8.3 - Patterns in Nature

Preliminary - Stage 6 2 Unit Biology
8.3 - Pattern in Nature:

1. Organisms are made of cells that have similar structural characteristics:
Outline the historical developments of the cell theory, in particular, the
contributions of Robert Hooke and Robert Brown:
The cell theory has three main points:
Cells are the smallest units of life
All living things are mae up of cells
All cells come from pre-e!isting cells
The first 2 points are from Theoor Sch"ann an #atthias Schleien$ an the last
point from %uolf &ircho"
The main points in the historical evelopment of the cell theory are:
'()* - +eonaro a &inci use glass lens to stuy small o,-ects
'6.. - The first compoun microscope "as mae ,y /ans an 0acharias
1anssen
'66* - %2B3%T /2243 o,serve cor5 cells using a compoun microscope
an escri,e 6little ,o!es or cells istinct from one another7
'686 - Anton von +eeu"enhoe5 escri,e unicellular organisms in pon"ater
')9' - %2B3%T B%2:; o,serve the nucleus in plant an animal cells
')9< - Schleien an Sch"ann formulate the cell theory that all living things
are mae up of cells= Sch"ann "as the first scientist to see yeast cells
proucing ne" cells
')*) - &ircho" state: 6"here a cell e!ists$ there must have ,een a pre-
e!isting cell$ -ust as the animal only arises from an animals an the plant only
from a plant=7
')). - :alter >lemming escri,e cell ivision ?mitosis@ from o,servations
on living an staine cells
Describe evidence to support the cell theory:
%o,ert /oo5e7s o,servation of cor5 cells$ an +eeu"enhoe57s o,servation of
many types of unicellular cells prove that living things "ere mae up of cells
Copyright A 2..*B Ahma Shah Cil
:alter >lemming7s o,servation of cell ivision - mitosis - prove that cells come
from pre-e!isting cells
Discuss the significance of technological advances to developments in the
cell theory:
:ithout technological avances$ the evelopment of the cell theory coul not
have happene
The main areas of avancement have ,een in the invention an further
evelopment in the esign of the microscope an the techniDues use in the
preparation of specimens
The microscope ena,le us to see cells$ opening the oors for the evelopment of
the cell theory
The staining of cells ?specimen preparation@ ena,le the ivision of the nucleus in
cell ivision to ,e o,serve
Thus technological avances go han in han "ith the evelopment of the cell
theory
Identify cell organelles seen with current light and electron microscopes:
A light microscope uses light an focuses "ith lenses to see small o,-ects
An electron microscope uses electron ,eams an focuses them "ith
electromagnets to see small o,-ects
Total magnification E eyepiece magnification ! o,-ective lens magnification
The organelles of a cell are the 6little organs7 that perform a particular function for
the cell= 3ach organelle oes something ifferent
3very organelle is either mae up of or enclose in organelles
The protoplasm is all the contents of the cell
2rganelles seen uner a +CF/T #CC%2SC2P3:
Cell #em,rane: Sometimes calle the plasma mem,rane$ this is the organelle
that surrouns the "hole cell= Ct is fle!i,le an hols all the contents of the
cell= Ct also regulates "hat su,stances go in or out of a cell
;ucleus: Contains the genetic information of a cell ?chromosomes@= The
information in chromosomes is use to control the evelopment an the
functioning of the "hole cell
;uclear #em,rane: This mem,rane surrouns the nucleus an hols the
chromosomes in= Ct is compose of a ou,le-mem,rane$ an has large pores in
it$ to allo" large molecules in an out
Cytoplasm: This is simply the contents of the cell ,et"een the cell mem,rane
an outsie the nucleus
&acuoles: >oun only in plant cells$ this sac-li5e organelle is use as foo
storage for the plant= Ct contains cell sap$ "hich is mae of "ater an
issolve su,stances such as sugars an salts= Cn some cells$ the vacuole ta5es
up ).-<.G of the cell volume
Cell :all: Also foun only in plant cells$ this organelle surrouns the "hole
cell outsie the cell mem,rane= Ct provies strength$ protection$ support an
shape to the plant= Cell "alls are non-living - they are mae of a net"or5 of
cellulose microfi,rils cemente together in pectin an other su,stances
Chloroplasts: This organelle is only founing plants= Ct can only ,e seen uner
very strong light microscopes= This organelle is the foo prouction site in
plants ?it carries out photosynthesis@=
2rganelles seen uner a 3+3CT%2; #CC%2SC2P3:
;ucleolus: Ct is an organelle "ithin the nucleus= Ct is the region "here the
genes for ri,osomal %;A are foun an is the site of ri,osome formation
#itochonria: An organelle foun in the cytoplasm compose of many fole
