Inmateh I - 2009

JANUARY - APRIL
Bucharest, vol 27, No.1/2009 ISSN: 1583 1019

LUCRARI
STIINTIFICE
(INMATEH)
Vol. 27, No.1 /2009 LUCRRI TIINIFICE (INMATEH)

2

Managing Editorial Board

Editor Chief
Pirn Ion, General Manager -
INMA Bucharest, Prof.on.Dr.Eng.,
SR I, Corresponding member of ASAS,
pirna@inma.ro

Scientific Secretary
Ganea Ioan, INMA Bucharest,
Dr.Eng., TDE II; ganea@inma.ro

Official translator
Barbu Mihaela, INMA Bucharest,
Prof. English, French

Assistant Editor
Vldu Valentin, Head of Testing
Department - INMA Bucharest, Dr.Eng.,
SR III; valentin_vladut@yahoo.com

Editorial Board
Gngu Vergil, ASAS, Prof.on.Dr.Eng., SR I, Member of ASAS
Bria Nicolae, ASAS, Prof.on.Dr.Eng., SR I, Member of ASAS
Cojocaru Iosif, INMA Bucharest, Prof.on. Dr.Eng., SR I
Brtucu Gheorghe, TRANSILVANIA University from Braov, Prof. Dr.Eng.
Cndea Ioan, TRANSILVANIA University from Braov, Prof.Dr.Eng., Corresponding member of ASAS
Popescu Simion, TRANSILVANIA University from Braov, Prof.Dr.Eng., Member of ASAS
Mitroi Adrian, USAMV Bucharest, Prof. Dr.Eng.
Boruz Sorin, University from Craiova, Lecturer Dr.Eng.
Biri Sorin, Polytechnic University of Bucharest - Biotechnical Engineering Faculty, Assoc. Prof. Dr.Eng.
Paraschiv Gigel, Polytechnic University of Bucharest - Biotechnical Engineering Faculty, Assoc. Prof. Dr.Eng.
Maican Edmond, Polytechnic University of Bucharest - Biotechnical Engineering Faculty, Lecturer Dr.Eng
Bungescu Sorin, USAMVB Timioara, Assoc. Prof. Dr.Eng.
Muraru Vergil, INMA Bucharest, Dr.Eng., SR I
Nedelcu Mihail, INMA Bucharest, MSc. Eng., TDE II
INMATEH - Agricultural Engineering,
vol. 27, no. 1/2009
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF RESEARCH-
DEVELOPMENT FOR MACHINES AND
INSTALLATIONS DESIGNED TO AGRICULTURE
AND FOOD INDUSTRY - INMA Bucharest

6 Ion Ionescu de la Brad Bd, sector 1, Bucharest

Three times a year
ISSN: 1583 - 1019

Edited: INMA Bucharest

1

CONTENTS
/ CUPRINS

Pag.

1. PRESENT AND FUTURE IN THE FIELD OF ALTERNATIVE ENERGY USE
/ PREZENT I PERSPECTIVE N DOMENIUL UTILIZRII ENERGIILOR ALTERNATIVE
Assoc.Prof.Dr.Eng. S.t. Biri
1)
, Assoc.Prof.Dr.Eng. G. Paraschiv
1)
, Lecturer Dr.Eng. E. Maican
1)
,
As. Msc.Eng. N. Ungureanu
1)
, As.Msc.Eng. M. Manea
1
, Dr.Eng. V. Vldu
2)

1)
Universitatea Politehnica din Bucureti,
2)
INMA Bucureti

3
2. STUDIES, RESEARCHES AND RESULTS REGARDING THE BIOGAS OBTAINING AND USING
/ STUDII, CERCETRI I REZULTATE PRIVIND OBINEREA I UTILIZAREA BIOGAZULUI
Prof.on.Dr.Eng. Ion Pirn, Prof.on.Dr.Eng. Vergil Gngu, Dr.Eng. Valentin Vldu
- INMA Bucureti -

11
3. MECHANIZATION TECHNOLOGY FOR DEEP DECOMPACTION AND AERATION OF DEFECTIVE SOILS, CONCOMITANTLY
WITH THE ADMINISTRATION OF NUTRITIVE ELEMENTS
/ TEHNOLOGIE DE MECANIZARE PENTRU DECOMPACTAREA I AERAREA N PROFUNZIME A SOLURILOR
DEFICITARE, CONCOMITENT CU ADMINISTRAREA DE ELEMENTE NUTRITIVE
Prof.on.Dr.Eng. Iosif COJOCARU, Dr.Eng. Nicolae CONSTANTIN,
Prof.on.Dr.Eng. Ion PIRNA, Dr. Eng Eugen MARIN - INMA Bucureti,
Dr.Eng. Alexandru COCIU - INCDA Fundulea

19
4. DYNAMICS OF THE AIR FLOW MIXED WITH STRAW CEREAL SEEDS /
/ DINAMICA CURENTULUI DE AER N AMESTEC CU SEMINELE DE CEREALE PIOASE
MSc. Eng. Drago Manea INMA Bucharest
Prof. Dr. Eng. Ioan Cndea Transilvania University from Braov

24
5. DETERMINATION OF THE QUALITATIVE INDEX OF THE EQUIPMENT FOR MICROBIAL INOCULANTS APPLICATION
/ DETERMINAREA INDICILOR CALITATIVI DE LUCRU AI ECHIPAMENTULUI PENTRU APLICAT INOCULANI MICROBIENI
MSc. Eng. Drago Manea, Dr. Eng. Iosif Cojocaru, Dr. Eng. Eugen Marin
- INMA Bucharest -

32
6. RESEARCHES REGARDING THE MANUFACTURING OF A MACHINE FOR CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS AND AMENDMENTS
SPREADING, MA-3.6
/ CERCETRI PRIVIND REALIZAREA UNEI MAINI PENTRU ADMINISTRAT NGRMINTE CHIMICE I AMENDAMENTE, MA-3,6
Dr.Eng. Lucreia POPA, Eng. Vasilica TEFAN - INMA Bucureti
Eng. Livian Victor ANDREI, Eng. Gicu GURAN - SC MAT SA Craiova

39
7. RESEARCHES ON THE REDUCTION OF FUEL CONSUMPTION IN CASE OF AUTOMATIC SYSTEMS FOR POSITION CONTROL USE
/ CERCETRI PRIVIND REDUCEREA CONSUMULUI DE COMBUSTIBIL N CAZUL UTILIZRII SISTEMELOR AUTOMATE DE
REGLAJ DE POZIIE
Assoc.Prof.Dr.Eng. G. Paraschiv
1)
, Lecturer Dr.Eng. G. Muuroi
1)
, As.Msc.Eng. N. Ungureanu
1)
,

Assoc.Prof.Dr.Eng. S.t. Biri
1)
,
Dr.Eng. V. Vldu
2)
,

Dr.Eng. E. Marin
2)

1)
Universitatea POLITEHNICA din Bucureti,
2)
INMA Bucureti

44
8. RELEVANT CHARACTERISTICS OF ALTERNATIVE LIQUID FUELS AIMED AT DIESEL ENGINES EXPLOITATION IN
POLYCARBURATION DUTY
/ PROPRIETILE RELEVANTE ALE COMBUSTIBILILOR LICHIZI ALTERNATIVI VIZAI PENTRU EXPLOATAREA
MOTOARELOR DIESEL N REGIM POLICARBURAT
Dr.Eng. Mircea Adrian Nicolescu
- INMA Bucureti -

50
9. VARIANTS TACKLED IN POLYCARBURATION PRACTICE OF DIESEL ENGINES DESIGNED TO BE FED WITH DIESEL OIL
/ VARIANTE ABORDABILE N PRACTICA POLICARBURRII MOTOARELOR DIESEL CONSTRUITE PENTRU ALIMENTAREA CU MOTORIN
Dr. Eng. Mircea Adrian Nicolescu
- INMA Bucharest, Romania -

56
10. INSTALLATION FOR SOLAR DRYING OF SEWAGE SLUDGE
/ INSTALAIE PENTRU USCAREA SOLAR A NMOLULUI DE EPURARE
Dr.Eng. Markus BUX Hohenheim University,Stuttgart, Germany
Prof.Dr.Eng. Adrian MITROI, drd.Eng. Liliana CRLAN - USAMV Bucharest
Dr.Eng. Tilo CONRAD, Dr.Eng. Steffen RITTERBUSCH - Thermo-System Industrie&Trocknungstechnik, Germany

63
11. THE INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON THE ORGANIC SUBSTRATUM IN THE PRODUCTION OF BIOGAS
/ INFLUENA TEMPERATURII I A SUBSTRATULUI ORGANIC N PRODUCIA DE BIOGAZ
Lecturer Ph.D.Eng. Dobre Paul,
Assoc. Prof.Ph.D.Eng. Farca Nicolae - USAMV Bucharest
Stud. Ggeanu Iuliana - Management Faculty USAMV Bucharest

70
12. CONSTRUCTIVE TYPES OF ADAPTORS FOR THE RAW VEGETABLE OIL USED AT DIESEL MOTORS
/ TIPURI CONSTRUCTIVE DE ADAPTOARE PENTRU UTILIZAREA ULEIULUI VEGETAL CRUD LA MOTOARELE DIESEL
Lecturer Ph.D.Eng. Dobre Paul - USAMV Bucharest
Student Ggeanu Iuliana - Management Faculty USAMV Bucharest

76

2
13. EOLIAN POWER GENERATION FOR AGRICULTURAL INSTALLATIONS IN REMOTE AREAS
/ GENERAREA ENERGIEI EOLIENE PENTRU INSTALATII AGRICOLE N ZONE IZOLATE
Eng. Drago TNASE Politehnica University Bucureti (Romnia)
Eng. PhD student Andreea BORITU Politehnica University Bucureti (Romnia)
Eng. PhD student Camelia NICULI Transilvania University Braov (Romnia)
Eng. PhD student Andrei BENCZE Transilvania University Braov (Romnia)
Prof. Dr. Eng. Ioan CANDEA Transilvania University Braov (Romnia)

81
14. POSSIBILITIES OF USING SOLID BIOMASS, AGRICULTURAL AND FORESTRY FOR REDUCING POLLUTION SOIL AND WATER
/ POSIBILITI DE UTILIZARE A BIOMASEI SOLIDE, AGRICOLE I FORESTIERE PENTRU REDUCEREA POLURII
SOLULUI I APEI
Eng. Danciu Aurel, Dr. Eng. Vldu Valentin, Eng. Voicea Iulian, Eng. Postelnicu Elena

86
15. CFD STUDY REGARDING THE MAXIMUM TORQUE VARIATION WITH WIND SPEED, ON A SAVONIUS TYPE TURBINE
/ STUDIU CFD PRIVIND VARIAIA CUPLULUI MAXIM CU VITEZA VNTULUI, LA O INSTALAIE EOLIAN TIP SAVONIUS
Dr. Eng. Edmond MAICAN
1
, Dr. Eng. Sorin-tefan BIRI
1
,
Dr. Eng. Valentin VLDU
2
, Eng. Bianca DAVID, Dr. Eng. Mihai BAYER
1
,
1
POLITEHNICAUniversity of Bucharest
2
Institutul Naional de Cercetare-Dezvoltare pentru Maini i Instalaii destinate Agriculturii i Industriei Alimentare INMA Bucureti

93
16. SOILS MAPPING INFORMATION SYSTEM
/ SISTEM INFORMAIONAL PENTRU CARTAREA SOLURILOR
Dr. Eng. V. Muraru, Dr.Eng. I. Pirn, math. P. Crdei, Dr. Eng. C. Ionel-Muraru, student T. Ticu

