20th Century Chinese History Timeline

The history of China from the 1890s to the present – Timeline

The 20th Century saw some of the biggest changes in Chinese history. At the
beginning of the century China was a mess –there was almost no industry, an
ineffectual and corrupt government and no standing whatsoever on the world stage.

By the end of our timeline, China is arguably in as good shape as at any point in her
history. The economy seems unstoppable, the government, though far from perfect, is
at least stable, and China is just beginning to flex her considerable muscles on the
world stage.

20th Century Chinese History – Tough times to live through

The 20th Century may have seen China emerge stronger, but it was a terrible period to
live through for many Chinese. Whatever the more recent traumas Chinese may have
faced, they cannot compare in scale to the destruction of WW2 and the civil war, the
Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution.

The blame for two of those events – the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural
Revolution, can be placed squarely on the shoulders of one man – Chairman Mao
Zedong.

Of course, Mao wasn’t all bad for China – and nor was he the only influential figure –
other important names include Sun Yatsen, Chiang Kaishek and Deng Xiaoping.

If you want to know where the Chinese are going, you have to have an idea of where
they’re coming from.

20th Century Chinese History Timeline

1890s China is being slowly partitioned by foreign powers. At a time when China
desperately needs reform, the Qing dynasty government of Empress Dowager Cixi
offers stubborn conservatism. The Boxer Rebellion, with the stated aim of
‘overthrowing the Qing and destroying foreigners’ claims that its followers are
bulletproof.

1899 The Boxers are defeated by the Qing, but Cixi decides they might be useful to
her, and sets them the task of killing all the foreigners in China.

1900 An international force arrives in Beijing and routs the Boxers who have
besieged the foreign legation. Cixi and the Emperor escape by disguising themselves
as peasants.

20th Century Chinese History Landmarks – Fall of the Qing

1912 The Qing dynasty never really recovered from the humiliations of 1900 and
finally collapses in 1912. Sun Yatsen, who has spent decades travelling the world to
raise funds and campaign against the Qing, founds the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party)
and takes control of the new Republican government. In an effort to avert civil war he
offers the Presidency to Yuan Shikai, former head of the Qing armies, and warlord in
control of Northern China.

1913 Yuan Shikai, who clearly has ambitions to found a new dynasty, dissolves the
new Republican government and sends Sun Yatsen into exile once again.

1916 Yuan Shikai’s sudden death sends Northern China into civil war, while Sun
Yatsen returns to take control of a Kuomintang government in South China.

1921 The CCP is formed. Early members include Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai and Li
Dazhao, a Beijing University librarian. At the behest of the Soviet Union, they join
the KMT and fight the Northern warlords.

1925 Sun Yatsen dies. Chiang Kaishek is now in control of the KMT.

1927 After jointly defeating the Northern warlords, the CCP organise a strike against
Chiang and the KMT. They are brutally suppressed, around 5,000 people are killed,
including Yang Kaihui, Mao’s second wife, and Li Dazhao, who is executed by slow
strangulation.

1932 Japan invades Manchuria (Northern China)

1934 The Long March – encircled and outnumbered, the Communists must fight or
flee. They flee, marching almost 10,000km and crossing more than a dozen mountain
ranges. Many die, but the succeed in regrouping and establishing a base in Yan’an,
Sha’anxi.

1936 Chiang said that ‘The Japanese are a disease of the skin, the Communists are a
disease of the heart’ and wants to focus on defeating the Communists first. His
General Zhang Xueliang disagreed and kidnapped him, forcing him to agree to a
United Front with the Communists against the Japanese.
1937 The Sino-Japanese War starts. In an event known as the Rape of Nanjing,
Japanese troops rape, mutilate, torture and kill at least 200,000 civilians.

1937 – 45 The United Front ends when Chiang stops distributing US arms to the
Communists. During the war the KMT retreat westwards while the KMT retreat to the
countryside, away from the lines of transport and communication both the Japanese
and the KMT rely on.

1945 The Japanese surrender. The CCP likes to underestimate the role of the KMT in
the Japanese defeat, and exaggerate its own.

1945 – 49 By the end of WW2 the KMT had bankrupted China whilst the CCP had
built themselves a strong, national following from their countryside bases.

20th Century Chinese History Landmarks – Foundation of the PRC

1949 In 1949 Mao took Beijing and declared the foundation of the People’s Republic
of China.

1949 – 1956 Generally seen as the ‘good years’ of Chinese socialism. Land is
redistributed to peasants and the economy grows.

1956 The Hundred Flowers Campaign encourages intellectuals to give their opinions
about the government. Many that do are sent straight to jail.

1958 – 60 The Great Leap Forward, an attempt to boost production through re-
redistribution of land (into enormous communes) and millions of backyard furnaces.
The result was two failed harvests and millions of deaths from starvation.

20th Century Chinese History Landmarks – The Cultural Revolution

1966 After a few years away from power, discredited by the Great Leap Forward,
Mao starts the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution. The Cultural Revolution is a
time of utter chaos where university students (and later, even younger students)
formed into bands of ‘Red Guards’ and went round destroying anything redolent of
the West, capitalism, religion or tradition. Mao’s rivals within the Party were purged,
thousands of lives were ruined, the health and education system collapsed, and most
of China’s cultural heritage was destroyed.

1972 – The Lin Biao incident sees the death of Mao’s greatest ally and propagandist,
Lin Biao. Historians speculate that he may have attempted a coup against Mao.

1976 – The chaos of the cultural revolution ends with the death of Mao. Hua Guofeng
takes over, but has no real powerbase.

1978 – Deng Xiaoping ousts Hua Guofeng and, for the almost the first time in
Chinese history, allows his predecessor a relatively peaceful retirement.

20th Century Chinese History Landmarks – Reform & Opening

1980 – Deng begins the policies of ‘reform and opening up’ which see China open up
its economy and (to a much lesser degree) political life.

1989 – Violent suppression of Tiananmen Square protests dents hopes for further
political reform and tarnishes China’s international image, but has little long term
effect on economic progress. Jiang Zemin becomes leader, some speculate he gets the
leadership because of his firm ideological stance and successful handling of student
protests in Shanghai.

1995 – Work begins on the Three Gorges Dam.

1997 – Deng dies, Hong Kong returns to China.

2001 – China is admitted to the World Trade Organisation and bids successfully for
the 2008 Olympics.

2002 Jiang Zemin hands the premiership over to Hu Jintao.

2003 – The SARS outbreak is the first major crisis of Hu Jintao’s premiership. After
initially attempting to cover up the problem, China’s response is robust.

2003 – Present. China’s economy continues to grow at around 10% a year, some
economists expect it to overtake the USA by 2020. Government efforts to cut
corruption have some effect, although some allege they are being used to settle
political feuds. Human rights remain a major concern for foreign NGOs, but foreign
governments and business increasingly overlook such issues in the charge to make
money in China.