layers of mem,rane= Ct is the site of respiration an the prouction of energy
%i,osomes: Tiny organelles foun in the cytoplasm or on enoplasmic
reticulum= They are responsi,le for protein synthesis
3noplasmic reticulum: Ct is a system of mem,ranous sacs an tu,ules
connecte to the nuclear mem,rane= Ct provies an internal surface for many
chemical reactions in the cell an provies a series of channels for materials to
,e move= %ough enoplasmic reticulum has ri,osomes attache to it= %ough
3% is involve in protein synthesis= Smooth 3% has no ri,osomes an is
involve in lipi manufacture an inactivation of rugs
+ysosomes: These are small spherical organelles that consist of a mem,rane
surrouning highly aciic contents= They are use to ,rea5 o"n "astes or ol
organelles an are involve in igestion
Centrioles: These are foun in pairs in animal cells$ an are involve in the
formation of the spinle for mitosis
Folgi ,oy: Consists of stac5s of flattene mem,rane sacs= Ct chemically
moifies$ stores an istri,utes su,stances mae ,y the enoplasmic
reticulum= These 6pac5ages7 are then secrete into the cell or move out of the
cell
Identify the relationship between the structure of cell organelles and their
function:
;UC+3US: /as large pores in nuclear mem,rane to allo" large molecules$ such
as genetic information an proteins to move in an out
#CT2C/2;H%CA: The inner mem,rane is greatly fole= This increases the
surface area greatly$ thus increasing the rate of reactions= This prouces more
energy for the cell
3;H2P+AS#CC %3TCCU+U#: Cs compose of many fole layers of
mem,ranes= The many fols increases the surface area$ proviing a surface for
many chemical reactions to occur
C/+2%2P+ASTS: The many layere mem,ranes of the chloroplasts$ "hich
contain pigments$ increase the surface area for photosynthesis to ta5e place= This
increases the amount of sugars prouce=
se available evidence to assess the impact of technology, including the
development of the microscope on the development of the cell theory:
The evelopment of the cell theory epene entirely on the microscope
There "oul ,e no cell theory "ithout the microscope=
:ith this tool$ it "as o,serve that all living things "ere mae up of cellsB
unicellular organisms "ere iscovere=
Using the stronger electron microscope$ it "as o,serve that - even though cells
are mae up or organelles - cells are the smallest units of life
The evelopment of ,etter esign of microscopes$ an ,etter specimen
preparation ha a huge impact on the evelopment of the cell theory
2. Membranes around cells provide separation from and lins !ith the
e"ternal environment:
Identify the ma!or groups of substances found in living cells and their uses
in cell activities:
2rganic molecules contain car,on= #ost inorganic molecules on7t
Cnorganic su,stances in the ,oy:
:ater: The most a,unant inorganic su,stance in the ,oy= 8.G of the ,oy7s
molecules are "ater= #ost reactions in cells reDuire "ater= ;utrients an
"astes are carrie aroun in "ater= Ct has many other uses in the ,oy=
2!ygen gas: Use to release energy in the ,oy
Salts: These are usually in the form of ions$ such as chlories$ phosphates an
sulfates of various metals= Their uses inclue:
Calcium Con: Buils ,ones$ teeth$ helps ,loo clot an proper nerve an
muscle functions=
Cron Con: Carries o!ygen in re ,loo cells=
Phosphate Con: Part of the energy carrier ATP= Also part of nuclei acis=
Soium Con: >unctioning of nerves=
2rganic Su,stances in the ,oy inclue:
Car,ohyrates: Compouns compose of C$ / an 2= The num,er of
hyrogens is al"ays ou,le the num,er of o!ygen=
US3S: An energy source in cellsB also use in structure in plants
?cellulose@
The three groups of car,ohyrates are monosaccharies$ isaccharies an
polysaccharies=
#onosaccharies are the simplest car,s= They consist of only one unit of
sugar= 3!amples are glucose$ fructose an ri,ose= #onosaccharies are the
,asic ,uiling ,loc5s of more comple! car,s
Hisaccharies are simple car,ohyrates compose of 2 units of sugar= An
e!ample is sucrose ?ta,le sugar@ mae of glucose an fructose=
Polysaccharies are comple! car,ohyrates mae up of many sugar units
-oint into a huge molecule= An e!ample is starch$ "hich is a foo store in
plants= 2ne starch molecule is mae of 2...-9... glucose molecules
+ipis: They are compouns mae of the same elements as car,ohyratesB that
is$ car,on$ hyrogen$ an o!ygen= There is usually very little o!ygen in lipis=
They have more than t"ice the energy of car,s
US3S: Use as stores of energy$ use as "ater-proof coating on leaves$
ma5es up part of the cell mem,rane
Proteins: Proteins consist of car,on$ hyrogen$ o!ygen an nitrogen ?C$ /$ 2
an ;@=
US3S: ;eee for gro"th an repair$ ma5e up a ma-or part of the ,oy7s