98
17. SOME INVESTIGATION OF EFFICIENT FIELD WORK FOR TRACTOR GUIDANCE SYSTEM AND SEEDER USING GPS NAVIGATION
/ INVESTIGAII PRIVIND CMPUL DE LUCRU EFICIENT PENTRU SISTEMUL DE GHIDARE A UNUI TRACTOR I
SEMNTOARE FOLOSIND NAVIGAIA GPS
Atanas Atanasov*, Keiichi Inoue**, Valentin Vldut***
*University of Rousse, Bulgaria; **National Agricultural Research Center for Hokkaido Region, Lowland Crop Rotation
Research Team, Sapporo, Japan
***National Research - Development Institute for Machines and Installations Designed to Agriculture and Food Industry

104
18. INFLUENCE OF AUTOMATION OF THE CONDITIONED EQUIPMENTS OVER THE WHEAT MILLING PROCESS
/ INFLUENA AUTOMATIZRII ECHIPAMENTELOR DE CONDIIONAT ASUPRA PROCESULUI DE MCINAT GRUL
Dr.Eng. Professor, Gheorghe Brtucu
- Transilvania University of Braov -

110
19. RESEARCHES CONCERNING THE SOLAR ENERGY UTILIZATION TO THE CONSERVATION THROUGH DRYING OF THE
FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
/ CERCETRI PRIVIND UTILIZAREA ENERGIEI SOLARE LA CONSERVAREA PRIN USCARE A LEGUMELOR I FRUCTELOR
Dr. Professor Gheorghe Brtucu,
PhD. Student Ionu Cpn

117
20. MEASURES AND MATHEMATICAL MODELS FOR SOIL COMPACTION
/ MSURI I MODELE MATEMATICE PENTRU COMPACTAREA SOLULUI
Math. P. Crdei, Dr. Eng. V. Muraru, Dr. Eng. C. Muraru - Ionel, Eng. R. Sfiru

125
21. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ON TEXTURE HOMOGENEITY FIRMNESS OF THE PULP APPLES
/ CERCETRI EXPERIMENTALE PRIVIND OMOGENITATEA FERMITII TEXTURII PULPEI MERELOR
Prof.dr.Eng Csndroiu Tudor; Drd.Eng. Ivnescu Daniela - U.P. Bucureti
Assoc.Prof.Dr.Eng. Vintil Marian ICDIMPH Bucureti

131
22. INDEPENDENT DISK HARROWS FOR STUBBLE-TURN AND READY GERMINATION, ALL TYPES OF SOIL, DESIGNED
120 220 HP TRACTORS
/ GRAPA CU DISCURI INDEPENDENTE PENTRU DEZMIRISTIT SI PREGATIT PATUL GERMINATIV, PE TOATE TPURILE
DE SOL, DESTINAT TRACTOARELOR DE 120 220CP
Dr. Eng. Nicolae CONSTANTIN, Prof.on Dr. Eng. Iosif COJOCARU, Prof. Dr. Eng. Ion PIRNA,
Dr.Eng. Vasile NITESCU - INMA Bucureti
Eng.Ion LEU - MAT Craiova

139
23. EXPERIMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF THE SOIL HILLSLOPE LOSSES BY EROSION CAUSED BY WATER ACTION
/ ESTIMAREA EXPERIMENTALA A PIERDERILOR DE SOL PE VERSANTI, PRIN EROZIUNE, DATORITA ACTIUNII APEI
Dr. Eng. V. Herea
1)
, Math. P. Crdei
2)
,
Dr. Eng. V. Muraru
2)
, Dr. Eng. C. Muraru-Ionel
2)

1)
ICDVV Valea Clugreasc, Romania;
2)
INMA Bucharest, Romania

144

3
PRESENT AND FUTURE IN THE FIELD OF ALTERNATIVE ENERGY USE
/
PREZENT I PERSPECTIVE N DOMENIUL UTILIZRII ENERGIILOR ALTERNATIVE

Assoc. Prof.Dr.Eng. S.t. Biri
1)
, Assoc. Prof.Dr.Eng. G. Paraschiv
1)
, Lecturer Dr.Eng. E. Maican
1)
, As.Msc.Eng.
N. Ungureanu
1)
, As.Msc.Eng. M. Manea
1)
, Dr.Eng. V. Vldu
2)

1)
Politehnica University of Bucharest, Romania,
2)

Abstract. Alternative energy or renewable energy
represents the energy derived from a wide variety of
resources, having the ability to renew. Researcher Mark
Jacobson of Standford University established a ranking of
alternative energy sources considered to be promising. In
descending order, these are: wind energy, concentrated
solar energy (mirrors heating a water tower), geothermal
energy, tidal energy, solar panels, wave energy,
hydroelectric dams. Biofuels obtained from corn and
vegetable waste are last on that list, along with nuclear
energy and clean coal. As presented in this paper,
Romanias situation is still inadequate regarding the use
of clean energy. Europe has 34.000 MW installed in
eolian turbines, while in Romania only 900 kW are in
function. Currently, in Europe are around 14 million m
2
of
solar-thermal panels, while Romania has less than 4.000
m
2
. These are just two examples that highlight the ways
Romania must follow. This paper presents an ample and
realistic analysis of the technical-economical and
ecological efficiency on the use of alternative energy
sources and of the interesting perspectives regarding
their use, including in the agriculture and food industry.

Key words: alternative energy, clean energy, biofuel,
biodiesel

INTRODUCTION
Excessive use of fossil fuel energy (oil, gas, coals),
characteristic for the past century, has had disastrous
effects on the environment, more harmful than any other
human activity in history, which led to the accumulation of
harmful gases into the atmosphere, which started
processes (some irreversible) such as: thinning of the
ozone layer, global warming, etc. Therefore, the use of
alternative energy sources becomes more important at
present. These sources, such as the sun or wind, basically
cant be exhausted and therefore are called renewable
energy sources. They cause far less emissions, reduce
chemical, thermal and radioactive pollution and are
available worldwide. They are also known as alternative or
unconventional energy sources.
Researcher Mark Jacobson of Standford University
has recently established the ranking of alternative energy
sources considered to be promising. In descending
order, these are:
1) wind energy
2) concentrated solar energy (mirrors heating a water
tower)
3) geothermal energy
4) tidal energy
5) solar panels
6) wave energy
7) hydroelectric dams
8) biofuels
9) nuclear energy
10) clean coal.
Despite the successes achieved in the development
of energy production technologies from renewable
energy sources, the cost of electricity produced from
these resources is still higher than the cost of electricity
generated from the fossil fuels combustion. The cost of
Rezumat. Prin energie alternativ sau energie regenerabil se
nelege energia derivat dintr-o larg diversitate de resurse,
avnd capacitatea de a se rennoi. Cercettorul Mark Jacobson
de la Universitatea Standford a stabilit un clasament al surselor
de energie alternativ considerate promitoare. Acestea, n
ordine descresctoare, sunt: energia eolian, energia solar
concentrat (oglinzi ce nclzesc un turn de ap), energia
geotermal, energia mareelor, panouri solare, energia valurilor,
baraje hidroelectrice. Biocombustibilii din porumb i resturi de
plante se gsesc n coada acestei liste, alturi de energia nuclear i de
crbunele curat. Aa cum este prezentat i n cadrul acestei lucrri,
situaia din Romnia este nc una necorespunztoare n ceea
ce privete utilizarea energiei curate. n Europa exist 34.000
MW instalai n turbine eoliene, n timp ce n Romnia sunt n
funciune doar 900 kW. n Europa exist n prezent circa 14
milioane m
2
de panouri solar-termale, n timp ce n Romnia sunt
mai puin de 4.000 m
2
. Acestea sunt doar dou exemple care
evideniaz ci de urmat i n Romnia. n cadrul prezentului
articol este realizat o analiz ampl i realist a eficienei
tehnico-economice i ecologice la utilizarea surselor alternative
de energie i a perspectivelor interesante n ceea ce privete
utilizarea acestora inclusiv n agricultur i industrie alimentar.

Cuvinte cheie: energie alternativ, energie curat,
biocombustibil, biodiesel

INTRODUCERE
Folosirea excesiv a energiei din combustibili fosili
(petrol, gaz, crbuni), caracteristic ultimului secol, a avut
efecte dezastruoase asupra mediului, mai duntoare dect
orice alt activitate umana din istorie, care a condus la
acumularea de gaze nocive n atmosfer, ceea ce a
declanat procese (unele ireversibile) precum: subierea
stratului de ozon, nclzirea global, etc. De aceea,
utilizarea unor surse alternative de energie, devine tot mai
important n prezent. Aceste surse, precum soarele sau
vntul, practic nu se consum, ele reprezentnd surse de
energie regenerabil. Acestea produc emisii mult mai puine,
reduc poluarea chimic, termic, radioactiv i sunt
disponibile oriunde pe glob. Mai sunt cunoscute i ca surse
alternative sau neconvenionale.
Cercettorul Mark Jacobson, de la Universitatea
Standford, a stabilit recent un clasament al surselor de
energie alternativ considerate promitoare. n ordine
descresctoare, acestea sunt:
1) energia eolian
2) energia solar concentrat (oglinzi ce nclzesc
un turn de ap)
3) energia geotermal
4) energia mareelor
5) panouri solare
6) energia valurilor
7) baraje hidroelectrice
8) biocombustibili
9) energia nuclear
10) crbunele curat.
n ciuda succeselor obinute n dezvoltarea tehnologiilor
de producere a energiei din surse energetice regenerabile
costul energiei electrice obinute din aceste resurse rmne
nc mai mare dect costul energiei electrice generate prin
arderea combustibililor fosili. Costul energiei electrice

4
the electricity produced from renewable resources may
be reduced by taking into account the indirect costs
required for the production of energy (environmental
depollution, medical costs, energy security). The use of
renewable energy has improved a lot lately due to the
direct governmental support.
Romania has an important potential of resources for
renewable energy, but, for their recovery, the following
requirements must be met: overcoming the main barriers
on the development of renewable energy sources (costs,
systems efficiency), the alignment to the specific EU
reglementations and procedures, the integration of
renewable systems in the national energetical systems.

WIND ENERGY
Wind energy is a source of renewable energy generated
by wind power. Wind energy recovery began with the
first global oil crisis, in the "70 and in the "90 has
returned to the foreground due to the environmental
impact of the pollution generated by fossil fuels. At the
end of 2006, worldwide, the total capacity of wind
generators was 73.904 MW, representing about 1% of
worldwide electricity. In some countries the amount of
wind energy in the total energy consumption is significant,
respectively: Denmark (23%), Spain (8%), Germany (6%).
obinut din resurse regenerabile poate fi ns micorat dac
se iau n calcul i costurile indirecte necesare producerii
energiei (depoluarea mediului, costuri medicale, securizare
energetic). Gradul de utilizare a energiilor regenerabile s-a
mbuntit mult n ultimul timp datorit sprijinului
guvernamental direct.
Romnia are un potenial important al resurselor de
energie regenerabil, dar, pentru valorificarea acestora trebuie
ndeplinite urmtoarele cerine: depirea principalelor
bariere n calea dezvoltrii surselor regenerabile de energie
(costuri, eficien a sistemelor), alinierea la reglementrile i
procedurile specifice UE, integrarea sistemelor regenerabile
n sistemele energetice naionale.

ENERGIA EOLIAN
Energia eolian este o surs de energie regenerabil generat
de puterea vntului. Valorificarea energiei eoliene a nceput odat
cu prima criz mondial a petrolului, n anii 70, iar n anii
90 a revenit n prim plan din cauza impactului asupra
mediului generat de poluarea cu combustibilii fosili. La sfritul
anului 2006, capacitatea total pe plan mondial a generatoarelor
eoliene era de 73904 MW, reprezentnd circa 1% din necesarul
mondial de energie electric. n unele ri ponderea energiei
eoliene n consumul total de energie este semnificativ,
respectiv, n Danemarca (23%), Spania (8%), Germania (6%).

