*Bruce W. Downing, M.Sc., P.Geo. is Senior Geologist, Gamah International Ltd., Vancouver.

Editor's Note: This session discusses general sampling methods for geochemical investigations,
including ARD. The session contents at the text level are authored by Bruce W. Downing.
Introduction
Design and Planning
Sample Preparation
Chemical Analysis
Geological Analysis
Mineralogical Analysis
Pilot and Milling Plant Sampling
Data Presentation, Interpretation and Reporting
Qualified Personnel and the Sampling Program
Conclusions
References
Introduction
Sample: representative fraction of body of material, removed by approved methods, guarded
against accidental or fraudulent adulteration, and tested or analyzed in order to determine the
nature, composition, percentage of specified constituents, etc. and possibly their reactivity. (Thrush
et al. (1990))
Sample: a small quantity of material relative to the geological mass it represents, collected
according to a systematic procedure, of measurable reliability, from which the acid rock drainage
potential of the mass which it represents may be estimated, based upon appropriate
protocols (Vallee (1999)).
The acid rock drainage (ARD) appraisal involves five work stages; namely deposit definition, project
engineering, project economics, production/operation and reclamation/closure. In each of these
stages, there is an element of sampling and analysis to meet environmental requirements. Inherent
in sampling is quality assurance and quality control.
Poor sampling techniques and inadequate sample selection can contribute to excessive variance,
difficulties in interpretation and incorrect assessment in an ARD prediction program. As a result of
poor sampling there may be serious consequences and costs. Samples must be representative of
all geologic, lithologic and alteration units related to the mine development plan and be
representative of the relative amounts and particle size of each type of material (Steffen, Robertson
and Kirsten (1992)), in other words what are the geological controls to ARD. A sampling program
should be designed to be iterative in nature because the pre-sampling notion of what and how
much is representative may shown by the results to be inadequate.
The construction of a sound ARD database begins with good sample collection. Appropriate sample
collection, preparation, analytical and QA/QC procedures must be maintained throughout the
project life. Sampling is the single most important aspect of a good survey, for without good
sampling, results may not be valid and hence correct interpretations difficult to achieve. The
essence of sampling is to examine geochemical variation. The proper collection and handling of
field samples is the first step towards preventing environmental prosecution and liabilities. This
aspect of 'legal sampling' is the focus of a training and reference CD-ROM that has been
assembled by staff from Environment Canada (web site). Guidelines and manuals have been
assembled by the Mine Environment Neutral Drainage personnel (MEND) (web site) and
information concerning them is available from their web site.
The basic components of an ARD sampling program are:
Design and planning
Static testwork
Kinetic and Humidity cell testwork
Sample types and preparation
Chemical analysis
Quality assurance and Quality control
Geological analysis
Mineralogical analysis
Pilot plant tails analysis
Data presentation and interpretation
Involvement of Qualified people in all aspects of the sampling program.
Although sampling costs can be quite expensive, costly remediation and reclamation plans will be
based on the results and interpretation of sampling and analysis, hence the importance of a correct
assessment. Sampling costs should therefore not pre-determine the number of samples taken and
analyzed but should be dependent upon the amount necessary to increase confidence in the data
and should be considered with regard to exploration, development and production decisions that
rely on sampling results. The number of samples to be taken should be premised on
characterization of both the waste and non-waste material. The number of samples will also depend
upon spatial variation of waste material. Steffen Robertson and Kirsten et al (1989) developed a
curve (Figure 1 below) that can be used as a guideline to ascertain the minimum number of
samples required to characterize each geological unit in terms of acid generation and leaching
potential. The curve was developed based on a limited number of sites within British Columbia,
Canada as a function of the mass of the geologic unit being sampled. There are no strict guidelines
for establishing sampling protocols, but one must judge the best method(s) and be prepared to
defend those methods.