structure= &ital to the structure an function of cells= Are essential for
meta,olism ?all chemical reactions in cells@ as enIymes are mae up of
proteins=
#ae up of long chains of amino acis$ -oine together ,y peptie ,ons
There are 2. ifferent amino acis
The 9H shape of a protein etermines "hich amino acis are on the
outsie of the protein$ an this etermines the protein7s characteristics
:hen a protein is heate$ the structure changes$ an the protein7s
,ehaviour an characteristics are change
;ucleic Acis: Are mae up of car,on$ hyrogen$ o!ygen$ nitrogen an
phosphorus ?C$ /$ 2$ ; an P@= They inclue H;A an %;A
US3S: They etermine hereity in organisms= Cs neee for the
manufacture of proteins=
Are mae up of groups of nucleotiesB a nucleotie is mae up of a
nitrogen ,ase$ a pentose sugar an a phosphate
Heo!yri,onucleic Aci ?H;A@ is mostly foun in chromosomes
%i,onucleic Aci ?%;A@ is foun throughout the cell
H;A contains eo!yri,ose sugar= %;A contains ri,ose
Identify that there is movement of molecules into and out of cells:
#olecules are continually moving in an out of cells
%a" materials are neee an "astes nee to ,e e!pelle
The cell continually e!changes materials "ith its e!ternal environment
Describe a current model of the membrane structure and e"plain how it
accounts for the movement of some substances in and out of cells:
3very cell is surroune ,y a cell mem,rane ?or plasma mem,rane@
This mem,rane regulates "hat enters or leaves the cell
The cell mem,rane is ifferentially permea,leB i=e= only certain su,stances can
cross over it=
Cell mem,ranes can form$ reform an change an appear very ynamic
The cell mem,rane is (.G lipi an 6.G protein
The current moel of the cell mem,rane is the >+UCH #2SACC #2H3+:
Accoring to the moel$ the cell mem,rane is a thin sheet compose of 2
layers ?a ,ilayer@ of special lipis calle phospholipis
The ,ilayer is very flui an the lipis can move a,out easily
2ther lipis such as cholesterol are also foun in it=
Proteins are scattere throughout the mem,rane= They are of 2 types:
Cntegral proteins: they go through ,oth layers an come out on ,oth sies
Peripheral proteins: attache to the integral proteins insie or outsie
The "ay that this moel accounts for su,stances moving in an out of cells is al
follo"s:
Passive Transport: This is movement of su,stances across that mem,rane that
reDuires no energy= This inclues:
Diffusion: This involves the iffusion of su,stances$ such as "ater an
o!ygen$ through the mem,rane$ from high to lo" concentration= The
su,stances iffuse right through the phospholipi layers
#acilitated Diffusion: This involves the iffusion of su,stances into the
cell$ ,ut not irectly through the phospholipi layer= These su,stances
iffuse through integral proteins in the cell mem,rane=
Active Transport: #olecules cannot pass through the cell mem,rane at times
,ecause of their propertiesB eg they may ,e too large$ they may ,e stoppe ,y
the iffusion graient$ they carry electrical charges$ etc= Cn active transport$
specific carrier proteins ,in to these molecules an ,ring them insie the cell=
This reDuires the use of energy= $ndocytosis is a form of active transport
"here large molecules are transporte across a mem,rane= 9 types of
enocytosis inclue:
%inocytosis: The material ,eing transporte is a liDui
%hagocytosis: The material ,eing transporte is a soli
Receptor &ediated $ndocytosis: The molecules ,in to specific receptor
sites in the mem,rane calle coate pits=
'ompare the processes of diffusion and osmosis:
#iffusion Osmosis
Cnvolves ranom movement of particles Cnvolves ranom movement of particles
#ovement of su,stance from high
concentration to lo" concentration
#ovement of su,stance from high
concentration to lo" concentration
%eDuires no energy %eDuires no energy
Hoes not nee to involve a ifferentially
permea,le mem,rane
Al"ays involves a ifferentially permea,le
mem,rane
Cnvolves liDuis an gases Cnvolves only "ater
$"plain how the surface area to volume ratio affects the rate of movement
of substances into and out of cells:
As mentione earlier$ cells o,tains their nutrients through their cell mem,ranes
The surface area of the mem,rane has to fulfil the reDuirements of the "hole
volume of the cell=
Cf the cell ,ecomes larger$ the surface area to volume ratio ,ecomes smaller$ an
the surface area of the cell mem,rane is not enough to fulfil the nees of the
"hole cell
This places a restriction on the siIe of cells
Cf the surface area to volume ratio is large$ movement of su,stances is efficient
Cf surface area to volume ration is small$ movement of su,stances is slo" an
inefficient$ an is not enough for the cell
This is ho" SA:& affects the movement of su,stances in an out of cells