Overview
Before Europeans first arrived in Asia, China was one of the most advanced and
powerful nations in the world. It was the most populous, was politically unified, and
most importantly, it had mastered the art of agriculture. However, when Europeans
first landed on Chinese shores, they found a nation that had revered to traditional
culture and warfare. Industrialization was almost nonexistent.

At the beginning of the 20th century, China was divided into sphere of influence with
each powerful Western nation trying to exert as much control over it as possible. The
Chinese resented foreigners control and expressed this at the beginning of the 20th
century with the Boxer Rebellion. At the same time, the traditional government of
China began to fail in the early years. The Chinese people, being resentful of
foreigners and dissatisfied with inability of the present government to throw them out,
initiated the Revolution of 1911, replacing the Chinese 2000 year old imperial system
with the Republic of China headed by Sun Yat-sen.

In March of 1912, Sun Yat-sen resigned and Yuan Shih-kai became the next ruler of
China. Yuan attempted to reinstate an imperial system with himself as emperor
causing Sun to start one of China’s first political parties, Kuomintang or KMT. Sun
fought hard to establish a democracy but was largely unsuccessful until the 1920’s.
In 1917, China entered World War I on the side of the allies. Although China did not
see any military action, it provided resources in the form of laborers that worked in
allied mines and factories. The Treaty of Versailles ignored China’s plea to end
concessions and foreign control of China.

On May 4, 1919, the May Fourth Movement took place in which students
demonstrated in protest of the Treaty of Versailles. The Movement helped the
Chinese by promoting science and making Chinese adopt a new easier form of
writing. Moreover, the movement was the foundation for the forming of the
Communist Party of China (CCP).

During the 1920’s, China was divided in a power struggle began between the CCP
and KMT. The KMT controlled a majority of China with a strong base in urban areas
while the CCP displaying smallholdings in rural communities. By 1928, the CCP was
expelled and China was nationalized under the KMT. However, the Communist Party
of China resurfaced on November 1, 1931 when it proclaimed the Jiangxi providence
as the Chinese Soviet Republic. The army of the Republic of China, under the
leadership of Chiang Kai-shek tried to destroy the Communist army in 1934,
however, Chiang failed but did cause the CCP to flee northward in the Long March.

Also in 1931, Japan began to occupy Manchuria and established a puppet government
called Manchukuo. The Japanese aggression in China became full blown on July 7,
1937, the beginning World War II. By 1939, Japan controlled most of the east coast of
China, while Chiang blockaded the Communists in the northwest region. By 1944, the
United States began to help nationalist China, but the nationalist remained weak due
to high inflation and economic strife.

In January of 1946, the two factions of China began to have another power struggle.
The KMT, supplied by the United States, controlled the cities, while the CCP had a
strong hold in the countryside. To make matters worse, high inflation demoralized the
citizens and military. By 1948, the CCP began to wage war against the KMT, taking
control of Manchuria and working its way south. On October 1, 1949, with the retreat
of the KMT to Taiwan, Mao Zedong established the People’s Republic of China.

The People’s Republic of China completely changed the culture and geography of the
Chinese people. It implemented five-year plans that consisted of land reform, social
reform, cultural reform, and economic planning. The changes lead to the Great Leap
Forward and Great Proletarian Cultural Reform. In 1949, China also implemented a
30-year alliance with Russia against Japanese and Japanese allies, although tensions
strained after the death of Joseph Stalin in 1955. Relations between the two countries
remained strained until 1985.

It was not until 1970’s that most Western nations established diplomatic ties to
Communist China. With the help of President Richard Nixon and his philosophy of
Détente, China was incorporated into the world community. The high point of the
People’s Republic of China came in 1971 when it was given Taiwan’s position on the
United Nation’s Security Council.
As China was increasing its world reconciliation, the founders of the People’s
Republic of China were slowly dying, including Mao Zedong. The lack of Zhou Enlai
and Mao in leadership roles in 1976 caused a power struggle developed between
Deng Ziaoping and Mao’s supports, headed by Jiang Qing. In the same year, students
demonstrated in Tiananmen Square in honor of Zhou, causing a flaw in Jiang’s
power. Seeing his opportunity, Deng seized power and brought younger men with his
views to power. He developed state constitutions and brought new policies to the
party in 1982. Deng’s plan was based on the four modernizations of agriculture,
industry, national defense, and science/technology. In 1987, Deng retired and Zhao
Ziyang became general secretary, and Li Peng became premier.

China remained quit for some years after the power struggle after the death of Mao.
However, in 1989, China came into the world’s eyes again with the Tiananmen
Square incident. Students demonstrating in the streets of Beijing were attacked and
killed by Chinese soldiers. The event caused nations around the world to question
China’s view of human rights and freedoms.

Today, China is one of the most talked about countries when it comes to the future of
the world economy. With more than 1.1 billion people in 1990 and an economy based
on agriculture, China, could it ever become industrialized, would have a significant
impact on global trade. It has the natural resources and manpower to build and
possess the largest economy in the world. More importantly, with the conflict between
nationalist Taiwan and communist China, China may become the next Balkans or
major player in a third World War. It is important that foreign nations understand the
development of the China before they decide which side to defend. What will China’s
role in the 21st century be? The answer may lie in the Taiwan – China conflict.

Mao Zedong (pronunciation Mao Tse-tung) was a Chinese military and political leader, who
led the Communist Party of China (CPC) to victory against the Kuomintang (KMT) in the
Chinese Civil War, and was the leader of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) from its
establishment in 1949 until his death in 1976.

Regarded as one of the most important figures in modern world history, Mao is still a
controversial figure today, over thirty years after his death. He is held in high regard in China
where he is often portrayed as a great revolutionary and strategist who eventually defeated
Chiang Kai-shek in the Chinese Civil War, and transformed the country into a major power
through his policies. However, many of Mao's socio-political programs such as the Great
Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution are blamed by critics from both within and outside
China for causing severe damage to the culture, society, economy and foreign relations of
China, as well as enormous and unnecessary loss of lives, a peacetime death toll in the tens
of millions.

Although still officially venerated in China, his influence has been largely overshadowed by
the political and economic reforms of Deng Xiaoping and other leaders since his death.[3][4]
Mao is also recognized as a poet and calligrapher.

Mao Zedong (pronunciation Mao Tse-tung) was a Chinese military and political leader, who
led the Communist Party of China (CPC) to victory against the Kuomintang (KMT) in the
Chinese Civil War, and was the leader of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) from its
establishment in 1949 until his death in 1976.

Regarded as one of the most important figures in modern world history, Mao is still a
controversial figure today, over thirty years after his death. He is held in high regard in China
where he is often portrayed as a great revolutionary and strategist who eventually defeated
Chiang Kai-shek in the Chinese Civil War, and transformed the country into a major power
through his policies. However, many of Mao's socio-political programs such as the Great
Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution are blamed by critics from both within and outside
China for causing severe damage to the culture, society, economy and foreign relations of
China, as well as enormous and unnecessary loss of lives, a peacetime death toll in the tens
of millions.