Fig. 1 - Eolian turbines / Turbine eoliene

Romanias situation is still inadequate regarding the
use of clean energy. Europe has 34.000 MW installed
in eolian turbines, while in Romania only 900 kW are in
function.
For Romania have been identified five wind areas
(Fig. 2), depending on the environmental and
topographic conditions, taking into account the level of
the energy potential at an average height of 50 m.
Researches shows that in our country the wind energy
potential is most favorable on the Black Sea coast, in the
mountain areas and in Moldova or Dobrogeas plateaus.
Situaia din Romnia este nc necorespunztoare n
ceea ce privete utilizarea energiei curate. n Europa exist
34.000 MW instalai n turbine eoliene, n timp ce n
Romnia sunt n funciune doar 900 kW.
Pentru Romnia au fost identificate cinci zone eoliene
(Fig. 2), n funcie de condiiile de mediu i topografice,
lund n considerare nivelul potenialului energetic la
nlimea medie de 50 m. Din cercetri rezult c la noi n
ar potenialul energetic eolian este cel mai favorabil pe
litoralul Mrii Negre, n zonele montane i podiuri din
Moldova sau Dobrogea.

Fig. 2 - Map of eolian potential for Romania / Harta potenialului eolian al Romniei
[http://www.energii-regenerabile.ro/]

5
CONCENTRATED SOLAR ENERGY
ABENGOA SOLAR company has developed,
between 2001 and 2005, near Sevilla, the first private
solar plant in Europe, based on the PCS technology
(concentrated solar power). The system is based on a
field having 624 orientable mirrors and a 115 m height
tower (Fig. 3). Solar radiation is concentrated towards a
receiver located on top of the tower. The cooling fluid
circulates through the tower in order to be converted into
steam, which will then expand in a turbine coupled to a
generator for electrical energy production.
ENERGIA SOLAR CONCENTRAT
Compania ABENGOA SOLAR a dezvoltat n perioada
2001-2005 lng Sevilla prima central solar privat din
Europa care are la baz tehnologia PCS (puterea
concentrata a soarelui). Sistemul este bazat pe un cmp de
624 de oglinzi orientabile i un turn de 115 m nlime (Fig.
3). Radiaia solar este concentrat ctre un receptor aflat n
partea superioar a turnului. Fluidul de rcire circul prin
turn cu scopul de a fi transformat n abur care apoi se va
destinde ntr-o turbin cuplat la un generator pentru
producerea energiei electrice.

Fig. 3 - PCS system / Sistem PCS

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Is the energy from the heat contained in fluids and
underground rocks. This energy is clean and renewable,
and it can be used for homes heating, raising plants in
greenhouses, drying crops, heating water in fish farms,
milk pasteurization or to produce electricity or for balearic
resorts use. Geothermal reservoirs are located a few
kilometers deep in the earth's crust (Fig. 4).
For example, steam powered plants are using high
temperature water over 182 C. The vapours put in to
function the turbines, generating electricity. There are no
significant toxic emissions, and carbon dioxide, nitrogen
dioxide and sulfur traces appearing are 50 times lower
than in plants using fossil fuels.
Europeans have proposed to double their production
of energy from geothermal source by 2010, so that this
type of energy will increase its share in total energy
consumed in Europe from 6%, as it is today, to 12 %.
ENERGIA GEOTERMAL
Reprezint energia provenit din cldura coninut n fluidele i rocile
subterane. Aceast energie este nepoluant i regenerabil, putnd
fi utilizat pentru nclzirea locuinelor, creterea plantelor n sere,
uscarea recoltelor, nclzirea apei n cresctoriile de peti,
pasteurizarea laptelui, pentru producerea de energie electric sau
pentru utilizare n staiunile baleare. Rezervoarele geotermale se
gsesc la civa kilometri n adncul scoarei terestre (Fig. 4).
Spre exemplu, uzinele pe baz de aburi folosesc apa la
temperaturi foarte mari - mai mult de 182 C. Vaporii pun n
funciune turbinele i genereaz electricitate. Nu exist
emisii toxice semnificative, iar urmele de dioxid de carbon,
dioxid de azot i sulf care apar sunt de 50 de ori mai mici
dect n uzinele ce utilizeaz combustibili fosili.
Europenii i-au propus ca, pn n 2010, s-i dubleze
producia de energie din sursa geotermal, astfel nct acest
tip de energie s i creasc ponderea n totalul energiei
consumate n Europa de la 6%, ct e n prezent, la 12%.

Fig. 4 - Distribuia zonelor geotermale n Europa / Geothermal areas distribution in Europe

TIDAL AND WAVE ENERGY
Tides occur regularly in certain coastline areas worldwide,
with amplitudes which can sometimes reach 14-18 m, the
minimum amplitude required for this energy to be
rationally recovered being 8 m. Those natural conditions
ENERGIA MAREELOR I A VALURILOR
Mareele se produc cu regularitate n anumite zone de litoral de pe
glob, cu amplitudini care pot s ajung uneori la 14-18 m,
amplitudinea minim necesar pentru a putea fi valorificat
raional aceast energie fiind de 8 m. Astfel de condiii naturale se

6
can only be found in 20 zones (Atlantic coast of France,
Great Britain, USA, Canada, Northern Australia and
Eastern China). If it could be fully recovered, this form of
energy could produce, in tidal motive plants (Fig. 5) about
100.000 times more electricity than that produced in all
the hydro-electric plants functioning today worldwide.
regsesc doar n 20 de zone (rmul atlantic al Franei, Marii
Britanii, SUA, Canadei, Nordul Australiei, Estul Chinei). Dac
ar putea fi valorificat integral, aceast form de energie ar
putea produce n centrale mareomotrice (Fig. 5) de circa
100.000 de ori mai mult energie electric dect cea produs
n toate hidrocentralele aflate n funciune n prezent pe glob.

Fig. 5 - The worlds first tidal turbine, from England / Fig. 6 - Plant for wave energy capture /
Prima turbin mareic din lume din Anglia Central de captare a energiei valurilor

Wave energy is also renewable, having a great
potential in areas with waves throughout the year or on
the seas and oceans. Portugal, Scotland or the UK have
special programs to convert wave energy into electricity.
The system achieved by the english company Orecon
is a combination of landmark/sea platform (Fig. 6),
having special pressure chambers in which the force of
waves that hit the platform is converted into electricity by
a turbine. The platform will produce about 1,5
megawatts. Studies have shown that wave energy could
provide 5% of the total energy requirements of the
planet.

SOLAR PANNELS
Sun can be considered as the most important source
of energy for our planet, which, unlike other usual energy
sources, could provide all the energy required by the
modern industrialized society, worldwide, for a undefined
future. Figure 7 shows Romanias public map for solar
energy potential.
Energia valurilor este de asemenea regenerabil, avnd
un potenial foarte mare n zonele cu valuri pe tot parcursul
anului sau n largul mrilor i oceanelor. Portugalia, Scoia sau
Marea Britanie au programe speciale de conversie a
energiei valurilor n energie electric.
Sistemul realizat de firma englez Orecon este o
combinaie de baliz/platform maritim (Fig. 6), dotat cu
camere de presiune speciale n care fora valurilor ce lovesc
platforma este transformat n electricitate de ctre o
turbin. Platforma va produce n jur de 1,5 megawati. Din
studii rezult c energia valurilor poate asigura 5% din
necesarul total de energie al planetei.

PANOURI SOLARE
Soarele poate fi considerat drept cea mai important surs
de energie pentru planeta noastr, care, spre deosebire de alte
surse de energie obinuit, ar putea s asigure ntreaga cantitate
de energie de care are nevoie societatea industrializat modern,
la scar mondial, pentru un viitor indefinit. n figura 7 este
prezentat harta public a potenialului energetic solar al Romniei.

Fig. 7 - Romanias map for solar energy potential [ICPE, ANM, ICEMENERG, 2006] /
Harta potenialului energetic solar al Romniei [ICPE, ANM, ICEMENERG, 2006]

Thermo-solar technologies use the heat from sun rays
to produce hot water, electricity or to heat homes.
Thermo-solar applications can be simple residential
heating water systems (Fig. 8) or even complex plants
that generate electricity.
According to the scheme in Figure 8, the solar
collector, consisting of voided tubes, captures solar
radiation and converts it into heat, transmitting it to a heat
Tehnologiile termo-solare utilizeaz cldura razelor de soare
pentru a produce ap cald, energie electric sau pentru
nclzirea locuinelor. Aplicaiile termo-solare pot fi simple
sisteme rezideniale de nclzire a apei (Fig. 8) sau chiar staii
complexe de generare a energiei electrice.
Conform schemei din figura 8, colectorul solar, compus
din tuburi vidate, capteaz radiaia solar i o transform
n energie termic, transmind-o la un schimbtor de

7
exchanger. The heated thermal agent (antifreeze) is
circulated by the pump through the coil inside the tank.
Cold water takes up the heat from the coil and it can be
used as hot running water or for heating.
The solar collector shown in Figure 9 is used for hot
water preparation during March to October. It is made of
individual voided tubes that transfer solar radiation by
convection, into the mass of water from the tank.
Therefore, the accumulation tank is mounted on top of the
solar panel. Water from the voided tubes heats, reduces
its density and rises in the tank, being replaced by an
equivalent volume of cold water with higher density. The
void from the glass tubes provides an effective
thermoisolation, heat losses outwards being very small.
cldur. Agentul termic nclzit (antigel) este circulat de
pomp prin serpentina din interiorul rezervorului. Apa rece
preia cldura de la serpentin i poate fi folosit ca ap
cald menajer sau pentru nclzire.
Colectorul solar din figura 9 se utilizeaz pentru prepararea
apei calde n perioada martie - octombrie. Este construit
din tuburi vidate individuale ce transfer radiaia solar,
prin convecie, n masa apei din rezervor. Din acest motiv
rezervorul de acumulare este montat n partea superioar
a panoului solar. Apa din tuburile vidate se nclzete, i
reduce densitatea i se ridic n rezervor, fiind nlocuit de
un volum echivalent de ap rece, cu densitate mai mare.
Vidul din tuburile de sticl asigur o termoizolare eficient,
pierderile de cldur spre exterior fiind extrem de mici.
Photovoltaic panels convert the solar radiation into
electricity. The efficiency of such panels is between 8-
20%, depending on the absorbtion degree of solar
radiation. Quite low efficiency of current photovoltaic
panels is mainly due to the fact that, from the visible solar
spectrum, only a small part of the wave frequency of light
radiation is converted into electricity.
Panourile fotovoltaice transform radiaia solar n
energie electric. Randamentul unor asemenea panouri este
cuprins ntre 8-20%, n funcie de gradul de absorbie a
radiaiei solare. Eficiena destul de scazut a panourilor
fotovoltaice actuale este n principal datorat faptului c din
spectrul solar vizibil doar o mic parte de frecvene de und
a radiaiilor luminoase sunt transformate n electricitate.

Fig. 8 - Thermo-solar system / Sistem termo-solar Fig. 9 - Solar collector / Colector solar

HYDROELECTRIC DAMS
They are part of hydroelectric plants, converting the
mechanical energy of water into electricity (Fig. 10).
Worldwide, capturing the energy of flowing water is
one of the main sources to obtain electricity. Hydroelectric
dams, in addition to their main role in electricity
production, also have an important role into regulate the
level of rivers and prevent flooding. The negative effects
of these dams are: stopping the natural migration routes
of some aquatic species (such as sturgeon migration on
the Danube), reducing rivers biodiversity, blocking the
sediment brought by rivers into barrier lakes, etc.
BARAJE HIDROELECTRICE
Intr n componena hidrocentralelor realiznd transformarea
energiei mecanice a apei n energie electric (Fig. 10).
Pe plan mondial, captarea energiei apelor curgtoare reprezint
una dintre principalele surse de obinere a energiei electrice.
Barajele hidroelectrice, pe lng rolul lor predilect de obinere a
energiei electrice, au i importantul rol de regularizare a nivelului
rurilor i de prevenire a inundaiilor. Efectele negative ale
acestor baraje constau n: obturarea cilor de migraie natural a
unor specii acvatice (cum este cazul migraiei sturionilor pe
Dunre), reducerea biodiversitii fluviilor, blocarea sedimentelor
aduse de ruri n lacurile de acumulare, etc.