%lan, choose e(uipment or resources and perform a first)hand investigation
to gather information and use available evidence to identify the following
substances in tissues:
*lucose
+tarch
,ipids
%roteins
'hloride ions
,ignin
Flucose Test:
Place ( ml of sample in a test tu,e
A ( ml of Beneict7s solution
/eat gently in a "ater ,ath
Cf the solution turns orange-,ro"n$ there is glucose present
Starch Test:
Place sample in a test tu,e
A * rops of ioine solution
Cf the ioine turns purple$ there is starch present
+ipi Test:
Place a rop of sample on a piece of ,ro"n paper
Cf the paper ,ecomes clear$ the su,stance is a lipi
Protein Test:
A * ml of soium hyro!ie an * rops of copper sulfate ?this is calle the
Biuret solution@
Cf the solution ,ecomes light purple$ there is protein present
Chlorie Cons Test:
A ( rops of silver nitrate
Cf the solution turns mil5y "hite ?precipitate forme@$ chlorie ions are present
+ignin Test:
A 9 rops of toluine ,lue to the sample
Cf the toluine changes from ,lue to ,lue-green$ lignin is present
%erform a first hand investigation to model the selectively permeable nature
of a cell membrane:
An e!periment "as performe as follo"s:
A cellulose ,ag "as fille "ith starch solution
Ct "as place in a -ar of "ater "ith ioine present
+eft overnight$ the starchy solution in the cellulose ,ag turne purple
This prove that the ioine solution travelle through the ,ag ?,y osmosis@
This successfully moelle the selectively permea,le nature of the cell
mem,rane
The cellulose ,ag "as the cell mem,rane an the starch "as the cytoplasm
3. Plants and animals have specialised structures to obtain nutrients from
their environment:
Identify some e"amples that demonstrate the structural and functional
relationships between cells, tissues, organs and organ systems in
multicellular organisms:
#ulticellular organisms are mae up of many cells=
C3++S are the smallest unit of life= They perform specific functions:
3=g= muscle cell - its -o, is to contract or rela!
TCSSU3S are groups of cells "ith similar functions= They perform functions as a
group of cells:
3=g= muscle tissue - mae up of muscle cells$ -o, is to contract or rela!
2%FA;S are mae up of groups of tissues that function as a "hole:
3=g= the stomach - mae of muscle tissues$ is moves to churn foo
2%FA; SJST3#S are groups of organs that function together as a coorinate
system to perform a role for the ,oy
3=g= igestive system - mae up of organs such as the stomach
Distinguish between autotrophs and heterotrophs in terms of nutrient
re(uirements:
Autotrophs are organisms that ma5e their o"n foo through photosynthesis:
-utrient re(uirements: Autotrophs$ such as plants$ reDuire the su,stances
necessary for photosynthesis= These are "ater$ car,on io!ie an sunlight=
They also nee o!ygen an sugars for respiration
/eterotrophs are organisms that consume other organisms for nutrition:
-utrient re(uirements: /eterotrophs reDuire other organisms to fee on$ such
as ho" her,ivores eat plants$ an carnivores eat meat= They also nee o!ygen
for respiration an "ater for life=
Identify the materials re(uired for photosynthesis and its role in
ecosystems:
Photosynthesis is the process ,y "hich plants create glucose
This synthesis of organic compouns from inorganic compouns is a process all
living things ultimately epen on
Plants ma5e foo through photosynthesis$ her,ivores eat plants$ carnivores eat
her,ivores$ an the foo chain continues= /o"ever$ they all ,egin "ith plants
The materials neee for photosynthesis are "ater$ C2
2
$ an chlorophyll
Identify the general word e(uation for photosynthesis and outline this as a
summary of a chain of biochemical reactions:
The general "or eDuation for photosynthesis is:
$arbon dio"ide % &ater
, 'H,ORO%H., /nd +-,I*H0
'ugar and O"(gen
The chemical eDuation for photosynthesis is:
)$O
2
% 12*
2
O $
)
*
12
O
)
% )O
2
% )*
2
O
Photosynthesis is thought to occur in t"o stages:
,ight Reactions of %hotosynthesis:
2nly this stage reDuires sunlight
+ight a,sor,e ,y chloroplasts is use to split "ater molecules
This process is calle photolysis
Cn this process$ the "ater molecule is split into o!ygen an hyrogen
This process occurs on the thyla5ois of chloroplasts
,ight)Independent Reactions of %hotosynthesis:
Also calle the car,on-fi!ation stage
/yrogen release from the first reaction is -oine "ith car,on io!ie to
form sugars
This process reDuires energy
$"plain the relationship between the organisation of the structures used to
obtain water and minerals in a range of plants and the need to increase
surface area available for absorption:
2,taining "ater an minerals :
Cn aDuatic environments$ "ater an minerals are a,sor,e across the "hole