Figure 1: Hypothetical curve to determine the number of samples required to characterize
geological units.
Sampling is an integral part of Risk Assessment and Risk Management. The initial sampling will
help determine if there is a risk, and if so what are the variables that must be mitigated (ie. high
levels of elements such as arsenic). This initial sampling will also be used as part of the basis for an
environmental bond. The ongoing sampling plan will determine the level of mitigation required at
closure and if the risk has increased or decreased. Risk Assessment and Risk Management should
always be viewed from the initial to final sampling, which means from baseline survey to closure
work.
Design and Planning
The design and planning stage should begin in the early exploration phase. An orientation study is
imperative. This study should pay close attention to details in the design which have a bearing on
the costs of the major ARD program. Its purpose is to ensure that the proper samples are collected
and proper preparation and chemical analyses are done in order to collect as much information as
possible and avoid costly mistakes. The scopes of characterization and analyses for each category
is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: The scopes of characterization and analyses for each mine component.
Continuity is important in the estimation and classification of acid generating and non acid
generating material. Continuity is essentially composed of two parts; geological continuity and value
continuity. Geological continuity refers to features that control mineralization, while value continuity
refers to a value or measure such as neutralization potential (NP) and the manner in which this
variable occurs spatially. Sampling must reflect both these aspects.
Sampling detail will depend upon whether the program is for a:
Baseline study
Pre-Mining plan
Mine operations
Reclamation/closure plan
Sampling costs can be quite high, however these costs should NOT pre-determine the number of
samples taken and analyzed but should be dependent upon the amount of sampling necessary to
increase confidence in the data. These costs should be considered with regard to exploration,
development and production decisions that rely on sampling results. The number of samples to be
taken should be based on characterization of both the waste and non-waste material. The number
of samples will also depend upon spatial variation of waste material. Steffen Robertson and Kirsten
et al (1989) developed a curve (Figure 2) that can be used as a guideline to ascertain the minimum
number of samples required to characterize each geological unit in terms of acid generation and
leaching potential. The curve was developed based on a limited number of sites within British
Columbia, Canada as a function of the mass of the geologic unit being sampled. In fact, there are
no strict guidelines for establishing sampling protocols. One must rely on professional judgement to
select the best method(s) and be prepared to defend those methods.
Sample Types and Sample Preparation
Material sampled can be divided into such categories as overburden (unconsolidated sediments;
saprolite in tropical weathering environments), waste rock and tailings. Rock samples should be
obtained from both drill core and outcrop. Samples to be collected should represent all lithologies
(Figure 3) that are a) both barren and sub-ore (sulphidic) and b) altered and non-altered in order to:
1) determine limits of acid base accounting (ABA) for acid generating and non acid generating
material, 2) determine spatial differences in lithologies and 3) generate enough data points for
waste rock block modeling. Waste rock should be defined by a mining engineer. A few ore grade
intervals should also be analyzed as a reference. In general, waste rock composites represent 10 to
15 metres lengths which conform to mineable bench height. Overburden samples should also be
composited.

Figure 3: Note change in color due to alteration, each unit must be sampled
Sampling programs for a new mine site are likely to be different than for an existing site. The extent
of sampling in an existing site will depend on the available information and the familiarity of site
personnel with the geology and distribution of mine rock around the site. The objective of the
sampling program will also affect the program. For instance, in an existing site, sampling may be
done to characterize mine rock types as well as to determine the extent of oxidation, storage of
oxidation products and rock classes within existing waste rock or tailings facilities.
The size of each individual sample is dependent on the heterogeneity (in particular the distribution
of sulfide and alkali minerals) of the unit being sampled. For static testing a 1 kg sample of a
homogeneous unit, at a minimum, is recommended by Steffen Robertson and Kirsten et al (1989)
Types of Sampling
When deciding on sample spacings and sampling procedures, one must be fully aware of the
different levels (or scales) of variability with sampled materials and adjust sample intervals/locations
accordingly or use composite samples to represent wide intervals in order to attain a measure of
confidence in the intervals between sample locations.
Sampling can consist of various types:
Point samples: This is can be a single grab sample chosen to represent some mass; or it can be
random samples taken from various source points, generally within a predetermined area, and can
be either in two dimensions or three dimensions (ie. dump pile) and composited.
Linear samples: Continuous sampling over an interval in a line such as channel samples (Figure 4)
or drill hole samples, (Figure 5) and profile sampling of overburden (Figure 6).
Panel samples: These are planar samples made up of multiple chips collected from a surface with
dimensions (i.e. one by two metres, Figure 4).
Bulk samples: Sampling of a large mass of material that will be crushed and split into fractions.
Samples may be taken from the various splits.

