Intro To Mechanics of Material

Engineering Structures
and Materials
Mechanics of materials is a branch of applied mechanics
that deals with the behavior of solid bodies subjected to
various types of loading
A thorough understanding of mechanical behavior is
essential for the safe design of all structures
Mechanics of materials is a basic subject in many
engineering fields
Mechanics of Material
Earthquakes
Early in the morning on Tuesday, August 17, 1999, a
deadly magnitude 7.4 earthquake struck along the
Anatolian fault in the northwestern region of Turkey
Earthquakes
Space Shuttle Columbia
The Space Shuttle Columbia disaster occurred on February 1, 2003,
when the Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrated over Texas during re-
entry into the Earth's atmosphere.
Space Shuttle Columbia
The loss of Columbia was a result of damage sustained during launch
when a piece of foam insulation the size of a small briefcase broke off
the Space Shuttle external. The debris struck the leading edge of the left
wing, damaging the Shuttle's thermal protection system.
I-35W Mississippi River Bridge
The I-35W Mississippi River bridge catastrophically failed during the
evening rush hour on August 1, 2007, collapsing to the river and
riverbanks beneath.
CIVL 1101 Introduction to Mechanics of Materials 1/11
riverbanks beneath.
riverbanks beneath.
Collapse of Can Tho Bridge
On September 26, 2007 a 90 meter section of an approach ramp, which
was over 30 meters above the ground, collapsed possible due to rains
weaken the foundation
and Materials
The historical development of mechanics of materials is a
fascinating blend of both theory and experiment
Leonardo da Vinci (14521519)
Galileo Galilei (15641642)
performed experiments to
determine the strength of wires,
bars, and beams
and Materials
Leonhard Euler (17071783)
Developed the mathematical theory of columns and
calculated the theoretical critical load of a column in 1744,
long before any experimental evidence existed to show
the significance of his results.
and Materials
Numerical problems require that you work with specific
units of measurements.
The two accepted standards of measurement are the
International System of Units (SI) and the U.S.
Customary System (USCS).
As you know significant digits are very important in
engineering.
In our work in this section, three significant digits
provides enough accuracy.
Stress and Strain
The fundamental concepts of
stress and strain
can be illustrated by considering a prismatic bar that is
loaded by axial forces P at the ends
A prismatic bar is a straight structural member having
constant cross section throughout its length
In this illustration, the axial forces produce a uniform
stretching of the bar; hence, the bar is said to be in
tension
Stress and Strain
P
o
a a
P
a a
P
A
o =
P
L
P
Stress
The tensile load P acts at the bottom end of the bar
At the top of the bar are forces representing the action of
the removed part of the bar
The intensity of force (that is, the force per unit area) is
called the
P
A
o =
STRESS
(commonly denoted by the Greek letter o).
Stress
When the bar is stretched by the force P,
the resulting stresses are tensile stresses
If the force P cause the bar to be
compressed, we obtain compressive
stresses
P A o =
P
The axial force is equal to the intensity s times the cross
sectional area A of the bar
Stress
The stress acting perpendicular to the cut
surface, it is referred to as a normal stress
The equation o = P/A will give the average
normal stress
P
a a
P
A
o =
o
Sign convention for normal stresses is:
(+) for tensile stresses and
(-) for compressive stresses
Stress
-P +P
Because the normal stress s is obtained by dividing the
axial force by the crosssectional area, it has units of force
per unit of area
Stress
In SI units:
Force is expressed in newtons (N) and area in square
meters (m
2
). A N/m
2
is a pascals (Pa).
In USCS units:
Stress is customarily expressed in pounds per square inch
(psi) or kips per square inch (ksi).
7,000 Pa to make 1 psi
Normal Strain
P
o
P
L
The change in length is
denoted by the Greek
letter o (delta).
Normal Strain
The concept of elongation per unit
length, or strain, denoted by the Greek
letter c (epsilon) and given by the
equation
L
o
c =
An axially loaded bar undergoes a change in length,
becoming longer when in tension and shorter when in
compression
o
P
L
Normal Strain
If the bar is in tension, the strain is called a
tensile strain
If the bar is in compression, the strain is called a
compressive strain
Tensile strain is taken as positive (+), and compressive
strain as negative (-).
Normal Strain
The strain c is called a normal strain because it is
associated with normal stresses.
Because normal strain c is the ratio of two lengths, it is a
dimensionless quantity; that is, it has no units.