surface of the plants
/o"ever$ for terrestrial ?lan@ plants$ "ater an minerals are o,taine through
root systems
%oot systems must have a very large surface area to a,sor, enough nutrients
for the "hole plant
They achieve this through having a ,ranching structure an many root hairs
The root system can also ,e use to anchor the plant
#any ifferent types of root systems e!ist
Hifferent types of roots use to a,sor, nutrients are:
TAP %22TS: These types of root systems have one main root$ calle the
tap root$ from "hich sie roots come out from= Tap roots many penetrate
eeply into the soil= Sometimes the taproots act as storage organs an
s"ell up$ such as carrots=
>CB%2US %22TS: These root systems form net"or5s of roots close to
the soil surface= They can sprea out "iely to support the plant$ an
provie a large surface area for a,sorption of mineral ions an "ater
#JC2%%/C0A: This is "here the root system is associate "ith fungi in
a sym,iotic relationship= The fungi provies the plants "ith aitional
mineral nutrients an the plant provies car,on ,ase proucts for the
fungi
A3%CA+ %22TS: Cn areas li5e "ater logge estuaries or s"amps$ plants
prouce roots that gro" a,ove the groun= These roots help "ith gas
e!change
3!ternal %oot Structure:
The root system of a plant is usually ,elo" the groun
%oots o not photosynthesise$ an o not have leaves or ,us
The gro"ing points of roots are protecte ,y root caps
As roots gro" throughout the soil they ,ranch out an provie a large
surface area for a,sorption as "ell as an anchor for the plant
#ost of the a,sorption occurs in the root hairs of the root
Cnternal %oot Structure:
The ,asic root structure is mae up of the three parts: the epiermis$ the
corte! an the vascular tissue
$pidermis: The outer layer of the root= Ct lac5s a cuticle= Cn young roots$
the epiermis is covere "ith a slimy coating or sheath calle mucigel
'orte": The corte! is in ,et"een the epiermis an the vascular tissue= Ct
acts as a storage area for e!cess materials$ an has air spaces for gas flo"
1ascular 0issue: Cn roots$ it forms a cyliner in the centre= Ct is mae of
!ylem an phloem vessels= Ct transports "ater an nutrients
$"plain the relationship between the shape of leaves, the distribution of
tissues in them and their role:
2,taining sunlight an car,on io!ie:
The specialise leaf structure of the plant use for o,taining light an car,on
io!ie is the leaf
#ost of the photosynthesis of plants occurs in leaves
The lamina is the ,lae of the leaf
The petiole is the part that attaches it to the stem
3!ternal +eaf Structure:
/rrangement: +eaves are usually arrange along the stems in a "ay that
e!poses them to the ma!imum amount of sunlight= They are usually
positione so that sunlight stri5es the upper part of the leaf
+hape: #ost leaves are ,roa$ thin an flat= This gives them a large
surface area for the capture of sunlight an gas e!change neee for
photosynthesis an respiration
Cnternal +eaf Structure:
'uticle: This is a "a!y layer over the surface of the leaf= Ct is "aterproof
an provies shape an protection= Ct plays an important part in reucing
"ater loss in terrestrial plants
$pidermis: Ct is a single protective layer of cells on the upper an lo"er
sie of leaves= Ct is transparent to allo" light to pass through
+tomates: These are pores in the leaf that can open an close= :hen open$
they allo" gas e!change$ ,ut this results in "ater loss
&esophyll: #esophyll are the cells in the mile of the cell$ in ,et"een
the upper epiermis an lo"er epiermis= There are t"o types:
Palisae #esophyll: They are regularly arrange$ elongate an
pac5e "ith chloroplasts= #ost of the photosynthesis occurs in these
cells
Spongy #esophyll: Situate uner the palisae$ ,ut a,ove the lo"er
epiermis= Contains less chloroplasts$ an are ranomly arrange "ith
large air spaces to allo" gas e!change=
1eins: &eins are tu,es of vascular tissue in plants= They form a ,ranching
net"or5 in the leaves$ proviing structure an shape= &ascular tissue:
KJ+3#: Transports "ater an minerals from roots to leaves
P/+23#: Transports proucts of photosynthesis to the rest of plant
Describe the role of teeth in increasing the surface area of comple" foods
for e"posure to digestive chemicals:
Animals are heterotrophicB they get nourishment from the e!ternal environment
The igestive system is the system responsi,le for ,rea5ing o"n foo to a siIe
"here they can ,e use ,y cells
There are t"o parts of igestion:
&echanical Digestion:
This involves ,rea5ing foo o"n through mechanical means=
The teeth are the most important means of mechanical igestion=
The role of teeth is to ,rea5 foo o"n into smaller pieces to increase the
surface area of the foo=