Fig. 10 - Hydroelectric plant / Central hidroelectric

BIOFUELS
Oleaginuos plant processing to produce liquid fuels has
been seen in the last years as one of the viable alternatives to
BIOCOMBUSTIBILII
Procesarea unor plante oleaginoase pentru obinerea de
combustibili lichizi a fost privit n ultimii ani ca una dintre

8
the classic hydrocarbons based fuels.
Biofuels have enjoyed considerable political support in
the last years, the U.S. and Europe assigning datas for
their introduction on the market and for the gradual
replacemen of oil. Experts in environmental and energy
have expressed their concern about biofuels, and last
year, the EU began to reconsider its position. According to
researcher Mark Jacobson, ethanol based biofuels will be
more harmful to human health, flora and fauna, water
resources and soil than current fossil fuels.
Technical plants cultivation for biofuels leads to the
reduction of the area planted with cereals, due to better
prices obtained by farmers for technical plants. This fact
has a major contribution in the increasement of world prices
for food. Burning biofuels does not actually reduce the
emissions of greenhouse effect gases. In some states,
technical plants cultivation is made through the destruction of
large natural areas (tropical and equatorial forests, etc.).
In Figures 11 and 12 are presented two complete
plants for oil production as feedstock for biodiesel from
oilseeds (rapeseed, sunflower, etc.), and processing.
Methanol is stored in an airtight container, being
recovered at the end of each processing. Glycerol is
collected in order to be processed for recovery or burning
in special burners or steam generators. The fuel produced
is filtered in two stages to ensure smooth operation of
diesel engines. Residues obtained by centrifugation for
methylesters purification can be used as fertilizer.
alternativele viabile la combustibilii clasici pe baz de hidrocarburi.
Biocombustibilii s-au bucurat de un sprijin politic
considerabil n ultimii ani, SUA i Europa stabilindu-i date
pentru introducerea lor pe pia i nlocuirea treptat a
petrolului. Experii n mediu i energie i-au exprimat ns
ngrijorarea fa de biocombustibili, iar UE a nceput s-i
regndeasc poziia anul trecut. Potrivit cercettorului Mark
Jacobson, biocombustibilii pe baz de etanol vor duna mai
mult sntii umane, florei i faunei, resurselor de ap i
solului dect combustibilii fosili actuali.
Cultivarea plantelor tehnice din care se obin biocombustibilii
conduce la reducerea suprafeelor cultivate cu cereale, datorit
preurilor mai bune obinute de ctre fermieri din plantele
tehnice. Acest fapt contribuie major la creterea preurilor
mondiale la alimente. Arderea biocombustibililor nu reduce
de fapt emisiile de gaze cu efect de ser. Cultivarea plantelor
tehnice n unele state se face prin distrugerea unor suprafee
mari de zone naturale (pduri tropicale i ecuatoriale, etc).
n figurile 11 i 12 sunt prezentate dou instalaii complete
de obinere a uleiului ca materie prim pentru biodiesel din
semine oleaginoase (rapi, floarea soarelui, etc.), respectiv de
procesare. Metanolul este stocat ntr-un recipient etan, fiind
recuperat la finalul procesrii fiecrei trane. Glicerolul este
colectat pentru procesare n vederea valorificrii sau arderii n
arztoare speciale sau generatoare de abur. Carburantul obinut
este filtrat n dou etape pentru a asigura o funcionare fr
probleme a motoarelor diesel. Reziduurile obinute prin centrifugare
pentru purificare a metilesterilor poate fi utilizat ca fertilizator.

Fig. 11 - AGERATEC system for oil obtaining for biofuel / Sistem AGERATEC de obinere a uleiului pentru biocombustibil

Fig. 12 - AGERATEC processor for biodiesel / Procesor AGERATEC pentru biodiesel

9
A special category of biofuels is biogas, which is in
fact a mixture of gases, mainly methane, resulting from
the decomposition of living matter. In many cities of the
world were built, in recent decades, large collectors of
organic matter (scrap waste, waste from farm animals).
This organic matter decomposes, and from its
decomposition results biogas, which is collected. Then,
methane is separated from the gas, entering in the
energetic system (Fig. 13).
O categorie special a biocombustibililor o reprezint
biogazul, care este de fapt un amestec de gaze, n principal
metan, rezultate din descompunerea materiei vii. n multe
orae ale lumii au fost construite n ultimele decenii mari
colectoare de materie organic (resturi menajere, deeuri
ale fermelor de animale). Aceast materie organic se
descompune, iar din aceast descompunere rezult
biogazul, care este colectat. Din acesta se separ apoi
metanul, care intr n sistemul energetic (Fig. 13).

Fig. 13 - Scheme of biogas production and recovery / Schema de obinere i de valorificare a bigazului

NUCLEAR ENERGY
Along with the first atom-powered electric plants, have
also arised controversies regarding the use of energy
produced from the decomposition of radioactive material.
During the years, newer and more performant generations
of electronuclear plants have appeared. Electricity from
nuclear sources represented in 2007 approximately 15%
of the worldwide total. Major controversies related to the
construction and use of atom-powered electric plants are
primarily based on on their safety, as well as on the
means and storage places of radioactive waste.

CLEAN COAL
Coal remains the best known energy reserve on Earth.
Most of the world states (China, USA, Australia, etc.), are
getting today most of the electricity needed by coal
burning. The major problem of coal use is related to the
volume of pollutant emissions. Therefore, in the last
decade have been created technologies called "clean",
which capture most of these emissions. Even the use of
"clean" coal is controversial, because many researchers
argue that the reduction of pollutant emissions is virtually
impossible. Issues related on clean coal technologies also
concerns the high costs of thermo-electric plants
retechnology.

CONCLUSIONS
Through a strategy of Romanias energy development,
it can be provided increased safety in the energy supply
and limitation of energy resources imports, in terms of
accelerated economic development. This requirement can
be achieved, on one hand, by implementing a sustained
policy of energy conservation, increasing energy efficiency
leading to the decoupling of economic development rate
from the energy consumption development, while
increasing the value of renewable energy.
The recovery of the potential of renewable energy
sources gives real prerequisites for achieving some
strategic goals regarding the increasing of the security in
energy supply by diversifying the sources and reducing
the share of energy resources imports, the sustainable
development of energy sector and environmental protection.
Renewable energy sources can contribute to the
ENERGIA NUCLEAR
Odat cu primele centrale atomoelectrice, au aprut i
controversele legate de utilizarea energiei rezultate din
descompunerea materiei radioactive. n decursul anilor au
aprut generaii din ce n ce mai noi i mai performante de
centrale electronucleare. Energia electric provenit din
surse nucleare reprezenta n anul 2007 aproximativ 15 % din
totalul de pe glob. Controversele majore legate de
construirea i utilizarea centralelor atomoelectrice privesc n
principal sigurana acestora, precum i modalitile i locurile
de depozitare a deeurilor radioactive.

CRBUNELE CURAT
Crbunii rmn rezerva energetic cea mai bine cunoscut
de pe Terra. Majoritatea statelor lumii (China, SUA, Australia,
etc.), i obin i astzi cea mai mare parte a energiei electrice
necesare prin arderea crbunilor. Problema major a utilizrii
carbunilor este legat de volumul mare al emisiilor poluante. De
aceea, n ultimul deceniu au fost create tehnologii numite
curate, care capteaz cea mai mare parte a acestor emisii.
Utilizarea, chiar i curat a crbunilor este controversat,
pentru c numeroi cercettori pretind c aceast reducere a
emisiilor poluante este practic imposibil. Problemele legate
de tehnologiile curate ale crbunilor privesc n bun msur i
costurile ridicate ale retehnologizrii centralelor termoelectrice.

CONCLUZII
Printr-o strategie de dezvoltare energetic a Romniei se
poate asigura creterea siguranei n alimentarea cu energie i
limitarea importului de resurse energetice, n condiiile unei
dezvoltri economice accelerate. Aceast cerin se poate
realiza, pe de o parte, prin implementarea unei politici susinute
de conservare a energiei, creterea eficienei energetice care
s conduc la decuplarea ritmului de dezvoltare economic de
evoluia consumului de energie, concomitent cu creterea
gradului de valorificare a surselor regenerabile de energie.
Valorificarea potentialului surselor regenerabile de
energie confer premise reale de realizare a unor obiective
strategice privind creterea siguranei n alimentarea cu
energie prin diversificarea surselor i diminuarea ponderii
importului de resurse energetice, respectiv, de dezvoltare
durabil a sectorului energetic i protejarea mediului nconjurator.
Sursele regenerabile de energie pot contribui la

10
gratification of current needs of heating in certain under-
privileged (rural) areas. To valorify the economical
potential of renewable energy sources, in competitive
energy market conditions, it is necessary to adopt and
implement some policies, tools and specific resources.
In "2001/77/EC Directive", of 27 September 2001, on
"Promotion of electricity produced from renewable
sources, on single energy market", it is set the strategic
objective regarding the contribution of renewable sources
in the total primary energy resources, which should be up
to 12% in 2010. In Romania also, the share of renewable
energy sources in total consumption of primary resources,
in 2010, will have a level of about 11%, and in 2015 to
11,2%.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Ceauu S., Improved system for solar energy capture,
EcoSapiens, 29.03. 2009
2. Stnic A., On alternative energy resources of
humanity, HotScience, HotNews.ro, 8.01.2009.
3. http://.www.energieverde.wordpress.com
4. http://www.panourisolare.net/
5. http://ro.altermedia.info/stiintatehnologie/introducere-
in-energia-geotermala_3077.html
6. http://www.energianoastra.ro/index.php?id=17
7. http://www.agir.ro/univers-
ingineresc/captarea_si_conversia_energiei_valurilor_1
485.html
8. http://www.ecomagazin.ro/energia-valurilor-o-sursa-
inepuizabila-la-dispozitia-omenirii.
satisfacerea nevoilor curente de ncalzire n anumite zone
(rurale) defavorizate. Pentru valorificarea potenialului economic al
surselor regenerabile de energie, n condiii concureniale ale
pieei de energie, este necesar adoptarea i punerea n
practic a unor politici, instrumente i resurse specifice.
n "Directiva 2001/77/EC", din 27 septembrie 2001,
privind "Promovarea energiei electrice produs din surse
regenerabile, pe piaa unic de energie", se stabilete
obiectivul strategic privind aportul surselor regenerabile n
consumul total de resurse energetice primare, care trebuie
s fie de 12%, n anul 2010. i n Romnia, ponderea
surselor regenerabile de energie n consumul total de
resurse primare, n anul 2010, urmeaz s aib un nivel de
circa 11%, iar n anul 2015 de 11,2%.

BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Ceauu S., Un sistem mbuntit de captare a energiei
solare, EcoSapiens, 29.03. 2009
2. Stnic A., Despre resursele alternative de energie ale
omenirii, HotScience, HotNews.ro, 8.01.2009.
3. http://.www.energieverde.wordpress.com
4. http://www.panourisolare.net/
5. http://ro.altermedia.info/stiintatehnologie/introducere-in-
energia-geotermala_3077.html
6. http://www.energianoastra.ro/index.php?id=17
7. http://www.agir.ro/univers-
ingineresc/captarea_si_conversia_energiei_valurilor_14
85.html
8. http://www.ecomagazin.ro/energia-valurilor-o-sursa-
inepuizabila-la-dispozitia-omenirii


11
STUDIES, RESEARCHES AND RESULTS FOR OBTAINING AND USING BIOGAS
/
STUDII, CERCETRI I REZULTATE PRIVIND OBINEREA I UTILIZAREA BIOGAZULUI

Prof.on.dr.ing. Ion Pirn, prof.on.dr.ing. Vergil Gngu, dr.ing. Valentin Vldu
- INMA Bucureti -

Abstract. The raw material subjected to the anaerobic
fermentation process represents another important factor
of biogas production. The quantitative and qualitative
influence on biogas production is determined by the
content of biodegrading organic matter in the raw
material that is being exposed to the microorganism
action, by the C/N ratio, pH, and humidity.

Keywords: alternative energy, clean energy, biofuel,
biodiesel

INTRODUCTION
Romania is currently dependent on imported
energy supply (oil + gas) at 60%.
The integration of Romania stipulates that by 2020,
energy needs produced from renewable sources
(biomass, solar, wind, geothermal) are up to 24% of total
energy produced.
At this time the actual contribution of renewable in
national energy balance is insignificant (unquantifiable).
Diversion technologies to produce energy and
control the risks it presents.
Conservation and enhancement of resources,
reducing emission of carbon monoxide, the development
of renewable energy.
Rezumat. Materia prim supus procesului de
fermentare anaerob reprezint un alt factor important al
produciei de biogaz. Influena cantitativ i calitativ
asupra produciei de biogaz este determinat de
coninutul de materie organic biodegradabil din
materialul brut supus aciunii microorganismelor, de
raportul C/N, de pH, de umiditate.

Cuvinte cheie: energie alternativ, energie curat,
biocombustibil, biodiesel

INTRODUCERE
Romnia este n prezent dependent de furnizarea energiei
din import (petrol + gaze naturale) n proporie de 60%.
Programul de Integrare a Romniei stipuleaz c
pn n 2020, necesarul de energie obinut din surse
regenerabile (biomas, energie solar, eolian, geotermal)
s fie n proporie de 24% din energia total produs.
La aceast dat contribuia efectiv a surselor regenerabile
la balana energetic naional este nesemnificativ (necuantificabil).
Reorientarea tehnologiilor de producere a energiei i
punerea sub control a riscurilor pe care le prezint.
Conservarea i sporirea bazei de resurse, reducerea
emisiei de monoxid de carbon, dezvoltarea surselor
regenerabile de energie.


12

PROBLEM NEED TO BIOGAS
Reduction of environmental pollution (air, water, soil):
avoids fallout of ammonia and methane in the
atmosphere (the greenhouse effect);
reducing air pollution with unpleasant odors (due
residues);
use and neutralizing residues from production processes
agro-livestock, food industry, slaughterhouses,
marc of beer and alcohol from obtaining biodiesel
without burning;
Obtaining a very valuable natural fertilizer, which can
be taken on agricultural land through:
in liquid form;
as powdery (dry).
The reintroduction of the agricultural production
through the cultivation of "energy plants":
land with low production potential (economically
unprofitable);
compliance rate of the area under cultivation of
Romania's EU Accession.
.

TECHNIQUES FOR RECOVERY OF ENERGY FROM
ORGANIC FARM RESIDUE
- Anaerobic fermentation at ambient temperature;
- Anaerobic fermentation at high temperatures;
- Termophile anaerobic decomposition;
- Distillation;
- Composting;
- Incineration.

BIOGAS
- Combustible gas mixture which is formed by the
decomposition of organic substances (plant
NECESITATEA ABORDRII PROBLEMEI BIOGAZULUI
Reducerea polurii mediului (aer, apa, sol):
- se evit emanaiile de amoniac i metan n atmosfer
(efectul de ser);
- reducerea polurii atmosferei cu mirosuri neplcute
(datorate reziduurilor);
- utilizarea i neutralizarea reziduurilor proceselor de
producie din fermele agrozootehnice, industrie
alimentar, abatoare, borhoturi de bere i alcool, de la
obinerea biodieselului fr incinerare;
Obinerea unui ngrmnt natural foarte valoros, care se
poate administra pe terenuri agricole prin mprtiere:
- sub form lichid;
- sub form pulverulent (uscat).
Reintroducerea n circuitul agricol prin cultivarea cu
plante energetice:
- terenuri cu potenial productiv sczut (nerentabil
economic);
- respectarea cotelor de suprafee cultivate conform
Programului de Aderare a Romniei la U.E.

TEHNICI DE RECUPERARE A ENERGIEI DIN
REZIDURILE ORGANICE AGRICOLE
- Fermentarea anaeroba la temperatura mediului ambiant;
- Fermentarea anaeroba la temperaturi ridicate;
- Descompunerea anaeroba termofil;
- Distilarea;
- Compostarea;
- Incinerarea.

BIOGAZUL
- Amestec de gaze combustibile care se formeaz prin
descompunerea substanelor organice (reziduuri

13
residues, animal waste, etc.) in humid environment,
devoid of oxygen and light;
- It may occur naturally (in garbage pits, swamps,
farms);
- May occur in specially equipped stations (depending
on the feedstock used, the concentration of methane
varies from 45 to 75%;
- The training is ANAEROBIC FERMENTATION, the
temperature t = 40C, the amount of methane in
biogas is 75-80% maximum;
- Cellulose is the main component of organic matter
used in the formation of biogas (cellulose is about
50% of organic matter).

TYPES OF BACTERIA THAT GENERATE FERMENTATION
PROCESS
Groups of bacteria:
- hidrolitice;
- acidogene;
- acetogene;
- omocetogene;
- metanogene - classical;
- metanogene - hidrogenotrofe
Depending on the temperature at the optimum
working groups of bacteria may be:
- mezofile bacteria; toptim = 35C;
- termophile bacteria; toptim = 55C.
The mixture of organic material + water efficient
fermentation process must have an optimum pH = 77.5.

PROCESS STAGES A DECOMPOSITION OF ORGANIC
MATTER IN ANAEROBIC FERMENTATION PROCESS
STAGE 1 "HYDROLYSIS" hidrolitice bacteria convert
substrates with enzymes (proteins, carbohydrates, fats,
cellulose) in combination with low molecular (amino
acids, water, fatty acids);
STAGE 2: bacteria decompose acidogene combinations
containing low molecular organic acid, carbon dioxide,
hydrogen sulfide, ammonia;
STAGE 3: bacteria acetogene produce acetate, carbon
dioxide and hydrogen.
STAGE 4: bacteria metanogene phase transforms the No.3
in methane, carbon dioxide, water.
4H2O + CO2 CH4 + 2H2O + Q (water vapor, ammonia,
etc.).

NOTE:
If BIOGAS STATIONS, the constant adding organic
material such phase decomposition takes place
simultaneously in the same tank fermentation bacteria
uninfluencing negative in some others.

PARTICULARS OF METANOGENE BACTERIA
The temperature of the organic materials in the
process of how weather influences the action of
bacteria:
how temperature increases with both:
decomposition of organic matter is faster;
the amount of gas generated is greater (CH4,
H2, other gases);
quantity of biogas decreases.
Bacteria are sensitive to temperature variations:
the mezofil (t = 253C), bacteria survive on
variations of 23C;
the termofil (t = 4570C) bacteria survive on
variations of 1 C.
Metanogene bacteria can not decompose fat, protein,
starch or cellulose in pure (requires soluble N2).
Stations in biogas manure is recommended to use the
vegetale, animale, deeuri menajere, etc) n mediul
umed, lipsit de oxigen i lumin;
- Se poate produce n mod natural (n gropi de gunoi,
mlatini, ferme);
- Se poate produce n staii special amenajate (n
funcie de materiile prime folosite, concentraia de
metan variaz de la 45 la 75%;
- Procesul de formare este FERMENTAREA ANAEROB,
la temperatura t = 40C, cantitatea de metan n
biogaz este maxim 7580%;
- Celuloza este principalul component al materiei
organice utilizat la formarea biogazului (celuloza
reprezint circa 50% din materia organic).

TIPURI DE BACTERII CARE GENEREAZA PROCESUL
DE FERMENTARE
Grupuri de bacterii:
- hidrolitice;
- acidogene;
- acetogene;
- omocetogene;
- metanogene clasice;
- metanogene hidrogenotrofe
n funcie de temperatura optim la care activeaz,
grupurile de bacterii pot fi:
- bacterii mezofile; toptim = 35C;
- bacterii termofile; toptim = 55C.
Amestecul de materii organice + apa n procesul de
fermentare eficient trebuie s aib un pH optim = 77,5.

FAZELE PROCESULUI DE DESCOMPUNERE A MATERIILOR
ORGANICE N PROCESUL DE FERMENTARE ANAEROB
FAZA 1 HIDROLIZA: bacteriile hidrolitice transform
substraturile cu ajutorul enzimelor (proteinele, carbohidraii,
grsimi, celuloz) n combinaii cu coninut molecular sczut
(aminoacizi, ap, acizi grai);
FAZA 2: bacteriile acidogene descompun combinaiile cu
coninut molecular sczut n acizi organici, dioxid de
carbon, hidrogen sulfurat, amoniac;
FAZA 3: bacteriile acetogene produc acetai, dioxid de
carbon si hidrogen.
FAZA 4: bacteriile metanogene transform rezultatele fazei
nr.3 in metan, dioxid de carbon, ap
CO2 + 4H2O CH4 + 2H2O + Q (vapori de ap, amoniac,
etc).

NOT:
In cazul STATIILOR DE BIOGAZ, la adugarea constanta
de materiale organice aceste faze de descompunere au
loc simultan in acelai bazin de fermentare, bacteriile
neinfluenndu-se n mod negativ unele pe altele.

PARTICULARITATI ALE BACTERIILOR METANOGENE
Nivelul de temperatura a materialelor organice in
procesul de descompunere influeneaz modul de
aciune al bacteriilor:
cu cat temperatura creste cu att:
- descompunerea materiei organice este mai rapid;
- cantitatea de gaze generat este mai mare
(CH4; H2; alte gaze);
cantitatea de biogaz scade.
Bacteriile sunt sensibile la variaiile de temperatur:
n domeniul mezofil (t = 253C), bacteriile
supravieuiesc la variaii de 23C;
n domeniul termofil (t = 4570C) bacteriile
supravieuiesc la variaii de 1C.
Bacteriile metanogene nu pot descompune grsimi, proteine,
celuloza sau amidon in stare pura (este nevoie de N2
solubil). n staiile de biogaz se recomanda utilizarea blegarului

14
base substrate to avoid segregation and obtaining a
stable material in terms of pH.

BIOGAS STATIONS
Is a reliable source of environmental protection and
economic and financial stability of farmers.
A station Biogas can provide:
- electricity;
- electricity and heat (heat, hot water cogeneration
technology);
- natural fertilizer in the form of liquid or powdery.
Stations Biogas can be of two types:
- biogas stations agro-livestock fed with droppings,
corn silage, grass, grain demoted;
- biogas stations powered agro-industrial residues with
supplementary food, the slaughter, from biodiesel
production, etc.
Mud result in the process of fermentation:
- does not contain ammonia;
- can be used successfully during plant growth (pH is
slightly alkaline);
- is not aggressive for soil microorganisms;
- inorganic substances resulting from the mud are more
easily assimilated in plants avoiding the pollution of
surface and groundwater.

TYPOLOGY STATIONS BIOGAS
- Model 1: Fermented + Deposit of mud
- Model 2: Prefermentation + Fermented + Deposit of mud
- Model 3: Fermented + Postfermentator + Deposit of mud;
- Model 4: Prefermentation + Fermented + Postfermentation
+ Deposit of mud.