Although still officially venerated in China, his influence has been largely overshadowed by
the political and economic reforms of Deng Xiaoping and other leaders since his death.[3][4]
Mao is also recognized as a poet and calligrapher.

China was not an industrial society although there was industry there. This is
an important factor in what determined the four social classes of China. The
social classes were ranked by their importance to society. We will begin with
the low end of the totem pole and work our way to the top.

The lowest and poorest class was that of the merchants. These were people
who conned people into buying goods they did not need. They were
considered to be like parasites as they made their living off other people. It
was believed that it took no skill to be a merchants so they had little value in
society as they were easily replaces.

The third class was the artisans. These are the people who crafted things with
their hands. They are considered skilled which gives them more value
than the merchants. Artisans often formed guilds and were respected
for belonging to these organizations. Most artisans lived near cities.

The second class was the farmers and peasants. Seven out of ten people
belonged to this category. Peasants were considered to be the economic
base of the country and were valued as such. This is not to say that they were
not taken advantage of and charged high rents and exorbitant taxes. The
farmers worked in family agricultural groups. Grains was the chief crop.
Farmers owned land and land was highly valued as it was split between sons.

The highest class of people were the scholars and officials. This group of
people was given examinations to determine government positions. There
were three levels of exams and they were for men only. They were district,
provincial, and national. The exams were based of Master Kong’s texts.
Passing the exams opened the door to the government, a highly respected
place. This provided wealth, power, and prestige. Though one could move
into this class it was often that it passed on down family lines and these men
could afford the best education for their sons which resulted in better exam
scores. No more than one out of ten people qualified to be in this class.

The first half of the 20th century was a period of utter chaos in China, with
several different forces vying for power in the wake of the Qing dynasty.
Intellectuals were on a mission to discover or create a new philosophy that
would replace Confucianism while warlords continued on with their quest to
gain imperial power. Leader of the Nationalist party, Chiang Kaishek was
determined to destroy, with as much violence as possible, the growing
Communist influence and the power of the northern warlord. In March of
1926, after someone had unsuccessfully attempted to kidnap him, Chiang
quickly fired all of his Soviet advisers, and imposed severe restrictions on the
Chinese Communist Party. The Soviet Union, still trying to preserve peace,
ordered Communist underground activities to facilitate the Northern
Expedition, which Chiang launched from Guangzhou in July 1926.

In early 1927 there was a great upheaval within the revolutionary ranks,
primarily due to left wing leaders deciding to relocate the headquarters of the
Nationalist government from Guangzhou to Wuhan. But Chiang, whose
Northern Expedition was going smoothly, ordered his troops to destroy the
Shanghai Chinese Communist Party and established an anti-Communist
government at Nanjing in April 1927. Consequently, China now had three
different capitals, in Beijing, Wuhan and Nanjing. The latter remained the
Nationalist capitol for the next decade.

By early 1928 all of China was under Chiang's control, and the Nanjing
government received became knowns as the "real" Chinese
government.By the summer of 1928, a Nationalist government had
been established at Beijing, with Chiang presiding over both military and
political realms.

At the same time, the acceleration of the Chinese Communist Party was
causing a growing dissension among those who focused on urban revolt and
believed victory relied on their ability to unite the countryside. By the 1930's
Chinese leader, Mao Zedong had collected an army of over 40,000 soldiers
and had established a firm presence for his forces in the mountains of
Jinggangshan. At this point in time the Chinese Communist Party and the
"Red Army" were controlled by what was known as "The 28 Bolsheviks", a
faction which was comprised primarily of young, Moscow-trained
revolutionaries whose roots were mainly in urban centers. Chiang launched
extermination campaigns against the Communists on four separate
occasions, each time resulting in victory for the Communists. Some historians
blame the loss of Chiangs troops on their "short attack" strategy which they
used to replace the traditional full-scale battles of the past. Others say they
simply brought too much excess baggage with them, which slowed them
down so much that it cost them their victory. Chiang's fifth campaign against
the Communists was almost successful, however due to a last-minute change
in strategy, the effort failed. The Communist successes under the leadership
of Mao Zedung propelled Mao into legendary status as leader of the Chinese
Communist Party, having proved that under the proper leadership, his people
could march to victory.

In the fifties and sixties, Mao Zedong acted as leader of the both the Chinese
revolution and the Chinese Communist Party. Distraught at the present state
of his country, whose fruits of victory were being to sour, he became
determined to launch a second revolution with an objective of a socialist
utopia. The Mao was suspicious almost to the point of paranoia, fearing that
those who had sworn loyalty to him were turning against him in droves. He
also had an ingrained distrust for the intellectuals whose interests were slowly
turning from the ideological to the technological. He feared that the increasing
professional bureaucracy he had witnessed taking place in the Soviet Union
was destined to occur in his own country as well. During this time period
Marxism was fast becoming an intriguing alternative for many Chinese
intellectuals, with Communism appealing directly to their growing fears of the
ongoing dissension within Chinese society. China’s intellectuals realized that
they were no longer standing high moral ground, and became confused about
what their purpose was in relation to the state. The Chinese people were also
growing weary of Mao's ideologies and were even beginning to question
whether the implementation of those ideologies had done more harm than
good. This was something he could not tolerate.

In response, the Mao launched two failed efforts: "The Great Leap Forward"
and the "Socialist Education Movement", both of which backfired terribly. Thus
he began to become increasingly less important in Chinese Government,
acting almost solely as a figurehead. The one place where Mao's influence
had not yet diminished, however, was within the People's Liberation Army.
Mao used the influence he had over its governing Defense Committee to
instigate The Cultural Revolution, which lasted from 1966 to 1976. The
Cultural Revolution was an attempt to draw attention away from Mao's failures
and reshape his image by illuminating him in the spotlight of his dynamic
personal presence. It was also an attempt to eliminate certain enemies from
the hierarchy of the Communist Party. Mao organized the “Red Guard” and
exploited his popularity with the general public in order to confront party
officials whom he thought were not loyal enough nor passionate enough to
help his cause. But by 1968 Mao had turned against the Red Guards, blaming
them for creating enormous levels of chaos. Mao Zedong's called for the
arrests of several of the Red Guard's prominent leaders, and the eventual
suppression of the movement altogether.

In 1973 the government was restructured under Premier Zhou Enlai, in which
he made good use of Mao's younger revolutionaries. This was the same year
of Mao Zedung's death. The economy endured another political and economic
crisis when "extremists" led by Mao's widow Jiang Qing and her "gang of four"
were defeated by the "moderates". In general, however, violence had
significantly waned.