Example
Consider a steel bar having length L of 2.0 m. When
loaded in tension, the bar might elongate by an amount
o equal to 1.4 mm.
L
o
c =
The resulting state of stress and strain is called uniaxial
stress and strain
4
0.00070 7.0 10
= =
3
1.4 10
2.0
m
m
=
Example
A prismatic bar with a circular cross section is subjected
to an axial tensile force. The measured elongation is o =
1.5 mm. Calculate the tensile stress and strain in the bar.
The resulting state of stress and strain is called uniaxial
stress and strain
100 kN
3.5 m
Circular cross-section
Diameter =25 mm
Example
Assuming the axial force act at the center of the end
cross section, then the stress is:
100 kN
3.5 m
Diameter =25.0 mm
( )
2
100
25.0
4
P kN
A
mm
o
t
= =
2
203.718327
N
mm
=
1,000 1 mm m =
204Mpa =
4
4.3 10
=
Example
The strain is
100 kN
3.5 m
Diameter =25 mm
L
o
c =
1.5 1
3.5 1,000
mm m
m mm
| |
=
|
\ .
0.0004286..... =
Group Problem 1
If the applied load on the bar is P =10,000 lb. and the
cross-sectional area is A =0.50 in
2
, what is the stress?
Group Problem 1
If the applied load on the bar is P =10,000 lb. and the
cross-sectional area is A =0.50 in
2
, what is the stress?
2
10,000lb.
20,000
0.50in
P
psi
A
o o = = =
Group Problem 2
If the allowable stress at failure for the material is 35,000
psi and the applied load on the bar is P =20,000 lb., what
is the minimum area require to prevent failure?
Group Problem 2
If the allowable stress at failure for the material is 35,000
psi and the applied load on the bar is P =20,000 lb., what
is the minimum area require to prevent failure?
2
20,000lb.
0.57in.
35,000
P P
A
A psi
o
o
= = = =
Group Problem 3
A bar has 2 in.
2
cross-sectional area; if the allowable stress
at failure for the material is 25,000 psi, what is the
maximum forced the bar would support?
Group Problem 3
A bar has 2 in.
2
cross-sectional area; if the allowable stress
at failure for the material is 25,000 psi, what is the
maximum forced the bar would support?
P
P A
A
o o = =
( )
2
25,000 2in. 50,000 lb. P psi = =
Group Problem 4
If a bar elongates 2.5 in. and the original length is 10.0 ft.,
what is the strain?
Group Problem 4
If a bar elongates 2.5 in. and the original length is 10.0 ft.,
what is the strain?
L
o
c = 0.021 =
2.5in. 1ft.
10.0ft. 12in.
c
| |
=
|
\ .
Group Problem 5
If the bar fails at strains greater than 0.15 and the original
length of the bar is L =is 10 ft., what is the maximum
allowable deformation before failure?
Group Problem 5
If the bar fails at strains greater than 0.15 and the original
length of the bar is L =is 10 ft., what is the maximum
allowable deformation before failure?
L
o
c = 1.5ft. = 0.15(10ft.) L o c = =
StressStrain Diagrams
The mechanical properties of materials are determined by
tests performed on small specimens of the material
In order that test results
may be compared easily,
the dimensions of test
specimens and the
methods of applying loads
have been standardized
Standards organizations: American Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM), American
Standards Association (ASA) and the
National Bureau of Standards (NBS)
Tension Test
The axial stress o in the test specimen is calculated by
dividing the load P by the crosssectional area A
Strain in the bar is found from the measured elongation o
between the gage marks by dividing o by the
gage length L
Developing a StressStrain Diagram
After performing a tension or compression test and
determining the stress and strain at various magnitudes of
the load, we can plot a diagram of stress versus strain
Stressstrain diagrams were originated by:
Jacob Bernoulli (16541705) and J. V. Poncelet (1788
1867)
Developing a StressStrain Diagram StressStrain for Steel
The first material we will discuss is: structural steel
A stressstrain diagram for a typical structural steel in
tension is shown:
Elastic Plastic Strain
Hardening
Necking
Fracture
Ultimate Stress
Yield Stress
c
s
StressStrain for Steel
o
c
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
20
40
60
Strain
StressStrain for Aluminum
o
c
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
20
40
60
Strain
Steel
Aluminum
StressStrain for Rubber
o
c
2 4 6 8
1
2
3
Strain
Hard Rubber
Soft Rubber
Linear Elasticity
When a material returns to its original dimensions after
unloading, it is called elastic
When a material behaves elastically and also exhibits a
linear relationship between stress and strain, it is said to be
linearly elastic.