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
Reinforced Concrete
Advantages: in the developed industrial buildings are
cheap (endowment, experience, know-how).
Disadvantages: exact dimensional requirements (wall
thickness), non-stop casting casings with sliding,
continuous vibration, corrosion by high acid formation in
the area of gas accumulation.
Prefabricate
Advantages: obtaining accurate dimensions;
Disadvantages: requires casting forms, problems with joints,
difficult to transport parts, joints problems because of differences
in temperature and expansion between the different plates
and the concrete superstructure.
Verinox
It is a combination of thin sheets of stainless steel on the
inside and thick galvanized on the outside, having
between them a sheet of plastic. Returns the drum,
building on the ground with sander machine.
Advantages: easy and quick construction;
Disadvantages: at the sander is to destroy the layer of
zinc and the corrosion layer of steel.
Stainless Steel.

RESEARCH INMA
Biogas plants were known as main disadvantage
unloading equipment. It runs as a separate operation
with great effort and discomfort in the human or
manual discharge energy sea, Where mechanized,
reducing the operation.
The installation INMA:
- ensure the natural flow of material from fermented
plant entrance to escape, while that of developing
fermentation processes in biogas liberation;
- construction materials are cheaper, durable (glass
fiber impregnated with resin polyesters);
- during construction, installation and operation is
cu substrat de baza pentru a evita segregarea si
obinerea unui material stabil din punct de vedere al pH-ului.

STAIILE DE BIOGAZ
Reprezint o sursa sigur de protecie a mediului i de
stabilitate economico-financiar a fermierilor.
O staie de BIOGAZ poate furniza:
- energie electric;
- energie electric i termic (cldura, ap cald
tehnologic prin cogenerare);
- ngrmnt natural sub forma lichid sau pulverulent.
Staiile de BIOGAZ pot fi de dou tipuri:
- staii de biogaz agro-zootehnice alimentate cu
dejecii, siloz de porumb, iarb, cereale declasate;
- staiile de biogaz agro-industriale alimentate suplimentar
cu reziduri din industria alimentar, din abatorizare, de
la producerea biodieselului, etc.
Nmolul rezultat in urma procesului de fermentare:
- nu conine amoniac;
- se poate utiliza cu succes n faza de cretere a
plantelor (pH-ul fiind uor bazic);
- nu este agresiv pentru microorganismele din sol;
- substanele anorganice din nmolul rezultat sunt
mai uor asimilate in plante evitndu-se poluarea
apelor de suprafa i freatice.

TIPOLOGIA STATIILOR DE BIOGAZ
- Model 1: Fermentator + Depozit de nmol;
- Model 2: Prefermentator + Fermentator + Depozit de nmol;
- Model 3: Fermentator + Postfermentator + Depozit de namol;
- Model 4: Prefermentator + Fermentator + Postfermentator +
Depozit de nmol.

MATERIALE DE CONSTRUCTIE
Beton armat
Avantaje: in tarile dezvoltate construciile industriale sunt
ieftine (dotare, experiena, know-how).
Dezavantaje: condiii dimensionale exacte (grosimea
pereilor); turnare non-stop cu cofraje glisante, vibrare
continu; coroziune ridicata prin formarea acizilor in zona
acumulrii de gaz.
Prefabricate
Avantaje: obinerea dimensiunilor exacte;
Dezavantaje: necesita forme de turnare, cu probleme la
mbinri; componente greu de transportat; probleme la
mbinri din cauza diferentelor de temperatura si dilatri
diferite ntre plcile de beton i suprastructur.
Verinox
Este o combinaie de tabl subire de inox pe interior i
tabl zincat groas pe exterior, avnd ntre ele o folie de
material plastic. Livrare pe tambur, construcia la faa
locului cu maina de fluit.
Avantaje: construcie rapid i uoar;
Dezavantaje: la fluire se distruge stratul de zinc i apoi
apare coroziunea stratului de otel.
Oel inox.

CERCETRI INMA
Instalaiile de biogaz cunoscute au ca principal dezavantaj
descrcarea instalaiei. Aceasta se execut ca operaiune
distinct cu mare efort i disconfort uman in cazul descrcrii
manuale sau cu consum energetic mare, cazul descrcrii
mecanizate, reducnd timpul de funcionare a instalaiei.
Modelul de instalaie INMA:
- asigur curgerea natural a materialului fermentat de
la intrare in instalaie pana la evacuare, timp in care se
deruleaz procesele de fermentare cu degajare de biogaz;
- materialele de construcie sunt mai ieftine, durabile
(fibra de sticla impregnata cu rin poliesteric);
- timpul de construcie, montaj si punere in funciune este

15
short;
- adaptive for capacity 1050 mc, or in connection
with several fermentation (bioreactor).

CONCLUSIONS
- The Pilot Stations - INMA is a copy of the distance of
the digestive system of cattle.
- The efficiency of such stations increases if:
process is anaerobic (O2 + light excluded);
substrates of organic material must be strong and
mixed moistened (SU less than 15%, 7% optimal);
a uniform consistency throughout the fermentation
volume (continuous agitation brings fresh food
metanogene bacteria, increasing the production of
biogas);
grind material created over the surface of bacteria
(maceration, grinding, extrusion, pasteurization);
dosage supply of fresh organic material as
homogeneous;
constant temperature as a substrate to dosing;
constant value of pH = 6.77.5.
In the fermentation of certain residues (grease, oils,
marcs) is necessary for determining permanent injection
and mixing.
Of action for further research in INMA:
- deepen food recipes mixed fermentation a practical
applicability to the farmers;
- determination of the nutrient (C / N / P / S) and
nomogrames dosage;
- technical solutions - economic coupling in parallel.
scurt;
- adaptabil pentru capaciti: 1050 mc, sau conexiune
n paralel cu mai multe fermentatoare (bioreactoare).

CONCLUZII
- Modelul Staiei Pilot INMA este o copie a traiectului
digestiv al bovinelor.
- Eficienta unei astfel de staii creste daca:
procesul este anaerob (exclus O2 + lumin);
substraturile de materie organica s fie puternic umidificate
si omogenizate (SU mai mic dect 15%; optim 7%);
exist omogenitate uniform n tot volumul fermentatorului
(agitarea continu aduce hrana proaspt bacteriilor
metanogene, crescnd producia de biogaz);
mrunirea materiei prime creeaz suprafaa mare de
aciune a bacteriilor (macerare, mcinare, scmoare,
extrudare, pasteurizare);
dozarea alimentrii cu materii organice proaspete
ct mai omogen;
temperatura constant a substratului la dozare;
valoarea constanta a pH = 6,77,5.
La fermentarea anumitor reziduuri (grsime, uleiuri,
borhoturi) este necesar dozarea permanenta pentru injectare
si agitare.
Direcii de aciune pentru continuarea cercetrilor n INMA:
- aprofundarea reetelor amestecurilor de alimentare a
fermentatorului pentru aplicabilitatea practic la fermieri;
- determinarea raportului nutritiv (C/N/P/S) i a
ciclogramelor de dozare;
- soluii tehnico economice de cuplare n paralel.

Fig. 1 - Section view of a biogas plant / Vedere n seciune a unei instalaii de biogaz

Fig. 2 Providing a constant temperature inside fermentation main results and discharge gas in the fermentation /
Asigurarea unei temperaturi constante n interiorul fermentatorului principal i evacuarea gazelor rezultate n procesul de fermentare

16

Fig. 3 - Wall structure / Fig. 4 - Links valence space, heat stable /
Structura peretelui Legturile de valen spaiale, termic stabile
1 - protective outer layer / stratul de protecie exterior; 2 - outer layer of reinforcement / stratul de armare exterior;
3 - intermediate layer / stratul intermediar; 4 - kernel layer / stratul nucleu; 5 - intermediate layer / stratul intermediar;
6 - interior reinforcement layer / stratul de armare interior; 7 - layer closure / stratul de nchidere; 8 - layer of protection inside / stratul de protecie interior

Raw materials
Resin polyesters
Polyesters resin consists of two components:
- saturated polyesters resin;
- firming agent reactive unsaturated.
During polymerization, liquid mixture becomes a
solid mass. Polyesters resin is part of a group reactive
plastics (duroplaste). Macromolecules of these materials
occurs through molecular interpenetration areas in a
space and creates a solid link, of which none of the
molecules can not be freed. The product does not distort
in heat and mass released is insoluble.
Materiile prime
Rin poliesteric
Rina poliesteric este alctuit din dou componente:
rin poliesteric saturat;
agent de ntrire reactiv nesaturat.
Pe parcursul polimerizrii, amestecul lichid se transform
ntr-o mas solid. Rina poliesteric face parte din grupa
materialelor plastice reactive (duroplaste). Macromoleculele
acestor materiale apar prin ntreptrunderea zonelor
moleculare ntr-o reea spaial i creeaz o legtur solid,
din care nici una dintre molecule nu se poate elibera. Produsul
nu se deformeaz la cldur iar masa aprut este insolubil.

Fig. 5 - Location of tanks and fermentation of food / Amplasarea tancurilor de alimentare i fermentare

Fig. 6 - Supply droppings plant / Alimentarea cu dejecii a instalaiei

17

Fig. 6 Measurement of gas flow and pressure result / Msurarea debitului i presiunii gazului rezultat

Fig. 7 Solar panels to ensure/enhance the process of fermentation Fig. 8 Supply and evacuation of the biogas /
in the biogas / Panouri solare pentru asigurarea/ intensificarea Alimentarea i evacuarea instalaiei de biogaz
procesului de fermentare n instalaia de biogaz

EXEMPLE DE COSTURI UNITARE DE BIOGAZ PRODUS DE DIVERSE TIPURI DE BIOMASA /
EXAMPLES OF BIOGAS UNIT COSTS PRODUCT OF VARIOUS TYPES BIOMASS
Tabel 1

Biomasa / Biomass
Subst.
uscat /
dry
substance
Producia potenial
de biogaz / Potential
production of biogas
(m
3
/tt.q.)
Pre / Price
(euro / t)
Costul unitar de
biogaz produs / Unit
cost of biogas
produced (euro/m
3

biogas)
Siloz de porumb / Silage corn 30 200,48,2 72 0,36
Siloz de sorg / Sorghum silage 20 118,84,7 65 0,55
Fin de porumb / Corn Flour 32,7 225,620,9 75 0,33
Faina de orez / Rice flour 89 517,91,8 150 0,29
Grune de porumb / Grain maize 26,6 182,9+2,7 80 0,44
Past de cereale / Paste grain 45 316,9+8 110 0,35
Paie de orz / Barley straw 36 190,44,9 47 0,26
Dejecii porcine proaspete / Fresh pig droppings 4,2 10,40,4 0 0,00
Dejecii porcine prefermentate / Pig droppings presour 3,3 5,20,3 0 0,00
Dejecii bovine / Cattle droppings 1,8 2,40,1 0 0,00
Excremente de pasare / Bird droppings 23,5 97,86,4 0 0,00
Dejecii de iepure / Rabbit droppings 37,1 130,23,8 0 0,00
Noroi din staia de purificare / Mud from station purification 19,3 46,4+0,9 0 0,00
Resturi organice selecionate (1) / Selected organic
scraps (1)
55,1 430,324,2 -45 -0,10
scraps (2)
48,1 376,1+2,6 -45 -0,12
scraps (3)
45,2 351,2146,6 -45 -0,13
Fraciuni de resturi organice / Cut fractions scraps
of organic
35 226,1 7,7 -45 -0,20
Resturi vegetale / Vegetable scraps 26,4 177,09,3 -45 -0,25
Resturi de fructe i legume / Remains of fruit and
vegetables
23,7 158,118,7 -45 -0,28
Resturi de carne de pete / Scraps of meat fish 42,4 415,510 -45 -0,11