While political wars are the primary cause of violence in China's modern
history, the war against crime and drugs has contributed as well. Punishment
for criminals in China has historically consisted of everything from the
mandatory treatment of drug abusers and execution of dealers, to the
suspension of certain constitutional rights and restructuring of the Chinese
prison system.

HRIC September Take Action: Put an End to Torture in China

September 10, 2008

[Chinese / 中文]

Although torture is illegal in China under both international and domestic law,
there is ample evidence that torture is used by police, state security, and prison
officials to extract confessions, and as a tool for political repression. In August
2007, Zhu Xiaoqing, China’s Deputy Procurator-General, admitted that “almost all
of the major flawed cases discovered in recent years are closely linked to
confessions extracted during interrogations.”

This month, Human Rights in China highlights the case of rights defender Guo
Feixiong (郭飞雄), now serving a five-year sentence in Meizhou Prison in
Guangdong, essentially for editing a book. He was convicted on the basis of a
confession extracted from him through torture.

"Many criminal suspects in China, as well as those who seek to defend the rights
of others and speak out against injustice – lawyers, environmental activists,
petitioners – have become victims of torture," said Sharon Hom, executive
director of Human Rights in China. "In failing to honor its obligation under
international and Chinese law to prevent the use of torture to extract confessions,
the Chinese government violates the rights of its citizens and undermines its
professed commitment to the rule-of-law."

Guo was detained for 15

months before his trial.
During his detention, he was
interrogated round-the-clock In failing to honor its obligation under
for 13 days, tied down to a international and Chinese law to prevent the
wooden bed for 42 days use of torture to extract confessions, the
with his arms and legs Chinese government violates the rights of its
shackled, and hung from the citizens and undermines its professed
ceiling by his arms while the
police electrocuted his
commitment to the rule-of-law.
genitals with a high-voltage
baton. The last of these — Sharon Hom, Executive Director of HRIC
episodes drove him to
attempt suicide.

Prior to his detention in

September 2006, Guo
provided legal advice in a number of controversial rights defense cases, including
helping the villagers of Taishi, Guangdong province, to remove their corrupt
village chief in 2005. He was tried and convicted in November 2007 for publishing
a book in 2001 ("illegal business activity") about a political scandal in Shenyang.
At Meizhou Prison, he went on hunger strike several times to protest his ill-
treatment, which included beating and solitary confinement. During one of these
hunger strikes, he was force-fed a liquid that made him vomit for more than a
week and turned his urine red. He is currently in poor health. The authorities also
targeted his family: his wife lost her job; his son’s enrollment in school was
delayed for a year; and his daughter was barred from attending her local middle
school. In addition to Guo, numerous rights defenders and activists, including
Yang Chunlin (杨春林), Hu Shigen (胡石根), and Li Heping (李和平), have
suffered torture while in detention.

Over the past two years, various branches of the Chinese government, including
the Supreme People’s Court, Supreme People’s Procuratorate, Ministry of Public
Security, and Ministry of Justice, have issued regulations prohibiting the use of
torture to extract confessions during interrogations. These formal measures are a
step forward but must be followed by further legislative reforms and effective
implementation, including substantive changes in law enforcement practices.
Civil liberties
[edit] Freedom of speech

A comparison of image search results on the term "Tiananmen" between Google.com

and Google China Image searches (15 February 2006). The Google China results have
omitted images from the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989.
Main articles: Censorship in the People's Republic of China and Government
control of the media in the People's Republic of China

Although the 1982 constitution guarantees freedom of speech,[6] the Chinese

government often uses the subversion of state power clause to imprison those who are
critical of the government.[7] Also, there is very heavy government involvement in the
media, with most of the largest media organizations being run directly by the
government. Chinese law forbids the advocacy of independence or self-determination
for territories Beijing considers under its jurisdiction, as well as public challenge to
the CCP's monopoly in ruling China. Thus references to democracy, the Free Tibet
movement, Taiwan as an independent state, certain religious organizations and
anything remotely questioning the legitimacy of the Communist Party of China are
banned from use in publications and blocked on the Internet. PRC journalist He
Qinglian in her 2004 book Media Control in China[8] examined government controls
on the Internet in China[9] and on all media. Her book shows how PRC media controls
rely on confidential guidance from the Communist Party propaganda department,
intense monitoring, and punishment for violators rather than on pre-publication
censorship.

Recently, foreign web portals including Microsoft Live Search, Yahoo! Search, and
Google Search China[10] have come under criticism for aiding in these practices,
including banning the word "Democracy" from its chat rooms in China. Yahoo! in
particular, stated that it will not protect the privacy and confidentiality of its Chinese
customers from the authorities,[11] and was criticised by Human Rights Watch and
Reporters Without Borders of having "taken on the role of censor."[12]

[edit] Freedom of movement

For more details on this topic, see Hukou.

The Communist Party came to power in the late 1940s and instigated a command
economy. In 1958, Mao set up a residency permit system defining where people could
work, and classified an individual as a "rural" or "urban" worker.[13] A worker seeking
to move from the country to an urban area to take up non-agricultural work would
have to apply through the relevant bureaucracies. The number of workers allowed to
make such moves was tightly controlled. People who worked outside their authorized
domain or geographical area would not qualify for grain rations, employer-provided
housing, or health care.[14] There were controls over education, employment, marriage
and so on.[13] One reason for instituting this system was to prevent the possible chaos
caused by the predictable large-scale urbanization. It is alleged that people of Han
nationality in Tibet have a far easier time acquiring the necessary permits to live in
urban areas than ethnic Tibetans do.[15]

Urban dwellers enjoy a range of social, economic and cultural benefits while peasants,
the majority of the Chinese population, are treated as second-class citizens.[16]

An article in The Washington Times, reported in 2000 that although migrant laborers
play an important part in spreading wealth in Chinese villages, they are treated "like
second-class citizens by a system so discriminatory that it has been likened to
apartheid."[17] Another author making similar comparison is Anita Chan, who posits
that China's household registration and temporary residence permit system has created
a situation analogous to the passbook system in apartheid South Africa, which was
designed to regulate the supply of cheap labor.[18]

Abolition of this policy was proposed in 11 provinces, mainly along the developed
eastern coast. The law has already been changed such that migrant workers no longer
face summary arrest, after a widely publicised incident in 2003, when a university-
educated migrant died in Guangdong province. This particular scandal was exposed
by a Beijing law lecturer, Mr Xu, who claims it spelt the end of the hukou system. He
further believes that, at least in most smaller cities, the system had already been
abandoned. Mr Xu continues: "Even in big cities like Beijing and Shanghai, it has
almost lost its function".[19]

Special administrative regions

Also as a result of the one country, two systems policy initiated in the late 20th
century, Chinese citizens must gain permission from the government to travel to the
Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and Macao.