Linear Elasticity
The linear relationship between stress and strain for a bar
in simple tension or compression can be expressed by the
equation:
where E is a constant known as the
modulus of elasticity
(units are either psi or Pa)
E o c =
Hookes Law
The equation o = E c commonly known as Hookes law
For the famous English scientist
Robert Hooke (16351703).
Hooke was the first person to investigate
the elastic properties of materials, and he
tested such diverse materials as metal,
wood, stone, bones, and sinews.
He measured the stretching of long wires
supporting weights and observed that the
elongations always bear the same
proportions one to the other that the
weights do that make them
Hookes Law
The modulus of elasticity E has relatively large values for
materials that are very stiff, such as structural metals
Steel has a modulus of 30,000 ksi or 200 GPa
Aluminum is approximately 10,600ksi or 70 GPa
Wood is 1,600 ksi or 11 Gpa
The modulus of elasticity is often called
Youugs modulus, after another English
scientist, Thomas Young (17731829)
Linear Elasticity
If the material in the bar is considered linear-elastic and the tensile
stress is 25,000 psi and the tensile strain is 0.005, what is the modulus
of elasticity of the material?
E o c =
E
o
c
=
25,000
0.005
psi
E =
5,000,000 psi =
6
5 10 psi =
Linear Elasticity
If you substitute the formulas for stress and strain into
Hookes Law you get:
E o c =
P
A
o =
L
o
c =
P
E
A L
o
=
Group Problem 6
Determine the cross-sectional area of a 100-ft. steel cable
supporting a 25,000 lb. tensile force while not exceed the
an allowable tensile stress of 40,000 psi or a maximum
elongation of 0.100 ft. Assume the modulus of elasticity of
steel is E =29,000,000 psi (assume all value are exact
measurements).
Group Problem 6
measurements).
P P
A
A
o
o
= =
1
25,000lb.
40,000
P
A
psi o
= =
2
0.625in. =
Group Problem 6
P
E
A L
o
=
2
(25,000lb.)(100ft.)
(29,000,000 )(0.100ft.)
A
psi
=
PL
A
Eo
=
2
0.862in. =
measurements).
Group Problem 6
The maximum area is the correct answer:
A =0.862 in.
2
measurements).
StressStrain Diagram
Materials that undergo large strains before failure are
classified as ductile
Ductile materials include mild steel, aluminum and some
of its alloys, copper, magnesium, lead, molybdenum,
nickel, brass, bronze, nylon, teflon, and many others
Elastic Plastic Strain
Hardening
Necking
Fracture
Ultimate Stress
Yield Stress
s
c
StressStrain Diagram
Materials that fail in tension at relatively low values of
strain are classified as brittle materials.
Examples are concrete, stone, cast iron, glass, ceramic
materials, and many common metallic alloys.
o
c Strain
Ordinary glass is a nearly
ideal brittle material
Compression Test
Compression tests of metals are customarily made on
small specimens in the shape of cubes or circular
cylinders.
The standard ASTM concrete test specimen
is 6 in. in diameter, 12 in. long, and 28 days
old (the age of concrete is important
because concrete gains strength as it
cures)
Concrete is tested in compression on every
important construction project to ensure that
the required strengths have been obtained.
Compression Test
Stressstrain diagrams for compression have different
shapes from those for tension.
Ductile metals such as steel, aluminum, and copper have
proportional limits in compression very close to those in
tension.
Compression Test
However, when yielding begins, the behavior is quite
different. Consider compression of copper:
o
c
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
20
40
60
Strain
1.2
Elasticity
The stressstrain diagrams described in the preceding
section illustrate the behavior of various materials as they
are loaded statically in tension or compression.
Now let us consider what happens when the load is slowly
removed, and the material is unloaded
o
c
Elastic
Loading
Unloading
Plasticity
Now let us suppose that we load this same material to a
much higher level
Elastic
Loading
Unloading
Residual
Strain
Elastic
Recovery
If the loading is too great a
residual strain, or
permanent strain, remains
in the material
The corresponding residual
elongation of the bar is
called the permanent set.
The material is said to be
partially elastic
o
c
P
Creep
Development of additional strains over long periods of
time and are said to creep
Time
t
0
o
d
0
Relaxation
o
0
t
0
Tight cable
o
Time
End of Mechanics of Materials
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Intro To Mechanics of Material

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Engineering Structures

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