Figure 4: Linear (a) and Panel (b) Sample Examples.

Figure 5: Drill hole sampling to generate mineable blocks of ore and non ore material. Profile
view.

Figure 6: Profile sample.
Sample Sources
Potential sources for samples for ARD test work at new mines could include:
Drill core
Blast hole cuttings
Trenches
Exploration adits
Bulk sampling for metallurgical testing
In the exploration stage however, drilling programs typically focus on orebody definition and
therefore additional drilling may be required for detailed characterization of representative waste
rock. For existing mines, there are a larger number of sources from which samples could be taken,
including:
Drill core from exploration can be useful for indication of changes (oxidation) in the period
since the rock was extracted.
Additional drilling
Pit walls
Underground workings
Existing ore stockpiles and
Existing waste rock and tailings facilities
River and Lake Sediment Sampling
In areas affected by mining, it is often advantageous to sample rivers and lake sediments. These
sediments can play an important role in removal of metals and other contaminants from water.
Conversely, they are also a potential source of metal release and toxicity to aquatic organisms that
live and feed at the bottom of rivers and lakes (Steffen Robertson and Kirsten et al (1989)).
Another source for sampling is soil and stream banks (Figure 7). These areas may be more
accessible than river and lake sediments and will reflect the geochemistry of underlying lithologies.

Figure 7: Sample banks (soil and vegetation) on either side to determine possible migration
of elements
This type of sampling is typically not a regular part of an ARD sampling or monitoring program. It
may however be worthwhile in areas where mine rock is being deposited directly into a water body
or where drainage from a mine impacted area carries a contaminant load into receiving waters. The
reader is referred to "Sampling for Water Quality" (Environment Canada (1983)) or the "Handbook
of Stream Sampling for Waste Load Allocation Applications" (Environmental Protection Agency
(1986)) for detailed descriptions of sampling methods for this type of material.
Sampling Equipment
The types sampling equipment are important when planning and conducting a sampling survey.
These range from hand tools such as geological picks, scoops and shovels to motorized augers
and drills. Different equipment will produce different sizes of sample. Be aware of contamination of
samples from the use of sampling tools (e.g. lubricants, paint etc.).
Field Test Work
Field test work of the samples should include paste pH; total dissolved solids, pH and temperature
of water (if present such as stream); photographs of field sites; precise location of site using global
positioning system (GPS), grid or other survey method and detailed descriptions of material
sampled (Figure 8).