The greater the surface area$ the ,etter the igestive chemicals can act on
the foo
The stomach is also involve "ith mechanical igestion
Chemical igestion:
This involves the use of enIymes to chemically ,rea5 foo o"n
Amylases - enIyme that acts on car,ohyrates
Proteases - enIyme that acts on proteins
+ipases - enIyme that acts on lipis
$"plain the relationship between the length and overall comple"ity of
digestive systems of a vertebrate herbivore and a vertebrate carnivore with
respect to:
0he chemical composition of their diet
0he functions of the structures involved
/er,ivores:
The main component of a her,ivore7s iet is plant material
#ost of the mass of plant material is mae up of cellulose
They have flat teeth to grin the fi,rous plant material
Plant material is ifficult to ,rea5o"n compare to animal material
/er,ivores use the help of micro-organisms to help igest the cellulose
This igestion can occur in t"o place:
>2%3-FUT >3%#3;T3%S: This type of her,ivore ?e=g= co"s@ igests
their foo in a cham,er ,efore the stomach calle the rumen
/C;H-FUT >3%#3;T3%S: This type of her,ivore ?e=g= horses@ igests
its foo in a cham,er after the small intestine calle the caecum
Compare to meat$ plant material is lo" in energy
Plants also ta5e longer an is harer to igest than meat
This means that her,ivores have to constantly eat to survive
The igestive systems of her,ivores are a lot larger an longer than that of
carnivores= This is ,ecause plants ta5e longer to igest
Carnivores:
The main component of their iet is meat
#eat is high in energy$ an is relatively easy to igest
This means that the igestive systems of carnivores are short compare to
her,ivores an also have to specialise organs li5e the caecum or rumen
They have very short large intestines$ as the meat has alreay ,een a,sor,e
in the small intestine
+. ,aseous e"change and transport s(stems transfer chemicals through the
internal and bet!een e"ternal environments of plants and animals:
'ompare the roles of respiratory, circulatory and e"cretory systems:
%espiratory Systems:
All organisms respire to prouce energyB this reDuires o!ygen
Plants photosynthesise to prouce fooB this reDuires car,on io!ie
These processes reDuire gases from the e!ternal environment
%espiratory systems are the systems that allo" gas e!change for the organism
%espiratory systems must ,e thin an moist$ an have a large surface area$ so
that gases can HC>>US3 freely
They also ,ring together the internal an the e!ternal environment
ADuatic organisms e!pose their respiratory systems to the environment
Terrestrial organisms have their respiratory systems enclose$ to reuce "ater
loss ,y evaporation
Circulatory Systems:
Cn unicellular organisms$ all nutrients neee can ,e iffuse from the
e!ternal environment over their surface area
:astes can -ust ,e remove from cells ,y iffusion as "ell
/o"ever$ in multicellular organisms$ the surface area is not great enough to
provie nutrients for all the organisms cells
Circulatory systems are use to carry nutrients to all the ,oy7s cells$ an to
carry "astes a"ay
The flo" of materials is usually maintaine ,y a pump ?such as the heart@
Circulatory systems can ,e open or close ?see ,elo"@
3!cretory Systems:
3!cretion is the removal of meta,olic "aste proucts from an organism
The meta,olic processes constantly prouce "astes= Cf they "ere allo"e to
accumulate$ the organisms "oul ,e poisone ,y its o"n "astes an ie
The main "aste proucts of organisms are: car,on io!ie mae in respiration
?e!crete ,y respiratory system@ an nitrogenous "astes mae uring the
,rea5o"n of proteins an nucleic acis ?e!crete as ammonia$ urea or uric
aci@
Identify and compare the gaseous e"change surfaces in an insect, a fish, a
frog and a mammal:
Cnsects:
Cnsects have a system of ,ranching tu,es "ithin their ,oies calle tracheae
Tracheae are open to the e!ternal environment ,y spiracles ?these are pores
along the ,oy of the insect@=
The tracheae ,ranch throughout the tissues of the insect$ ,ringing air irectly
to the ,oy cells
As insects are small$ the surface area of tracheae is sufficient for the organism
>ish:
The respiratory system in fish are calle gills
The gills have a plentiful ,loo supply ?they are very re@$ an so the gases
iffuse irectly into the ,loo supply
The gills are mae up of many finger-li5e filamentsB this creates a large SA
The "ater enters the mouth$ flo"s over the gills an out of the operculum
Hiffusion of o!ygen in an car,on io!ie out occurs at the same time$ as
"ater only flo" in one irection
>rogs:
>rogs have t"o respiratory surfaces: s5in an lungs
There is a "ell-evelope ,loo supply to the s5in of frogs
This ena,les the iffusion of gases irectly through the s5in
