are shown in Figure 25b. We again note the
hysteresis effect and the bistable characteristic around vi = 0. With vi sufficiently positive,
the output is in its high state; with vi sufficiently negative, the output is in its low state.
The circuit thus exhibits the noninverting transfer characteristic.
Schmitt trigger circuits with applied reference voltage
The switching voltage of a Schmitt trigger is defined as the average value of VTH and
VTL . For the two circuits considered in Figure 24(a) and Figure 25(a), the switching voltages
are zero, assuming VTL = −VTH . In some applications, the switching voltage must be either
positive or negative direction by applying a reference voltage.
Figure 26(a) shows an inverting Schmitt trigger with a reference voltage VREF . The
complete voltage transfer characteristics are shown in Figure 26(b). The switching voltage
VS , assuming VH and VL are symmetrical about zero, is given by

R2
Vs = VREF (79)
R1 + R2
Note that the switching voltage is not the same as the reference voltage. The upper and
lower crossover voltages are

R1
VTH = VS + VH (80)
R1 + R2
And
R1
VTL = VS + VL (81)
R1 + R2
Figure 27: a) Noninveting Schmitt trigger circuit with applied reference voltage and b)
complete voltage transfer characteristics.
A noninverting Schmitt trigger with a reference voltage is shown in Figure 27(a), and the
complete voltage transfer characteristics are shown in Figure 27(b). The switching voltage
VS , again assuming VH and VL are symmetrical about zero is given by

R1
VS = 1 + VREF (82)
R2
and the upper and lower crossover voltages are

R1
VTH = VS − VL (83)
R2
And
R1
VTL = VS − VH (84)
R2
If the output saturation voltages are symmetrical such that VL = −VH , then crossover
voltages are symmetrical about the switching voltage VS .
Schmitt Trigger Application
Let us reconsider the street light control circuit shown in Figure 23(a) which included
a noise source. Figure 28(a) shows the same basic circuit, except that a Schmitt trigger is
used instead of a simple comparator.
The input signal vI is again assumed to increase linearly with time. The total input
signal vI' is vI with the noise signal superimposed, as shown in Figure 28(b). At time t1 , the
input signal becomes greater than the switching voltage VS . The output, however, does not
switch, since vI' < VTH . This means that the input signal is less than the upper crossover
voltage. At time t2 , the input signal becomes larger than crossover voltage, or vI' > VTH , and
the output signal switches from its high to its low state. At time t3 , the input signal drops
below VS , but the output does not switch states since vI' > VTL . This means that the input
signal remains greater than the lower crossover voltage. The Schmitt trigger circuit thus
eliminates the chatter effect which occurs in the output voltage response results directly
from the hysteresis effect in the Schmitt trigger characteristics.
3.4 Schmitt Trigger with Limiters
In the Schmitt trigger circuits, we have thus far considered, the open-loop saturation voltages
of the comparator may not be very precise and may also vary from one comparator to
Figure 28: a) Application of Schmitt trigger circuit including input noise source, b)
input signal, and c) output signal, showing elimitation of chatter effect.
another. The output saturation voltages can be controlled and made more precise by adding
limiter networks.
A direct approach at limiting the output is shown in Figure 29. Two back-to-back Zener
diodes are connected between the output and ground. Assuming the two diodes are matched,
the output is limited to either the positive or negative value of ( Vγ +VZ ), where Vγ is forward
diode voltage and VZ is the reverse Zener voltage. Resistor R is chosen to produce a specified
current in the diodes.
Another Schmitt trigger with a limiter is shown in Figure 30(a). If we assume that vI = 0
and v0 is its high state, then D2 is on and D1 is off. Neglecting currents in 100 k Ω resistor,
we have v2 =+Vγ , where Vγ is the forward diode voltage. We can write
v0 − v2 v2 − (−VREF )
= (85)
1 1
Solving for v0 yields
v0 = VREF + 2V γ (86)
which means that the output voltage can be controlled and can be designed more accu-
rately. The ideal hysteresis characteristics for this Schmitt trigger are shown in Figure 30(b).
As vI increases or decreases, a small current flows in the 100 k Ω resistor, producing a nonzero
slope in the voltage transfer characteristics. The slope is on the order of 1/100, which is quite
small.
A noninverting Schmitt trigger with a limiting network is shown in Figure 31(a), and
the resulting voltage transfer characteristics are given in Figure 31(b).
4 NONSINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS AND TIMING CIRCUITS