Figure 8: Field test work.
A prior knowledge of overburden (soils) and geological units is very important in determining field
sample sites. If such information do not exist, then one must be prepared to carry out field mapping.
An often overlooked field measurement is bulk specific gravity (density), which is used in estimating
the total metal content of a deposit. It is important, specifically in ARD generating waste material, in
determining the number of tonnes that must be removed and handled. The waste rock will have an
economic cutoff grade and so waste material may contain some metals. Generally, each lithologic
unit will have a different specific gravity due to variation in mineralogy. There should be enough
measurements that a reliable estimate of the error on the mean value can be calculated. Bimodal or
skewed distributions of specific gravity measurements indicate the presence of domains or multiple
populations and the need to review the various geological categories.
Sample Blending for Waste Piles
In some places there may be a need to create blended waste rock piles/dumps in order to control
acid rock drainage. Sampling of material that will be used in the dump is extremely important so as
to control the correct blending of waste material. As in the case of systematic grade control, there
should also be some systematic waste rock ARD control. Material sampled will most often come
from blasthole cuttings. As a result of inappropriate waste rock sampling and subsequent blending
practices, the resulting blended pile will be three-dimensionally heterogeneous and the composition
of each pile (or sections within the same pile) will be known with poor accuracy and precision, and
the composition may vary from pile to pile.
Sample Handling and Storage
Most samples when collected are put into plastic sample bags or kraft paper bag in the case of soil
and sediments. However, there are times when field samples may need to be submersed and
shipped in water or cold container in order to prevent any initial rapid oxidation. Such samples may
also need to be stored under these conditions until such time that they are not needed. It is
generally during the sample handling that contamination of the sample may occur.
Samples should be well labelled with location and type of sample at a minimum. The date and
sampler's initials are also recommended. Sample locations should be noted on a site plan and
staked or marked in the field where practical. With the advance of GPS units, it is possible to collect
coordinates during sampling for recording in a logbook. Photographs of sample locations are also
extremely useful.
Chain of Custody
A very important aspect of sampling is the chain of custody from sample collection to shipping and
analysis and storage. This chain must be maintained in order that any source of contamination
and/or errors can be identified and assessed.
Sample Preparation
Sample preparation is the next important step in sampling, whether it is done in the field or
laboratory. It is during the sample preparation that some contamination of the sample may occur. All
field and laboratory sample preparation procedures must be documented in detail in the ARD
report.
Sample Composite Procedures
Pulps: Pulps that are used for assaying can also be used for ABA, assuming that the waste
sections were assayed in conjunction with mineralized sections. By using these assay
pulps, considerable time and expense can be saved. Pulps for the specified intervals are
requested from the analytical laboratory by sample number. An equal, weighed, amount of
each pulp is taken from each sample envelope and then combined forming a composite
sample over some specified interval. From this composite, the sub-samples are taken for
various analyses.
Rejects: Reject samples from assay sample preparation can also be used for ABA analyses
and kinetic and humidity cell test work. Compositing rejects must be done as described in
the above procedure.
Sampling Theory: Pierre Gy developed a sampling theory which essentially addresses the
fundamental questions of sampling broken material. Francois-Bongarcon has revisited Gy's
theory with some further refinements. Sketchley has taken Gy's formula and developed the
sample constant into a sampling nomograph. (see Gy, P. (1982), Gy, P. (1992), Gy, P.
(1998), Francois-Bongarcon (1999) and Sketchley (1999))
Common Sampling Problems: Types of problems that lead to the collection of
unsatisfactory data generally arise from the sampling program, such as ...
o inappropriate sample type;
o insufficient samples taken to properly characterize the waste material with regard to
sample variability;
o inappropriate field sample spacing and size for waste material characterization;
o representative sub-samples are not obtained due to laboratory sampling
procedures that reduce field sample mass at too coarse a particle size;
o representative sub-sample analyses are not obtained because the analytical
sample size is too small.
Sources of Error: The ARD practitioner must recognize that there will be sources of error
(measurement errors) resulting from both sampling and analysis. Errors are not "mistakes"
but refer to inevitable inaccuracies and imprecision of data resulting from limitations of
selecting small representative samples from large volumes of material and from the
sensitivity of analytical methods. As errors are cumulative, each step of sampling through to
analysis can be identified as a source of error. Quality assurance/quality control programs
will help to minimize these errors, but not eliminate them. The treatment of errors is
discussed by Stanley and Bloom, and the reader is referred to these papers. In any ARD
report, these errors must be identified and presented to the reader. Statistical treatment of
the data with respect to sampling should also be discussed. (see Stanley (1999) and Bloom
(1999))
Chemical Analysis
Before analyses are carried out, the ARD practitioner must discuss with the analytical laboratory the
appropriate chemical analyses and methods of sample preparation and digestion. The amount of
sample used in the analysis is very important as variation in sample mass may cause analytical
variation.
Geological Analysis
Geological sampling will include both regional and detail mapping and sampling. This should also
incorporate overburden and soil mapping and sampling, as these materials may be used for
construction purposes and/or reclamation.
Mineralogical Analysis
Neutralization Potential values alone can never represent the compositional, structural and textural
nature of waste material. A detailed mineralogical study will provide insight into grain size
distributions, mineral assemblages, spatial variations in assemblages etc. Mineralogical mapping
and sampling must be carried out in conjunction with the geological analysis.
Pilot and Milling Plant Sampling
The milling plant is the best place to obtain a representative sample of both broken rock and tails.
The broken rock material is usually crushed to 35 mm to 20mm before entering the grinding circuit.
Tailings will be produced after the benefication stage. Samples should be taken on a regular basis
so as to obtain information of material going to the heap leach pads or to the tailings impoundment.
In the pilot plant, testing of the material will achieve two purposes: 1) ARD characterization of
potential leaching material and tailings and 2) determination of sampling procedures for the milling
plant.
Data Presentation, Interpretation and Reporting
The various analytical methods applied to samples will produce numerous data. Extreme care
should be taken in the application of statistical analysis. Poor understanding of the statistical
aspects of data evaluation will lead to wrong (potentially expensive) conclusions. The question that
needs to be addressed by the ARD practitioner is "How defensible are my data?".
The ARD report must include all aspects of sampling so that the regulator (and other interested
groups) have some confidence in the reported results, interpretations and conclusions.
Qualified Personnel and the Sampling Program
Sample programs must be conducted by qualified people, who must have some geochemical
training. This aspect is very important as all too often unqualified people take samples without any
input from a geochemist.
Conclusions
Good sampling is the basis of good data, good interpretation and viable conclusions. Qualified
people should be involved in the design, planning and supervision of a sampling program that will
give regulators confidence in the results.