18
Resturi de la mcelrii / Remains of the butcheries 19 102,50,4 -45 -0,44
Resturi de la panificaie / Remains of the bakery 66 482,5+27,8 -60 0,12
Resturi de lapte / Scrap milk 14,5 112,84,4 0 0,00
Resturi marinate de la prelucrarea berii / Marine
scrap processing beer
26 101,8+2,1 20 0,20
Drojdie de la producerea berii / Yeast in beer
production
6,3 29,50,2 10 034
Resturi de cartofi / Scrap potatoes 20 126,83,5 0 0,00
Melas / Molasses 98 498,56,7 120 0,24
Glicerin / Glycerin 98 587,643,3 70 0,12
Resturi de msline stoarse 1 / Remains of crushed
olives 1
27,6 301,09,3 20 0,07
Resturi de msline stoarse 2 / Remains of crushed
olives 2
83,2 521,95 20 0,04
Resturi de la fabricile de ulei / Remains of the oil
factories
24,1 175,48 20 0,11

BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1]. E. Popa, etc. - RESEARCH ON PROCESS OPTIMIZATION
ANAEROBIC BIOCHEMICAL FFERMENTATIE OF
BIODEGRADABLE WASTE TO OBTAIN COMBUSTIBLE
GASES, Study on optimization of biochemical processes
of anaerobic fermentation of biodegradable organic
waste in biogas plants, Research report, INMA
Bucharest, 2006;
[2]. E. Popa, etc. - TECHNOLOGY OBTAINING BIOGAS
AS SOURCE OF ALTERNATIVE ENERGY THROUGH
FERMENTATION ANAEROBIC, IN THE 10m
3
,
ORGANIC WASTE MENAJERE AND ANIMAL
DROPPINGS, Report of experimentation, INMA Bucharest,
2005;
[3]. E. Popa, A. Muscalu, Alexandrescu I. - Installation of
biogas microferme for livestock and household peasant
farming, Agriculture Mechanization Nr. 7 / 2006.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
[1]. Popa E. .a. - CERCETARI PRIVIND OPTIMIZAREA
PROCESELOR BIOCHIMICE DE FFERMENTATIE
ANAEROBA A DESEURILOR BIODEGRADABILE IN
VEDEREA OBTINERII DE GAZE COMBUSTIBILE, Studiu
privind optimizarea proceselor biochimice de fermentare
anaeroba a deseurilor organice biodegradabile in
instalatii de biogaz, Raport de cercetare, INMA 2006;
[2]. Popa E., .a - TEHNOLOGIE DE OBTINERE A
BIOGAZULUI CA SURSA ALTERNATIVA DE ENERGIE
PRIN FERMENTAREA ANAEROBA, IN MODUL DE
10m
3
, A DESEURILOR ORGANICE MENAJERE SI A
DEJECTIILOR DE ANIMALE, Raport de experimentri,
INMA 2005;
[3]. Popa E., Muscalu A., Alexandrescu I. - Instalatie de
biogaz pentru microferme zootehnice si gospodarii
agricole rneti, Mecanizarea Agriculturii Nr. 7/2006.


19
MECHANIZATION TECHNOLOGY FOR DEEP DECOMPACTION AND AERATION OF
DEFECTIVE SOILS, CONCOMITANTLY WITH THE ADMINISTRATION OF NUTRITIVE
ELEMENTS
/
TEHNOLOGIE DE MECANIZARE PENTRU DECOMPACTAREA I AERAREA N PROFUNZIME
A SOLURILOR DEFICITARE, CONCOMITENT CU ADMINISTRAREA DE ELEMENTE
NUTRITIVE

Prof. on. dr. ing. Iosif COJOCARU, Dr. ing. Nicolae CONSTANTIN, Prof. on. dr. ing. Ion PIRNA,
Dr. ing Eugen MARIN - INMA Bucureti
Dr.ing. Alexandru COCIU - INCDA Fundulea

Abstract: The occupied surface in our country by the soils
with a high degree of quality deterioration is about 19,8%
of the total agricultural surface. The new mechanization
technology of soil work in the arable substrate has as
purpose the deep decompaction and aeration of defective
soils concomitantly with the administration of nutritive
elements. Its application at an appropriate qualitative level
to the agricultural-pedologic requirements, at a price as
much as low and with a reduce energy consumption has
imposed promoting a new technical equipment, with
superior constructive and functional parameters, destined
to the wheeled tractors of 180-240 HP, equipped with five
active organs of blade reversible chisel type and two
field rollers with claws, on which is mounted an equipment
for administrating hard soluble nutritive elements. The new
technical equipment named DECOM-FERTI is realizing
working depths of max. 40 cm at soils chiseling and of
max. 60 cm at soils work in the arable substrate, the
working width being of approx. 2,55 m and the working
capacity of approx. 1,56 ha/h; it administers nutritive elements
(phosphorus and potassium) with norms of 70120 kg/ha.

Keywords: technical equipment; soil decompaction and
aeration; administration of nutritive elements
Abstract: Suprafaa ocupat n ara noastr de solurile cu
un grad ridicat de deteriorare a calitii este de circa
19,8% din totalul suprafeei agricole. Noua tehnologie de
mecanizare a lucrrii solului n substratul arabil are drept
scop decompactarea i aerarea n profunzime a solurilor
deficitare concomitent cu administrarea de elemente
nutritive. Aplicarea ei la un nivel calitativ corespunztor
cerinelor agropedologice, la un pre de cost ct mai
sczut i cu un consum redus de energie a impus
promovarea unui nou echipament tehnic, cu parametri
constructivi i funcionali superiori, destinat tractoarelor pe
roi de 180-240 CP, echipat cu cinci organe active de tipul
cuit dalt reversibil i doi tvlugi cu gheare, pe care se
monteaz un echipament de administrat elemente nutritive
greu solubile. Noul echipamentul tehnic denumit DECOM-
FERTI, realizeaz adncimi de lucru de max. 40cm la
cizelatul solului si de max. 60 cm la lucrarea solului din
substratul arabil, limea de lucru fiind de cca. 2,55 m si
capacitatea de lucru de cca 1,56 ha/h; administreaz
elemente nutritive (fosfor i potasiu) cu norme de 70120
kg/ha.

Cuvinte cheie: echipament tehnic; decompactare i
aerare sol; administrare elemente nutritive.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Romania is confronting with a degree of soil quality
deterioration by phenomenon as erosion, acidification,
alkalinization, humidity excess or drought, soil salinization,
compaction, etc. The main process of soil degradation, by
extension with socio-economic impact too, is represented by
erosion by water, which together with the landslides comprise
over 7 mil ha of agricultural terrain. The second factor as
importance in soil degradation is the periodical excess of
humidity, which affects 3,8 millions ha of agricultural terrain
and 0,6 millions ha of forestry terrains, and the frequent
drought excess is manifesting on approximate 7,1 millions ha
of agricultural terrain and 0,2 millions ha of sylvan terrain. An
important role in the soils physical degradation is occupied by
the soils antropic compaction and crust formation.
Compaction is met on approximate 1,3 mil ha arable terrain
and is mostly due to the weight and/or to the usage too
frequent of the agricultural gear, especially in inappropriate
soils humidity conditions, either on soils too dried or too wet.
The new mechanization technology of soils work in the
arable substrate is specific to the hard and compacted soils,
alternative affected by humidity excess and deficit as also to
other soils categories which presents limitations of the production
capacity determined by salinization, alkalinization, pollution, etc. Its
application at a qualitative level corresponding to the agropedological
requirements, at a cost price as low as possible and with a
reduce energy consumption is imposing the assurance of some
agricultural gears with superior constructive and functional parameters.
CONSIDERAII GENERALE
Romnia se confrunt cu un grad de deteriorare a
calitii solului prin fenomene de eroziune, acidificare,
alcalinizare, exces de umiditate sau seceta, srturare,
compactare etc. Principalul proces de degradare a solului,
prin extensie i impact socio-economic l reprezint
eroziunea prin ap, care mpreun cu alunecrile de teren
cuprind peste 7 mil. ha teren agricol. Al doilea factor ca
importan n degradarea solului este excesul periodic de
umiditate care afecteaz 3,8 milioane ha teren agricol i
0,6 milioane terenuri forestiere, iar excesul de seceta
frecvent se manifest pe aprox. 7,1 milioane ha de teren
agricol i 0,2 milioane ha teren silvic. Un rol important n
degradarea fizic a solului l ocup compactarea antropic
a solului i formarea crustei. Compactarea este ntlnit pe
cca. 1,3 mil. ha arabil i se datoreaz n principal greutii
i/sau folosirii prea frecvente a utilajelor agricole, cu
deosebire n condiii de umiditate nepotrivit a solului, fie
pe soluri prea uscate, fie pe soluri prea umede.
Noua tehnologie de mecanizare a lucrrii solului n
substratul arabil este specific solurilor grele si tasate,
afectate alternativ de exces si deficit de umiditate precum si
altor categorii de soluri care prezint limitri ale capacitii
de producie determinate de salinizare, alcalinizare, poluare
etc. Aplicarea ei la un nivel calitativ corespunztor
cerinelor agropedologice, la un pre de cost ct mai sczut
i cu un consum redus de energie impune asigurarea unor
utilaje cu parametri constructivi i funcionali superiori.

DESIGNATION AND THE USAGE DOMAIN
The technical equipment DECOM-FERTI is of carried

DESTINAIA I DOMENIUL DE UTILIZARE
Echipamentul tehnic DECOM-FERTI este de tipul

20
type on the hydraulic lifters of the 180-240 HP tractors, the
third category, SR ISO 730-1+C1:2000 and is designed to
execute the deep decompaction and aeration of the
defective soils, concomitantly with the administration of
nutritive elements (phosphorus and potassium) and the
elimination of the waterproof soil layer (hardpan) between
the arable stratum and substrate. Its used in autumn on
degraded soils located on plane terrains or with slope up to 6.
purtat pe ridictoarele hidraulice ale tractoarelor de 180-
240 CP pe roi, categoria a III-a, SR ISO 730-1+C1:2000 i
este destinat a executa decompactarea i aerarea n
profunzime a solurilor deficitare, concomitent cu administrarea
de elemente nutritive (fosfor i potasiu) i eliminarea
stratului impermeabil de sol (hardpanul) dintre stratul i
substratul arabil. Se utilizeaz toamna pe soluri degradate
aflate pe terenuri plane sau cu pant pn la 6.