[edit] Religious freedom

Main article: Freedom of religion in the People's Republic of China

During the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), particularly the Destruction of Four

Olds campaign, religious affairs of all types were persecuted and discouraged by the
Communists with many religious buildings looted and destroyed. Since then, there
have been efforts to repair, reconstruct and protect historical and cultural religious
sites.[20] Critics say that not enough has been done to repair or restore damaged and
destroyed sites.[21]

The 1982 Constitution technically guarantees its citizens the right to believe in any
religion, however this is not to be confused with the general concept of "Freedom of
Religion" as is commonly referred to in the West as the right to practice religion in
any way you see fit without government interference.[22] This freedom is subject to
restrictions, as all religious groups must be registered with the government and are
prohibited from having loyalties outside of China. In addition, the communist
government continually tries to maintain control over not only religious content, but
also leadership choices such as the choosing of bishops and other spiritual leaders.
Considering all party leaders must be communist, the ability of such officials to
intelligently choose religious leaders is highly questionable. For example, the recently
appointed Bishop in China was not appointed by the Pope as has been the Catholic
Church's practice up until this time.[23] The government argues that such restriction is
necessary to prevent foreign political influence eroding Chinese sovereignty, though
groups affected by this deny that they have any desire to interfere in China's political
affairs. This has led to an effective prohibition on those religious practices that by
definition involve allegiance to a foreign spiritual leader or organization, (see
Catholicism in China) although tacit allegiance to such individuals and bodies inside
these groups is not uncommon. "Unregistered religious groups ... experience varying
degrees of official interference, harassment, and repression."[24]

Particularly troubling is the lack of transparency involved in recently chosen Tibetan

spiritual leaders. China attempts to intervene in the reincarnation of Tibetan spiritual
leaders and has indicated it will oversee the search for a new leader after the Dalai
Lama passes away. Beijing indicates that spiritual leaders must obtain approval before
they reincarnate.[25] Even more troubling is China's dealings with previously identified
reincarnations of past leaders. For example, the child who was identified as the new
Panchen Lama by Tibetan spiritual leaders was first detained by Chinese authorities
and then disappeared. The child has not been seen since, has spent the last 12 years in
detention and has effectively been robbed of his childhood. Repeated requests have
been made by visitor heads of state, including the Canadian prime minister.[26]
Reporters and tourists visiting Tibet note that monasteries are subject to video
surveillance. Other examples of the lack of religious freedom are:[27]

1. quotas instituted by Beijing on the number of monks to reduce the spiritual

population
2. Forced denunciation of the Dalai Lama as a spiritual leader or expulsion
3. Government expulsion from monasteries of unapproved monks
4. Forced recitation of patriotic scripts supporting China or expulsion
5. Restriction of religious study before age 18.

Numerous other instances of detention for unpatriotic acts have also been recorded, an
example of this would be the detention of monks celebrating the reception of the US
Congressional Gold Medal by the Dalai Lama.[28] The effects have been drastic,
whereas one large temple in Tibet once was a place of worship for over 10,000
monks, it is now only home to 600 and Beijing now restricts total membership in any
monastery to 700.[27]

Another instance of religious discrimination is the fact that members of the

Communist Party are officially required to be atheists.[29] While many party members
privately violate this rule,[30] being openly religious can limit their economic
prospects.

The government of the People's Republic of China tries to maintain tight control over
all religions, so the only legal Christian Churches (Three-Self Patriotic Movement and
Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association) are those under the Communist Party of
China control. It has been claimed by many that the teachings in the state-approved
Churches are at least monitored and sometimes modified by the Party.
Because Chinese House Churches operate outside government regulations and
restrictions, their members and leaders are sometimes harassed by local government
officials. This persecution may take the form of a prison sentence or, more commonly,
reeducation through labour. Heavy fines also are not uncommon, with personal effects
being confiscated in lieu of payment if this is refused or unavailable. Unlike Falun
Gong, however, house churches have not officially been outlawed, and since the
1990s, there has been increasing official tolerance of house churches. Most observers
believe that the harassment of house churches by government officials arises less from
an ideological opposition to religion and support of atheism than out of fears of a
center of popular mobilization outside the control of the Communist Party of China.
[citation needed]

[edit] Political freedom

A famous photo, taken on 5 June 1989 by photographer Jeff Widener (AP), depicting
a lone protester who tried to stop the PLA's advancing tanks during the Tiananmen
Square protests

The PRC is known for its intolerance of organized dissent towards the government.
Dissident groups are routinely arrested and imprisoned, often for long periods of time
and without trial. One of the most famous dissidents is Zhang Zhixin, who is known
for standing up against the ultra-left.[31] Incidents of torture, forced confessions and
forced labour are widely reported. Freedom of assembly and association is extremely
limited. The most recent mass movement for political freedom was crushed in the
Tiananmen Square Massacre in 1989, the estimated death toll of which ranges from
about 200 to 10,000 depending on sources.[32][33]

Political reforms towards better information disclosure and people empowerment is

under way. "The Chinese government began direct village elections in 1988 to help
maintain social and political order in the context of rapid economic reforms. Today,
village elections occur in about 650,000 villages across China, reaching 75% of the
nation's 1.3 billion people."[34] In the year 2008, the city of Shenzhen, which enjoys
the highest per capita GDP in China, is selected for experimentation. Over 70% of the
government officials on the district level will be directly elected.[35]

[edit] Impact of the Olympics

Main article: Concerns over the 2008 Summer Olympics

In anticipation of the 2008 Summer Olympics, China has faced international criticism
regarding its human rights record.[citation needed] China has acknowledged "the need to
keep advancing human rights,"[36] and resumed a human rights dialog with the United
States.[37] A number of foreign protesters were deported from China during the
Games.[38] Others were detained until the closing ceremony and then deported.[39][40]
An unauthorised protest by seven activists protesting about China's involvement in
Tibet at the Chinese Ethnic Culture Park, blocking its entrance, was cleared away by
the authorities.[41]

The Chinese government had promised to issue permits allowing people to protest in
so-called 'protest parks' during the Games,[42] but on 18 August it was reported that of
77 applications, 74 were withdrawn, two suspended and one vetoed.[43][44] Two elderly
Chinese women were reported to have been sentenced to "re-education through
labour" having applied for a permit.[45] The Chinese authorities stated they had no
record of the sentences.[45] Their sentence was suspended subject to proper behaviour,
and to restrictions on movement.[46] The authorities apparently feared that if Chinese
petitioners' protest applications were approved, it would lead to an avalanche of others
seeking to voice their grievances. Furthermore, many rights lawyers and political
dissidents were rounded up; the armies of migrant workers who built the Olympic
stadiums have been encouraged to leave town, lest their dishevelled appearances
detract from the image of a clean, modern nation. A Chinese lawyer explained, "For
Chinese petitioners, if their protest applications were approved, it would lead to a
chain reaction of others seeking to voice their problems as well" and an academic
observed that: "When you have guests coming over for dinner, you clean up the house
and tell the children not to argue."[47]