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References

Bloom, L. (1999), Third Party vetting of Geochemical Programs or Return on Quality, in short
course Quality Control in Mineral Exploration, presented at 19th International Geochemical
Exploration Symposium, April 11, 1999, Vancouver, B.C.
Environment Canada, Water Quality Branch (1983), Sampling for Water Quality. Inland Waters
Directorate, Ottawa
Environmental Protection Agency (1986), Handbook: Stream Sampling for Waste Load Allocation
Applications. EPA/625/6-86/013, September 1986
Francois-Bongarcon, D. (1999), Extensions to the Demonstration of Gy's, Formula, Exploration and
Mining Geology, vol. 7, nos 1and 2, pp 149-155.
Gy, P. (1998), Sampling for Analytical Purposes, John Wiley, New-York and London, 150 p.
Gy, P. (1992), The Sampling of Heterogeneous and Dynamic Material Systems, Elsevier,
Amsterdam, 653 p
Gy, P. (1982), Sampling of Particulate Materials, Theory and Practice, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 431 p.
Sketchley, D.A. (1999) Gold Deposits: Establishing Sampling Protocols andMonitoringg Quality
Control, Exploration and Mining Geology, vol. 7, nos 1 and 2, pp129-139.
Stanley, C. (1999), Treatment of Geochemical Data: Some Pitfalls in Graphical Analysis, in short
course Quality Control in Mineral Exploration, presented at 19th International Geochemical
Exploration Symposium, April 11, 1999, Vancouver, B.C.
Steffen, Robertson and Kirsten (1992), Mine Rock Guidelines Design and Control of Drainage
Water Quality. Report prepared for the Saskatchewan Environment and Public Safety, Mines
Pollution Control Branch, April 1992.
Steffen Robertson and Kirsten (B.C.) Inc., in association with Norecol Environmental Consultants
and Gormely Process Engineering (1989). Draft Acid Rock Drainage Technical Guide. Prepared for
British Columbia Acid Mine Drainage Task Force, Volumes I and II.
Thrush, P.W. et al., Dictionary of Mining, Mineral and Related Terms, US Bureau of Mines Special
Publication, Maclean Hunter Publishing Company 1990
Vallee, Marcel (1999), Sampling Quality Control, Exploration and Mining Geology, vol.7, nos. 1 and
2.