Many applications, especially digital electronic systems, use a nonsinusoidal square wave
oscillator to provide a clock signal for the system. This type of oscillator is called an astable
Figure 29: A) Schmitt trigger with Zener diode limiters and b) voltage transfer charac-
teristics.
Figure 30: a) Inverting Schmitt trigger wiht diode inverters and b) voltage transfer
characteristics.
Figure 31: a) Noniverting Schmitt trigger with diode limiters and b) voltage transfer
characteristics.
multivibrator. In other applications, a simple pulse of known height and width is used to
initiate a particular set of functions. This type of oscillator is called a monostable multi-
vibrator. First, we will examine the Schmitt trigger connected as an oscillator. Although
used extensively in digital electronic systems, these circuits are included here as comparator
circuit applications.
4.1 Schmitt Trigger Oscillator
The Schmitt trigger can be used in an oscillator circuit to generate a squarewave output
signal. This is accomplished by adding an RC network to the negative feedback loop of the
Schmitt trigger as shown in Figure 32. As we will see, this circuit has no stable states. It is
therefore called an astable multivibrator.
Initially, we set R1 and R2 equal to the same value, or R1 = R2 = R. we assume that the
output switches symmetrically about zero volts, with the high saturated output denoted by
VH = VP and the low saturated output denoted by VL = −VP . If v0 is low, v0 = −VP , the
v+ = − (1/2) VP . When v vx drops just slightly below v+ , the output switches high so that
v0 =+VP and v+ =+ (1/2) VP . The Rx Cx network sees a positive step-increase in voltage so
capacitor Cx begins to charge and voltage vx starts to increase toward a final value of VP .
The general equation for the voltage across a capacitor in an RC network is
vX = vFinal + (vIinitial − vFinal ) e[− τ ]

t
(87)
Where vInitial is the initial capacitor voltage at t = 0, vFinal is the final capacitor voltage
at t = ∞, and τ is the time constant. We can now write
t
−τ
(88)
vX = VP + − V2P − VP e

Figure 32: Schmitt trigger oscillator.
Or
3V P [ −t
vX = VP − e τx ] (89)
2
where τx = Rx Cx . voltage vx increase exponentially with time toward a final voltage VP .
However, when vx becomes just slightly greater than v+ =+ (1/2) VP , the output switches
to its low state of v0 = −VP and v+ = − (1/2) VP . The Rx Cx network sees a negative
step-change in voltage, so capacitor Cx now begins to discharge and voltage vx starts to
decrease toward a final value of −VP . We can now write
h −(t−t ) i
VP 1
vX = −VP + + − (−VP ) e τx (90)
2
or
3V P −(t−t
h i
1)
vX = −VP + e τx (91)
2
where t1 is the time at which the output switches to its low state. The capacitor voltage
then decreases exponentially with time. When vx decreases to v+ = − (1/2) VP , the output
again switches to its high state. The progress continues to repeat itself, which means that
this positive-feedback circuit oscillates producing a square wave output signal. Figure 33
shows the output voltage v0 and the capacitor voltage vx versus time.
Time t1 can be found from Equation 88 by setting t = t1 when vx = VP /2, or
VP 3V P [ −t
e τx ]
1
= VP − (92)
2 2
Solving for t1 , we find that
t1 = τ ln3 = 1.1Rx Cx (93)
From a similar analysis using Equation 89, we find that the difference between t2 and t1
is also 1.1Rx Cx ; therefore, the period of oscillation T is
T = 2.2Rx Cx (94)
And the frequency of oscillation is

1 1
f= = (95)
T 2.2Rx Cx
Figure 33: Output voltage and capacitor voltage versus time for Schmitt trigger ascil-
lator.
As an example of an application of this circuit, a variable frequency oscillator is created