Critics also argue that the Chinese authorities failed to live up to their promises on
press freedom. ITV News reporter John Ray was arrested while covering a pro-Tibet
protest.[48][41] Foreign journalists also reported that their access to certain websites,
including those of human rights organisations, was restricted.[49][50] International
Olympic Committee president Jacques Rogge stated at the end of the Games that "The
regulations might not be perfect but they are a sea-change compared to the situation
before. We hope that they will continue".[51] The Foreign Correspondents Club of
China (FCCC) issued a statement that "despite welcome progress in terms of
accessibility and the number of press conferences within the Olympic facilities, the
FCCC has been alarmed at the use of violence, intimidation and harassment outside.
The club has confirmed more than 30 cases of reporting interference since the formal
opening of the Olympic media centre on 25 July, and is checking at least 20 other
reported incidents".[52]

[edit] Legislation
[edit] One-child policy
Main article: One-child policy

Government sign stating: "Please for the sake of your country, use birth control"
China's birth control policy, known widely as the One-child policy, is implemented by
the Chinese government to alleviate the overpopulation problem. The critics of this
policy argue that it is ineffective or morally objectionable. Such critics argue that it
contributes to forced abortions, human rights violations, female infanticide,
abandonment and sex-selective abortions. These are believed to be relatively
commonplace in some areas of the country, despite being illegal and punishable by
fines and jail time.[53] This is thought to have been a significant contribution to the
gender imbalance in mainland China, where there is a 118 to 100 ratio of male to
female children reported.[54][55][56] Forced abortions and sterilizations have also been
reported.[57][58]

It is also argued that the One-child policy is not effective enough to justify its costs,
and that the dramatic decrease in Chinese fertility started before the program began in
1979 for unrelated factors. The policy seems to have had little impact on rural areas
(home to about 80% of the population), where birth rates never dropped below 2.5
children per female.[59] Nevertheless, the Chinese government and others estimate that
at least 250 million births have been prevented by the policy.[60]

In 2002, the laws related to the One-child policy were amended to allow ethnic
minorities and Chinese living in rural areas to have more than one child. The policy
was generally not enforced in those areas of the country even before this. The policy
has been relaxed in urban areas to allow people who were single children to have two
children.[61]

[edit] Capital punishment

Main article: Capital punishment in the People's Republic of China

According to the United Nations Secretary-General, between 1994 and 1999 China
was ranked seventh in executions per capita, behind Singapore, Saudi Arabia,
Belarus, Sierra Leone, Kyrgyzstan, and Jordan.[62] Amnesty International claims that
official figures are much smaller than the real number, stating that in China the
statistics are considered State secrets. Amnesty stated that according to various
reports, in 2005 3,400 people were executed. In March of that year, a senior member
of the National People's Congress announced that China executes around 10,000
people per year.[63]

A total of 68 crimes are punishable by death; capital offenses include non-violent,

white-collar crimes such as embezzlement and tax fraud. The inconsistent and
sometimes corrupt nature of the legal system in mainland China bring into question
the fair application of capital punishment there.[64]

Amnesty International reports state that, in recent years, China has had the highest
number of executions of any country. In 2005, it topped the list with 1,770 people
executed.[65]. Figures from 2006 and 2007 are reported to have been 1,010 and 470
executions, respectively.[66][67][68] In January 2007, China's state media announced that
all death penalty cases will be reviewed by the Supreme People's Court. Since 1983,
China's highest court did not review all cases. This marks a return to China's pre-1983
policy.[69] In light of these changes, figures from 2007 display a substantial reduction
in executions with only 470 reported executions compared with figures from previous
years. However, Amnesty International analysts argue that this drop is only temporary
since the figure includes only confirmed executions.[70]

[edit] Discrimination
[edit] Ethnic minorities
See also: Racism in the People's Republic of China

There are 55 recognized ethnic minorities in China. Article 4 of the Chinese

constitution states "All nationalities in the People's Republic of China are equal", and
the government has made efforts to improve ethnic education and increased ethnic
representation in local government.

Some policies cause reverse racism, where Han Chinese or even ethnic minorities
from other regions are treated as second-class citizens in the ethnic region.[71][72]

There are also wide-ranging preferential policies (i.e. affirmative actions) in place to
promote social and economic developments for ethnic minorities, including
preferential employments, political appointments, and business loans.[73] Universities
typically have quota reserved for ethnic minorities despite having lower admission
test scores.[74] Ethnic minorities are also exempt from the one-child policy which is
aimed toward Han Chinese.

However, the government is harsh toward those that argue for independence or
political autonomy, mainly Tibetans and Uyghurs in rural provinces in the west of
China. Some groups have used terrorism to push their agenda.[75]

Five Chinese Uyghur detainees from the United States Guantanamo Bay detention
camp, which was itself known for human rights abuses, were released in June, 2007,
but the U.S. refused to return them to China citing the People's Republic of China's
"past treatment of the Uigur minority".[76]

[edit] Tibet

In 1951, the People's Liberation Army invaded Tibet, because many slave owners
were torturing their slaves. After the failed uprising of 1959, the Dalai Lama fled to
India because all the slave-masters were threatened with execution. In 1991 the Dalai
Lama alleged that Chinese settlers in Tibet were creating "Chinese Apartheid":

The new Chinese settlers have created an alternate society: a Chinese apartheid which,
denying Tibetans equal social and economic status in our own land, threatens to finally
overwhelm and absorb us.[77][78]

In a selection of speeches by the Dalai Lama published in India in 1998, he referred

again to a "Chinese apartheid", which he argued denied Tibetans equal social and
economic status, and furthered the viewpoint that human rights were violated by
discrimination against Tibetans under a policy which the Chinese called "segregation
and assimilation".[79][80] It must be noted that this opinion only represents those of the
former upper social class of Tibet, those that fled to India in the 1950s. Currently,
most Tibetans believe that their quality of life has greatly improved, because there are
now more opportunities for success. Tibet's economy has also greatly improved. In
addition, many restrictions that apply to Han Chinese do not apply to Tibetans, such
as the One Child rule. Another thing Tibetans are exempt from is paying for college.