2!ygen from the air iffuses into the moist s5in an is transferre ,y the
,loo to the heart$ "here it is pumpe to the rest of the ,oy
>rogs also have simple lungs$ "ith smaller surface areas than mammals
The lungs hang in the a,ominal cavity an air passes in an out ,y the
pumping movement of the floor of the mouth ?,uccal pump@
#ammals:
The gas e!change organs are the lungs
They are insie the ,oy to prevent rying out
The surface area is very large$ as the lungs are ivie into lo,es$ "hich are
ivie into ,ronchioles "hich en up as alveoli
The is a very plentiful ,loo supply$ to enure efficient iffusion of gases
$"plain the relationship between the re(uirements of cells and the need for
transport systems in multicellular organisms:
Cn unicellular organisms$ all nutrients neee can ,e iffuse from the e!ternal
environment over their surface area
:astes can -ust ,e remove from cells ,y iffusion as "ell
/o"ever$ in multicellular organisms$ the surface area is not great enough to
provie nutrients for all the organisms cells
Transport systems are use to carry nutrients to all the ,oy7s cells$ an to carry
"astes a"ay
Transports systems provie all the nees of organisms
Outline the transport system in plants, including:
Root hair cells
2ylem
%hloem
+tomates and lenticels
Fas 3!change:
Plants e!change gases ?C2
2
an 2
2
@ "ith the environment for respiration an
photosynthesis
Cn lan plants$ the leaves an stems have specialise structures for gas
e!change
ST2#AT3S:
These are locate on leaves of plants
They are pores in the leaf "hich ena,le the iffusion of gases
They are present on the upper an lo"er sies of leaves$ ,ut mainly on the
lo"er sie
Stomates receive the gases neee for photosynthesis ?not respiration@
Stomates can open an close: :hen open$ gas e!change occurs in the leaf
an photosynthesis occurs$ ,ut "hen they close$ the rate of photosynthesis
slo"s
The opening an closing of Stomates is controlle ,y guar cells$ an this
is epenent on stimuli such as: light, low 'O
3
levels, an internal clock,
water deficiency, and high temperatures4
+3;TCC3+S:
These are pores on the "ooy stems of plants=
The gases neee for respiration are iffuse through lenticels
Car,on io!ie also iffuses out
;utrients an :ater:
Cn flo"ering plants$ the transport system is calle vascular tissue$ or
conucting tissue
&ascular tissue is mae up of "ylem an phloem
Kylem an phloem together in the leaves are calle veins
Kylem an phloem together in roots is calle stele
Cn flo"ering plants$ no plant cell is far from vascular tissue
KJ+3#:
Transport "ater an mineral ions up the plant stem to the leaves
Consists of ea cells$ "hose cross-"alls ?connection ,et"een cell "alls@
have ,een ,ro5en a"ay$ creating a continuous tu,e
Kylem also gives strength an rigiity to the plant
P/+23#:
Transport the proucts of photosynthesis ?sugars@ throughout the "hole
plant=
#ae of long columns of 6sieve tu,e cells7$ "hich have holes in their cell
"alls$ so that the cytoplasm is mi!e an iffusion of sugars occurs=
2rganic material in the phloem is transporte up an o"n the plant
%22T /AC%S:
These structures are on the surface of the roots
They provie a large surface area for "ater to iffuse into the plant
:ater enters the plant via the root hairs an then enters the !ylem
Transpiration:
Transpiration is the loss of "ater from a plant through the stomates in leaves
:hen stomates are open$ gases flo" in for photosynthesis= /o"ever$ at the
same time$ "ater is lost ,y evaporation= This "ater loss is transpiration
As "ater is lost$ more "ater flo"s in through the roots
The constant flo" of "ater from roots$ to vascular tissue$ to leaves an into
the air is calle the transpiration stream
Some plants have aaptations to reuce transpiration$ such as sun5en
stomates$ small leaves or hairy leaves=
'ompare open and closed circulatory systems using one vertebrate and one
invertebrate as an e"ample:
2pen Circulatory System:
Cnverte,rates such as molluscs an arthropos have open systems
This involves the movement of ,oy fluis ?or haemolymph@ aroun the
"hole ,oy ,y a simple pumping system
/aemolymph ,athes the tissues an accumulates in large spaces in the animal
The flui is pumpe to the front of the animal an slo"ly flo"s to the ,ac5
The pressure is very lo" an fluis circulate slo"ly
2pen systems suit smaller animals
3F:
A insect$ such as a fly$ has an open circulatory system
The 6heart7 ?calle a orsal longituinal vessel@ contracts an flui flo"s
to the front of the insect
The flui flo"s through the tissues of the ,oy an enters the 6heart7 again
through a series of holes
The flui is then pumpe again to the rest of the ,oy
Close Circulatory System:
+arge animals such as verte,rates an sDuis have close systems