by letting Rx be a variable resistor.
The duty cycle of the oscillator is defined as the percentage of time that the output
voltage v0 is in its high state. For the circuit just considered, the duty cycle is 50 percent,
as seen in Figure 33. This is a result of the symmetrical output voltages +VP and −VP .
If asymmetrical output voltages are used, then the duty cycle changes from the 50 percent
value.
4.2 Monostable Multivibrator
A monostable multivibrator has one stable state, in which it can remain indefinitely if
not disturbed. However, a trigger pulse can force the circuit into a quasi-stable state for a
definite time, producing an output pulse with a particular height and with. The circuit then
returns to its stable state until another trigger pulse is applied. The monostable multivibrator
is also called a one shot.
A monostable multivibrator is created by modifying the Schmitt trigger oscillator as
shown in Figure 34. A clamping diode D1 connected in parallel with Cx . In the stable state,
the output is high and voltage vx is held low by the conducting diode D1 .
The trigger circuit is composed of the capacitor C1 , resistor R3 , and diode D2 , and is
connected to the non-inverting terminal of the comparator. The value of R3 is chosen to be
much larger R1 , so that voltage vY is determined primarily by a voltage divider of R1 and
R2 . We then have
R1
vY = VP = βVP (96)
R1 + R2
Where VP is the sum of the forward and breakdown voltage of DZ1 and DZ2 or VP =
(VZ1 + VZ2 ). This voltage is positive saturated output voltage.
The circuit is triggered by a negative going step voltage applied to capacitor C1 . This
action forward biases diode D3 , and pulls the voltage vY below vX . Since the comparator
the sees a larger voltage at the inverting terminal, the output switches to its low state of
v0 = −VP = − (VZ2 + VZ1 ) (97)
Voltage vY then becomes

R1
vY = − VP = −βVP (98)
R1 + R2
Figure 34: Schmitt trigger monostable multivibrator.
Causing D2 to become reverse biased, thus isolating the oscillator circuit from the input
triggering network. The negative step change in v0 causes voltage vX to decrease expo-
nentially with a time constant of τ3 = RX CX toward a final value of −VP . Diode D1 is
reverse biased during this time. When vX drops just below the saturated value of vY given
by Equation 98, the output switches back to its positive saturated value of +VP . When vX
reaches vY , diode D1 again becomes forward biased, vX is clamped at vY , and the output
remains in its high state.
The waveform of v0 and vX versus time are shown in Figure 35. After the output has
switched back to the high state, the capacitor voltage vX must return to its quiescent value
of vx = −VP . This implies that there is a recovery time of (T'-T) during which the circuit
should not be retriggered.
For t >0, voltage vX can be written in the same general form as Equation 87, as follows:
vX = −VP + (Vγ − (−VP )) e[ τx ]

t
(99)
where τx = Rx Cx . At t = T, vx = −βVP and the output switches high. The pulse width
is then
1 + (Vγ /VP )
T = τx ln (100)
1−β
If we assume Vγ < VP and if we let R1 = R2 , such that β = 1/2, then the pulse width is
T = 0.69 τx . we can show that for Vτ <<VP and β = 1/2, the recovery time is (T' T) =
0.4 τx . There are alternative circuits with shorter recovery times, but we will not consider
them here.
5 SUMMARY
This chapter presents several applications of op-amps and comparators that may be fabri-
cated as integrated circuits. The circuits considered were: active filters, oscillators, Schmitt
triggers, multibrators.
The discussion of active filters was limited to two classes: Butterworth filters and switched-
capacitor filters. Butterworth filters have a maximally flat response pass-band. A detailed
analysis of the two-pole low-pass Butterworth filter demonstrated that the maximally flat
Figure 35: Schmitt trigger monostable multivibrator voltage versus time a) input trigger
pulse, b) capacitor voltage,and c) output pulse.
response is obtained by setting the derivatives or the transfer function with respect to fre-
quency equal to zero in center of the pass-band. We determined the relationship between the
various resistances and capacitances that produce the required cutoff frequency. High-pass
and higher-order Butterworth filters were discussed, and the voltage transfer functions as a
function of frequency were given.
A switched-capacitor filter offers the advantage of an all-IC, since this configuration uses
small capacitance value in conjunction with MOS switching transistors that simulate large
resistance values. We investigated the basic principle of the switched capacitor technique
and applied it to a one-pole low-pass filter, showing that the filter gain and cutoff frequency
are functions of capacitor ratios and a clock frequency.
The basic principles for oscillation are: 1) the net phase through the amplifier and feed-
back network must be zero, and 2) the magnitude of the loop gain must be unity. In order to
design an oscillator, the loop gain of a feedback network must provide sufficient phase shift
to produce positive feedback. We analyzed several oscillator circuits, including the phase-
shift and Wien-bridge oscillators, which use op-amps. The Colpitts, Hartley, and crystal
oscillator circuits, which can provide high-frequency oscillations, were also examined, even
though these currents tend to use discrete transistors rather than op-amps.
A comparator is essentially an op-amp operated in an open-loop configuration. Since the
output of a comparator is driven into either a low or high state, the comparator need not be
frequency compensated, hence, it is not as severely slew-rate limited as an op-amp. Typical
response times for the output to change states are in the range of 30 to 200 ns.
The Schmitt trigger uses a comparator with positive feedback, which produces a hys-
teresis in the voltage transfer characteristics. This circuit, with its hysteresis characteristic,
can eliminate the chatter effect in an output signal during switching applications in which
noise is superimposed on the input signal.
A square-wave generator or oscillator can be produced by incorporating an RC network
in negative feedback loop of a Schmitt trigger. This type of oscillator is called an astable
multivibrator.