According to the Heritage Foundation:

If the matter of Tibet's sovereignty is murky, the question about the PRC's treatment of
Tibetans is all too clear. After invading Tibet in 1950, the Chinese communists killed over
one million Tibetans, destroyed over 6,000 monasteries, and turned Tibet's northeastern
province, Amdo, into a gulag housing, by one estimate, up to ten million people. A quarter of
a million Chinese troops remain stationed in Tibet. In addition, some 7.5 million Chinese
have responded to Beijing's incentives to relocate to Tibet; they now outnumber the 6 million
Tibetans. Through what has been termed Chinese apartheid, ethnic Tibetans now have a lower
life expectancy, literacy rate, and per capita income than Chinese inhabitants of Tibet.[81]

In 2001 representatives of Tibet exile groups succeeded in gaining accreditation at a

United Nations-sponsored meeting of non-governmental organizations. On 29 August
Jampal Chosang, the head of the Tibetan coalition, stated that China had introduced "a
new form of apartheid" in Tibet because "Tibetan culture, religion, and national
identity are considered a threat" to China.[82] The Tibet Society of the UK has called
on the British government to "condemn the apartheid regime in Tibet that treats
Tibetans as a minority in their own land and which discriminates against them in the
use of their language, in education, in the practice of their religion, and in
employment opportunities."[83]

[edit] Treatment of rural workers

In November 2005 Jiang Wenran, acting director of the China Institute at the
University of Alberta, said this system was one of the most strictly enforced
'apartheid' structures in modern world history.[84] He stated "Urban dwellers enjoy a
range of social, economic and cultural benefits while peasants, the majority of the
Chinese population, are treated as second-class citizens".[84]

The discrimination enforced by the hukou system became particularly onerous in the
1980s after hundreds of millions of migrant laborers were forced out of state
corporations and co-operatives.[85] The system classifies workers as "urban" or "rural",
[14][86]
and attempts by workers classified as "rural" to move to urban centers were
tightly controlled by the Chinese bureaucracy, which enforced its control by denying
access to essential goods and services such as grain rations, housing, and health care,
[14]
and by regularly closing down migrant workers' private schools.[85] The hukuo
system also enforced pass laws similar to those in South Africa,[87][18] with "rural"
workers requiring six passes to work in provinces other than their own,[85] and
periodic police raids which rounded up those without permits, placed them in
detention centers, and deported them.[87] As in South Africa, the restrictions placed on
the mobility of migrant workers were pervasive,[85] and transient workers were forced
to live a precarious existence in company dormitories or shanty towns, and suffering
abusive consequences.[18] Anita Chan furthers that China's household registration and
temporary residence permit system has created a situation analogous to the passbook
system in apartheid South Africa, which were designed to regulate the supply of
cheap labor.[18][88][13][89][14][86]
David Whitehouse divides what he describes as "Chinese apartheid" into three distinct
phases: The first phase occurred during the state capitalist phase of China's economy,
from around 1953 to the death of Mao Zedong in 1976. The second "neoliberal" phase
lasted from 1978 to 2001, and the third lasted from 2001 to the present. During the
first phase, the exploitation of rural labor, the passbook system, and in particular the
non-portable rights associated with one's status, created what Whitehouse calls "an
apartheid system". As with South Africa, the ruling party made some concessions to
rural workers to make life in rural areas "survivable... if not easy or pleasant". During
the second phase, as China transitioned from state capitalism to market capitalism,
export-processing zones were created in city suburbs, where mostly female migrants
worked under oppressive sweatshop conditions. The third phase was characterized by
the weakening of the hukou controls; by 2004 the Chinese Ministry of Agriculture
counted over 100 million people registered as "rural" working in cities.[90]

Au Loong-yu, Nan Shan, and Zhang Ping of the Committee for Asian Women argue
this system oppresses women more severely than men,[91] and see seven distinct
elements giving rise to what they describe as "the regime of spatial and social
apartheid" which keeps rural Chinese in their subordinate status:

1. The repressive regime at the factory level;

2. the paramilitary forces at local level;
3. the ‘local protectionism’ of local governments;
4. the fiercely pro-business and pro-government attitude of the local press;
5. the fiercely pro-business and pro-government attitude of the branches of
ACFTU;
6. pro-government local courts; and
7. the discriminatory hukou system.[92]

They agree that the gradual relaxation of some of the more repressive aspects of the
hukou system since the mid-1990s has largely eliminated the spatial aspect of the
apartheid; for example, workers can now buy one year permits to reside in cities, and
since 2003 the police no longer jail and deport people who lack local hukou passes.
However, they point out the still-hereditary nature of the hukou system, and state that
the "substance of the social apartheid in general and the hukou system in particular
remains intact." Migrant workers are permanently marked as outsiders and remain
second-class citizens, and are denied access to good jobs or upward mobility, thus
forcing their eventual return to their place of origin.[93]

Whitehouse sees the analogy to South Africa's apartheid system breaking down in two
areas: First, under a system called xia xiang, or "sending down", individuals or even
entire factories of urban workers were sometimes re-classified as rural workers and
sent to live in the countryside (at lower wages and benefits). By contrast, white
workers in South Africa were never sent to work in Bantustans. Second, the ideology
driving China's apartheid system was Maoism, not racism, as is South African
apartheid.[90] Anita Chan agrees with Whitehouse on this point, noting that while the
hukou system shares many of the characteristics of the South African apartheid
system, including its underlying economic logic, the racial element is not present.[18]
The Chinese Ministry of Public Security justified these practices on the grounds that
they assisted the police in tracking down criminals and maintaining public order, and
provided demographic data for government planning and programs.[94]

[edit] "Pass System" treatment of migrant workers

"Rural" workers are required to have six passes to work in provinces other than their
own.[85] Those without permits are rounded up by police, placed in detention centers,
and deported.[87] Restrictions placed on the mobility of migrant workers were
pervasive,[85] and some transient workers were forced to live a precarious existence in
company dormitories or shanty towns, and suffering abusive consequences.[18] The
system, which has targeted China's 800 million rural peasants for decades, has been
described by journalists Peter Alexander and Anita Chan as "China's apartheid".[95][86]

According to Peter Alexander and Anita Chan, China's export-oriented growth has
been based on the labor of poorly paid and treated migrant workers, using a pass
system similar to the one used in South Africa's apartheid, in which massive abuses of
human rights have been observed.[96]

An article in The Washington Times, reported in 2000 that although migrant laborers
play an important part in spreading wealth in Chinese villages, they are treated "like
second-class citizens by a system so discriminatory that it has been likened to
apartheid."[17]

The Chinese embassy in South Africa posted a letter to the editor of The Star dated 22
February 2007 , under the title Article on China presents racism rumours as fact, in
which a reader stated that "It's pure incitement to proclaim 'Chinese apartheid' in
reference to migrant labour being kept out of the cities."[97]

[edit] Other human rights issues

[edit] Worker's rights and privacy

Worker's rights and privacy are other contentious human rights issues in China. There
have been several reports of core International Labor Organization conventions being
denied to workers. One such report was released by the International Labor Rights
Fund in October 2006 documenting minimum wage violations, long work hours, and
inappropriate actions towards workers by management.[98] Workers cannot form their
own unions in the workplace, only being able to join State-sanctioned ones. The
extent to which these organizations can fight for the rights of Chinese workers is
disputed.[99]

Although the Chinese government does not interfere with Chinese people's privacy as
much as it used to,[100] it still deems it necessary to keep tabs on what people say in
public. Internet forums are strictly monitored, as is international postal mail (this is
sometimes inexplicably "delayed" or simply "disappears") and e-mail.[99]