The close circulatory system consists of a muscular pump ?heart@ that forces
a liDui ?,loo@ through a series of tu,es ?,loo vessels@
These tu,es carry materials rapily throughout the ,oy
;o ,oy cell is far from a ,loo vessel
The nutrients$ "astes an gases are all carrie in ,loo
The nutrients must first iffuse into the ,oy flui ?calle lymph@ ,efore it can
,e use=
Close systems meet the nees of large active animals
3F:
/umans have close circulatory systems
The heart pumps ,loo aroun the ,oy in veins an arteries
The ,oy cells receive nutrients from the ,loo from the veins
Identify factors that affects the rate of transpiration:
The higher the T3#P3%ATU%3 the higher the rate of transpiration
The faster the :C;H the higher the transpiration
#ore +CF/T more transpiration
The "ater content in the S2C+ affects rate "ater is ta5en up
The higher /U#CHCTJ the lower the rate of transpiration
se available evidence to discuss, using e"amples, the role of technologies,
such as the use of radioisotopes in tracing the path of elements through
living organisms:
%aioactive isotopes$ "hich are forms of elements "hich are raioactive can ,e
use to trace ,iochemical path"ays
As the raioactive elements ta5e the same path"ay as non-raioactive elements$
the path"ays can ,e trace using techniDues such as photographic paper
Thallium-2.' is use in iagnosing amage heart muscle= As it "ill only
accumulate in healthy heart muscle$ it "ill reveal areas that nee the ,e treate
-. Maintenance of organisms re.uires gro!th and repair
Identify mitosis as a process of nuclear division and e"plain its role:
#itosis is often sai to ,e the process ,y "hich a cell ivies into the cells
/o"ever this is not entirely trueB this process is mae up of t"o parts:
#itosis is -ust the process "here the nucleus ivies into t"o separate nuclei
Cyto5inesis is the ivision of the cytoplasm forming t"o ne" cells
The role of mitosis is the F%2:T/ an %3PAC% of multicellular organisms
Ct also provie reprouction for unicellular organisms
Identify the sites of mitosis in plants, insects and animals:
Plants:
Plant cells capa,le of mitosis are calle meristematic cells
#itosis occurs in:
Root tips and stem tips: This results in increase in length of plant
'ambium cells: These are cells in ,et"een the !ylem an phloem= #itosis
here results in increase thic5ness of the plant
Cnsects:
#itosis occurs "hen the insects changes ?metamorphosis@ from larvae into
ault= The stage is calle the pupal stage
Cn pupal form$ the larval cells ,rea5 o"n$ an ault cells ?calle imaginal
iscs@ unergo mitosis to create a massive transformation from larvae to ault
Animals:
#itosis occurs in many places incluing s5in cells$ hair cells an nail cells
Bloo cells are also constantly ,eing mae in the ,one marro"
The cells lining the igestive tract are also constantly replace
$"plain the need for cytokinesis in cell division:
Hivision of the cytoplasm ?cyto5inesis@ usually occurs immeiately after mitosis
This is necessary to ensure that chromosome num,ers remain constant
After mitosis$ 2 sets of chromosomes are mae$ so cyto5inesis ensures that t"o
cells "ith the normal amount of chromosomes are mae
Cyto5inesis occurs li5e this:
A;C#A+S:
2ccurs uring a process calle cleavage
A ring of microfilaments constricts the centre of the cell until it splits
P+A;TS:
The iviing plate - or cell plate - forms across the centre of the cell
This splits the cell into t"o ne" cells
The cell plate forms the ne" cell "all
Identify that nuclei, mitochondria and chloroplast contain D-/:
;uclei contain H;A in the form of chromosomes
These contain genetic information that etermines hereity
Ct also has information in proucing proteins$ "hich in turn etermines our
characteristics
#itochonria have a set of H;A of their o"n
Ct is a ring of H;A$ li5e in a procaryotic cell=
Chloroplasts also have a circular ring of H;A in their o"n structure
Describe the se(uence of changes in the nucleus of plant or animal cells in
mitosis:
Interphase: The cell is not iviing$ ,ut the chromosomes are uplicating= The
chromosomes are not visi,le
%rophase: The chromosomes conense an ,ecome visi,le as 2 -oine strans$
calle chromatis$ -oine at a centromere= The nuclear mem,rane ,rea5s o"n
&etaphase: The chromosomes line up at the centre of the cell$ ,y a spinle
?system of microtu,ules@= The chromatis separate
/naphase: The single strane chromosomes move to the opposite poles of cell
0elophase: The spinle isappears= T"o ne" nuclear mem,ranes appear

8.3 - Patterns in Nature

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Preliminary - Stage 6 2 Unit Biology

8.3 - Pattern in Nature:

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