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APPLICATIONS AND DESIGN

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APPLICATIONS AND DESIGN OF INTEGRATED CIR-

1.1 Active Network Design

1.2 General Two-Pole Active Filter

(Vi − Va ) Y1 = (Va − Vb ) Y2 + (Va − V0 ) Y3 (3)

A KCL equation at node Vb produces

Figure 5: General two pole active filter.

From the voltage follower characteristics, we have Vb = V0 . Therefore, Equation 4 be-

1.3 Two-Pole Low-Pass Butterworth Filter

To form a low-pass filter, we set Y1 = G1 = 1/R1 , Y2 = G2 = 1/R2 , Y3 = sC3 and Y4 = sC4 ,

Figure 6: General two pass filter.

We define time constant as τ3 = RC3 and τ4 = RC4 . If we then set s = j ω , we obtain

The magnitude of the transfer function is therefore

Equation 15 is satisfied when 2τ 4 = τ3 , or

1.4 Two-Pole High-Pass Butterworth Filter

1.5 High-Order Butterworth Filters

2.1 Basic Principle of Oscillation

The basic oscillator consists of an amplifier and a frequency-selective network connected in

Figure 9: a) Three-pole low-pass Butterworth fielter and b)Three-pole high-pass But-

Figure 11: Block diagram of the fundamental feedback circuit.

T (s) = A (s) β (s) (29)

T (jω 0 ) = A (jω 0 ) β (jω 0 ) = −1 (30)

The condition that T (jω 0 ) = −1 is called the Barkhausen criterion.

2. The magnitude of the loop gain must be unity.

2.2 Phase-Shift Oscillator

An example of an op-amp oscillator is the phase-shift oscillator. One configuration of this

Consequently, the condition T (jω) ==1 is satisfied when

Figure 13: Phase shift oscillator circuit.

which can be written in terms of the magnitude and phase, as follows:

and the amplifier resistor ratio must be

2.3 Wien-Bridge Oscillator

Figure 14: Wien-bridge oscillation.

Figure 15: The ac equivalent circuit, MOSFET Colpitts oscillator.

Figure 16: Small-signal equivalent circuit, MOSFET Colpitts oscillator.

2.4 Additional Oscillator Configurations

And a voltage divider produces

Substituting Equation 54 into Equation 53, we find that

Figure 17: The ac equivalent circuit, BJT Harley oscillator.

3 SCHMITT TRIGGER CIRCUITS

The comparator is essentially an op-amp operated in an open-loop configuration, as shown

Figure 19: A) Open-loop comparator and b) voltage transfer characteristics of voltage

The ideal crossover voltage occurs when v+ = 0, or

Which can be written as

Figure 20: a) Non-inverting comparartor circuit and b) inverting circuit.

Figure 21: Other comparator circuits: a) non-inveting and b) inverting.

Figure 22: Comparator application.

3.2 Basic Inverting Schmitt Trigger

comparator is in one state, namely v0 = VH , which is the high state. Then

3.3 Additional Schmitt Trigger Configurations

Which can be written  

Equation 74 then becomes

and the upper and lower crossover voltages are

3.4 Schmitt Trigger with Limiters

4 NONSINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS AND TIMING CIRCUITS

4.1 Schmitt Trigger Oscillator

vX = vFinal + (vIinitial − vFinal ) e[− τ ]

Figure 32: Schmitt trigger oscillator.

And the frequency of oscillation is

As an example of an application of this circuit, a variable frequency oscillator is created

4.2 Monostable Multivibrator

Figure 34: Schmitt trigger monostable multivibrator.

vX = −VP + (Vγ − (−VP )) e[ τx ]

Tâm tt nëi dung

Which can be written