The issue of refugees from North Korea is a recurring one. It is official policy to
repatriate them to North Korea, but the policy is not evenly enforced and a
considerable number of them stay in the People's Republic (some move on to other
countries). Though it is in contravention of international law to deport political
refugees, as illegal immigrants their situation is precarious. Their rights are not always
protected.[101] Some of them are tricked into marriage or prostitution.[102]

African students in China have complained about their treatment in China, that was
largely ignored until 1988-9, when "students rose up in protest against what they
called 'Chinese apartheid'".[103] African officials took notice of the issue, and the
Organization of African Unity issued an official protest. The organization's chairman,
Mali's president Moussa Traoré, went on a fact-finding mission to China.[103]
According to a Guardian 1989 Third World Report titled "Chinese apartheid"
threatens links with Africa, these practices could threaten Peking's entire relationship
with the continent."[104]

In 2005 Manfred Nowak visited China as the United Nations Special Rapporteur on
Torture. After spending two weeks there, he concluded that torture remained
"widespread". He also complained of Chinese officials interfering with his research,
including intimidating people he sought to interview.[105]

[edit] Falun Gong

A group practice Falun Gong in China before the onset of persecution in July 1999
Main articles: Falun Gong and Persecution of Falun Gong

On 20 July 1999, the government of the People's Republic of China (PRC) banned
Falun Gong, and began a nationwide crackdown of the practice[106] following seven
years of widespread popularity and rapid growth of the practice.[107][108] A New York
Times article reported that there were 70 million practitioners in China in 1998, a
figure coming from the Chinese government.[109][110] A series of appeals and petitions
made by practitioners to the authorities in 1999, in particular the 10,000 person
gathering at Zhongnanhai on 25 April, eventually led to the decision to outlaw and
persecute Falun Gong.[111]

The Party mobilized every aspect of society to become involved in the persecution,
including the media apparatus, police force, army, education system, families and
workplaces.[112] An extra-constitutional body, the "6-10 Office" was created to do
what Forbes describes as "[overseeing] the terror campaign."[113] The campaign was
driven by large-scale propaganda through television, newspaper, radio and internet.
[114]
Families and workplaces were urged to cooperate with the government's position
on Falun Gong, while practitioners themselves were subject to various coercive
measures to have them recant their beliefs.[115]

Particular concerns have been raised over reports of torture, illegal imprisonment
including forced labour, psychiatric abuses,[116][117] and since early 2006, allegations of
systematic organ harvesting from living Falun Gong practitioners.[118]

Protests in Beijing were frequent for the first few years following the 1999 edict,
though these protests have largely been eradicated.[112] Falun Gong practitioners'
presence in mainland China has become more low-profile, often involving methods of
informing the general populace through overnight letterbox drops of pro-Falun Gong
CD-ROMs. Practitioners have occasionally hacked into state television channels to
broadcast pro-Falun Gong materials. Outside of mainland China, practitioners are
active in appealing to the governments, media, and people of their respective
countries about the situation in China.

[edit] Organ harvesting and extrajudicial execution

Main article: Reports of organ harvesting from Falun Gong in China

In March 2006, The Epoch Times published a number of articles alleging that the
Chinese government and its agencies, including the People's Liberation Army, were
conducting widespread and systematic organ harvesting of living Falun Gong
practitioners. The allegations were based on apparent eye-witness testimony of two
individuals, and directed specifically at the Sujiatun Thrombosis Hospital in
Shenyang, Liaoning province. It was alleged that practitioners detained in the
hospital's basement, forced labour camps, or prisons, were being blood and urine
tested, their information stored on computer databases, and then matched with organ
recipients. When an organ was required, it alleged, they were injected with potassium
to stop the heart, their organs removed and later sold, and their bodies incinerated.

In July 2006, after the Sujiatun allegations were made, David Kilgour, a former
Canadian Secretary of State, and David Matas, a human rights lawyer, published a
report of their investigation into the wider issue of organ harvesting of Falun Gong
practitioners in China. Their report titled "Report into Allegations of Organ
Harvesting of Falun Gong Practitioners in China"[119] said that large numbers of Falun
Gong practitioners were victims of systematic organ harvesting, whilst still alive,
throughout China. According to the authors, their report was mostly based on publicly
verifiable information. The report claimed that the practice was ongoing.

Their findings have received mixed responses. An investigative report from Sky News
[120]
seemed to corroborate the findings, while the Christian Science Monitor says the
report’s evidence is circumstantial, but persuasive.[121] The Chinese government
categorically denied any mistreatment of Falun Gong practitioners, and rejected the
report in its entirety. A Congressional Research Service said that the report’s key
allegations appeared to be inconsistent with the findings of other investigations, [122].
The authors maintain that their conclusion has not been refuted.
[edit] International
[edit] Darfur
See also: Darfur Conflict#Criticism of international response

Human rights organizations have criticized China for its supportive relationship with
the government of Sudan, which is committing mass killings in Darfur.[123][124] China is
Sudan's largest economic partner, with a 40% share in their oil,[125] and also sells
Sudan small arms.[126] China has threatened to veto UN Security Council actions to
combat the Darfur crisis.[127]

China has responded to these criticisms by arguing that, "As the Darfur issue is not an
internal affair of China, nor was it caused by China, to link the two together is utterly
unreasonable, irresponsible and unfair."[128]

In July 2008, the BBC reported that China is training fighter pilots for and selling
army lorries to Sudan, in violation of the 2006 arms embargo.[129]

[edit] Counterarguments

China's counterarguments come primarily from the idea of "Asian values"[130] and the
need to create a "harmonious society",[131] where the welfare of the collective should
always be put ahead of the rights of any individual whenever conflicts between these
arise. It is the responsibility of the government to ensure that this is achieved and in
some cases, even persuade or force individuals to make sacrifices for the greater
good. It would require a strong and stable authority to regulate the potentially
conflicting interests of the public and enforce a compromise. Governments with
curtailed authority would fail to take on such a responsibility.

They point towards the rapid social deterioration, the increasing geographic, religious
and racial segregation, the alarmingly rising crime rates, family breakdown, number
of industrial actions, vandalism and political extremism in Western societies, which
they believe to be a direct result of an excess of individual freedom – “Too much
freedom is dangerous.”[132] According to the Chinese government, these issues are all
violations of human rights and should be taken account of when assessing a country's
human right records. Furthermore, the government criticizes the United States, which
publishes human rights reports annually, by insisting that the United States has also
caused human rights abuses such as the invasion of Iraq by American troops.[133]

The PRC government also argues that the notion of human rights should include
economic standards of living and measures of health and economic prosperity.[1]

[edit] Reform

In March 2003, an amendment was made to the Constitution of the People's Republic
of China, stating "The State respects and preserves human rights."[134] In addition,
China was dropped from a list of top 10 human rights violators in the annual human
rights report released by the U.S. State Department in 2008, while the report indicated
that there were still widespread problems in China.[135]