Fig. 1 - DECOM-FERTI technical equipment / Echipamentul tehnic DECOM-FERTI

CONSTRUCTIVE AND FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION
The DECOM-FERTI technical equipment is composed from
the following principal assemblies: chassis; active organs
with reversible chisel type blades and special blades for
hardpan elimination; rollers with claws; wheel for adjusting
the working depth; equipment for administrating hard
soluble nutritive elements.
The chassis is assuring the equipments linkage in
three points to the coupling-bars of the tractors hydraulic
lifter and the lay-out of the 5 active organs (each formed
from a base support on which is mounted the reversible
chisel type blade, the vertical blade and two blades L
type) for arable substrate soils deep aeration.
The rollers with claws assure the crumbling and a
slight leveling of the soil processed by the active organs,
being located behind these ones. They are linked to the
chassis through the medium of some lateral walls and of a
deformable parallelogram being able to be adjusted on
vertical plane at different distances from the active organs.
The wheel for adjusting the working depth is assuring
the control and the limitation of the active organs working
depth.
The equipment for administrating nutritive elements is
composed from the following principal assemblies: the crate
with the system of administrating nutritive elements; tubes for
administrating nutritive elements; hydraulic installation;
reduction gear; platform; stair.
Adjustments
- the adjustment of the frame parallelism with the soil
surface in transversal plane is done by bringing at the
same length the vertical arms, adjustable, for
sustaining the two lateral coupling-bars of the tractors
hydraulic lifter;
- the adjustment of the frame parallelism with the terrain
surface in longitudinal plane is done by lengthening or shorting
the central coupling-bar of the tractors hydraulic lifter;
- the adjustment of the working depth is done by fixating
the metallic wheel support in a position corresponding
to the wanted working depth, correlated with the position
of the rollers with claws;
- the adjustment of the administrating norms of nutritive
elements is effectuated continuously, with a reduction
gear and a hydro-motor;
DESCRIEREA CONSTRUCTIV I FUNCIONAL
Echipamentul tehnic DECOM-FERTI se compune din
urmtoarele ansambluri principale: asiu; organe active cu
cuite dalt reversibil i cuite speciale pentru eliminarea
hardpanului; tvlugi cu gheare; roat de reglare a
adncimii de lucru; echipament de administrat elemente
nutritive greu solubile.
asiul asigur prinderea echipamentului n trei puncte
la tiranii ridictorului hidraulic ai tractorului i amplasarea
celor 5 organe active (formate fiecare dintr-un suport de
baz pe care se monteaz cuitul tip dalt reversibil,
cuitul vertical i dou cuite tip L ) de afnare adnc a
solului din substratul arabil.
Tvlugii cu gheare asigura mrunirea i o uoar
nivelare a solului prelucrat de ctre organele active, fiind
amplasai n spatele acestora. Ei se prind de asiu prin
intermediu unor perei laterali i a unui paralelogram
deformabil putndu-se regla pe vertical la diferite distane
fa de organele active.
Roata de reglare a adncimii de lucru asigur
reglarea i limitarea adncimii de lucru a organelor active
de lucru.
Echipamentul de administrat elemente nutritive se
compune din urmtoarele ansambluri principale: lada cu
sistemul de administrare a elementelor nutritive; tuburi de
administrat elementele nutritive; instalaia hidraulica;
reductor; platforma; scara.
Reglaje
- reglarea paralelismului cadrului cu suprafaa solului n
plan transversal se face prin aducerea la aceeai
lungime a braelor verticale, reglabile, de susinere a
celor doi tirani laterali ai ridictorului hidraulic al
tractorului;
- reglarea paralelismului cadrului cu suprafaa terenului n
plan longitudinal se face prin lungirea sau scurtarea
tirantului central al ridictorului hidraulic al tractorului;
- reglarea adncimii de lucru se face prin fixarea
suportului roii metalice ntr-o poziie corespunztoare
adncimii de lucru dorite corelat cu poziia tvlugilor
cu gheare;
- reglarea normelor de administrare a elementelor
nutritive se efectueze continuu, cu un reductor i un
hidromotor;

21
- the administrating norms for phosphorus and potassium
are between 70120 kg/ha.
- normele de administrare fosfor i potasiu sunt ntre
70120 kg/ha.

CONSTRUCTIVE AND FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS
A. Constructive Characteristics
- Type Towed
- Necessary tractor, Hp 180-240
- Working width, m 2,55
- Transportation overall width, m 2,4
- Number of aeration organs 5
- Distance between the aeration organs 510
- Type of the aeration organs:
- reversible chisel blade
- L left- right
- vertical blade
- Number of the leveling - crumbling rollers 2
- Diameter of the leveling - crumbling rollers, mm: 500
-Administered nutritive elements: phosphorus and
potassium, super- phosphate, complex, ammonium nitrate,
alloxan, nitrocalcite
- Overall size dimensions, mm
- Length 1765
- Width 2400
- Height
- in exploitation 1865
-in transportation 2165
B. Functional characteristics
- Working depth, cm:
- deep aeration max 60
- chiseling max 40
-Working velocity, km/h max 8
- Administrating norm for nutritive elements, kg/ha: 70120
(phosphorus and potassium)
CARACTERISTICI CONSTRUCTIVE SI FUNCIONALE
A. Caracteristici constructive
- Tipul tractat
- Tractor necesar, CP 180-240
- Limea de lucru, m 2,55
- Limea de gabarit n transport, m 2,4
- Nr. organe de afnare 5
- Distanta ntre organele de afnare, mm 510
- Tipul organelor de afnare:
- cuit dalt reversibil
- L stg.- dreapta
- cuit vertical
- Nr. tvlugilor de nivelare-mrunire 2
- Diametrul tvlugilor nivelare-mrunire, mm: 500
-Elemente nutritive administrate: fosfor i potasiu
superfosfat, complexe azotat de amoniu, uree, nitrocalcar
- Dimensiuni de gabarit, mm
- Lungime 1765
- Lime 2400
- nlime
- n lucru 1865
- n transport 2165
B. Caracteristici funcionale
- Adncimea de lucru, cm:
-afnare adnca: max 60
-cizelat max 40
- Viteza n lucru, km/h max 8
- Norm de administrare elemente nutritive, kg/ha: 70120
(fosfor i potasiu)

TESTS IN FIELD-LABORATORY AND EXPLOITING
CONDITIONS
The home tests and in field-laboratory conditions of the
DECOM-FERTI technical equipment were effectuated
inside SC MAT SA Craiova quarters and on the agricultural
terrains of the LEU Farm, Craiova, in aggregate with the 195
HP ZIMBRU tractor from the production of SC MAT SA
Craiova. In figure 2 is presented the DECOM-FERTI
technical equipment (left), DECOM technical equipment
(right) in aggregate with the ZIMBRU tractors.

NCERCRI N CONDITII DE CMP-LABORATOR SI DE
EXPLOATARE
ncercrile de cas i n condiii de cmp-laborator ale
echipamentului tehnic DECOM-FERTI s-au efectuat n cadrul
Sediului SC MAT SA Craiova i pe terenurile agricole ale
Fermei LEU, Craiova n agregat cu tractorul de 195 CP
ZIMBRU din fabricaia SC MAT SA Craiova. In figura 2 este
prezentat echipamentul tehnic DECOM-FERTI (stnga).
Echipamentul tehnic DECOM (dreapta) n agregat cu
tractoarele ZIMBRU.

Fig. 2 - DECOM-FERTI technical equipment and DECOM technical equipment in aggregate with the ZIMBRU tractor /
Echipamentul tehnic DECOM-FERTI i echipamentul tehnic DECOM in agregat cu tractorul ZIMBRU

Determination of the soils aeration degree
The main qualitative indicator of work, at soils
working in the arable substrate is represented by the soils
aeration degree.
The soils aeration degree was determined by measuring
the coordinates of different points towards a reference system,
consisting of a ruler put on top of the field on two stakes.
Determinarea gradului de afnare a solului
Principalul indicator calitativ de lucru, la lucrarea
solului n substratul arabil l reprezint gradului de afnare
a solului.
Gradul de afnare a solului s-a determinat prin
msurarea coordonatelor diferitelor puncte fa de un
sistem de referin, constnd ntr-o rigl aezat deasupra

22
The ruler was laid down horizontally with the help of a
bubble air inclinometer and was oriented perpendicularly on
the machines advancing direction. There were made
measurements of the distances between the ruler and the
field, at distances from 5 to 5 cm or from 10 to 10 cm.
For shaping the bottom of the furrow it was cleaned the
aerated soil on the rulers distance, being made a trench
with the width of approx. 40 cm and the length equal with the
length of the ruler (machines working width). The aerated soil
was removed with a shovel till approx. 5 cm from the worked
furrows bottom and the rest with a soffit or by hand, taking care
not to broke the eventual dislevelments of the furrows bottom.
There were executed two profiles for each repetition.
The soils aeration degree was calculated in %, with
the relation:
cmpului pe doi rui. Rigla a fost aezat orizontal cu
ajutorul unei nivele cu bul de aer i a fost orientat
perpendicular pe direcia de naintare a mainii. S-au fcut
msurtori ale distanelor dintre rigl i cmp, la distane
din 5 n 5 cm sau din 10 n 10 cm.
Pentru profilarea fundului brazdei s-a curat solul
afnat pe distana riglei fcndu-se o tranee cu limea de
cca. 40 cm. i lungimea egal cu cea a riglei (limea de
lucru a mainii). Solul afnat s-a nlturat cu lopata pn la
cca. 5 cm. de fundul brazdei lucrate si restul cu o scaf sau
cu mna, avnd grij s nu se strice eventualele denivelri
ale fundului brazdei. S-au executat 2 profiluri pentru fiecare
repetiie.
Gradul de afnare a solului s-a calculat n %, cu
relaia:
G
as=

100 .
n
h
h h
n i
1 i 2
1 2
=
=

in which:
h1 = dimension measured in a certain point from the
ruler to the soils surface, before de machines pass;
h2 = dimension measured in the same point from the ruler to
the bottom of the furrow worked by the machine;
n = number of effectuated measurements.
At the tests from the august-september 2008 period,
the DECOM-FERTI technical equipment has realized
quality works, with appropriate working and energetic
qualitative indices, in the limits provided in the design
theme, indices presented in the diagram from figure 3.
The equipment had a good stability in horizontal and
vertical plane.
n care:
h1 =dimensiunea msurat ntr-un anumit punct de la
rigl la suprafaa solului, nainte de trecerea mainii;
h2 = dimensiunea msurat n acelai punct de la rigl
la fundul brazdei lucrate de main;
n = numrul de msurtori efectuate.
La ncercrile din perioada august- septembrie 2008,
echipamentul tehnic DECOM-FERTI a realizat lucrri de
calitate, cu indici calitativi de lucru i energetici
corespunztori, n limitele prevzute n tema de proiectare -
indici prezentai n diagrama din figura 3.
Echipamentul a avut o bun stabilitate n plan orizontal
i vertical.

Fig. 3 - The working indices variation of the DECOM-FERTI technical equipment /
Variaia indicilor de lucru ai echipamentului tehnic DECOM-FERTI

The principals working and energetic qualitative indices
realized are:
- aeration degree, %: Gas=19,422,5% at 2530 cm
Gas=15,318,6% at 5060 cm
- working depth, cm 50-60 at soils scarifying
25-30 at subsoilling
- average working speed, km/h: 6,3 at soils scarifying
with three active organs;
6,1 at subsoilling with
five active organs;
- average working capacity, ha/h: 1,61 at soils scarifying
five active organs;
- average fuel consumption, l/ha: 28,12 at soils scarifying
Principalii indici calitativi de lucru i energetici realizai
sunt:
- gradul de afnare, %: Gas=19,422,5% la 2530 cm
Gas=15,318,6% la 5060 cm
- adncimea de lucru, cm: 50-60 la scarificarea solului
25-30 la subsolajul solului
- viteza de lucru medie, km/h: 6,3 la scarificarea solului
cu trei organe active;
6,1 la subsolajul solului cu
cinci organe active;
- capacitatea medie de lucru, ha/h: 1,61 la scarificarea solului
cu trei organe active;
1,56 la subsolajul solului
cu cinci organe active;
- consum de combustibil mediu, l/ha: 28,12 la scarificarea solului
cu trei organe active

23
five active organs;
- administrating normv nutritive elements, kg/ha: 70120
29,78 la subsolajul solului
cu cinci organe active
- norm de administrare elemente nutritive, kg/ha: 70120

CONCLUSIONS
After the tests they have resulted the following advantages
of using the DECOM-FERTI technical equipment designed
for 180-240 HP tractors:
- it can work in all soil types, at soils optimum or reduced
humidity at which is obtained a maximum aeration
degree of this one.
- it can execute the soils work (soil scarifying, in B1
horizon), in the arable substrate equipped with three
working active organs and distanced between them at
100 cm and subsoilling (soils aeration, in A2 horizon)
equipped with five working active organs and distanced
between them with 50 cm;
- it administers nutritive elements between the minimum
norm of 70 kg/ha and the maximum norm of 120 kg/ha;
- in penetrates easy in soil, up to the maximum depth, the
space covered by the aggregate in this time is short
(around 0,5 m);
- has a good stability in the working position, both in the
vertical and horizontal planes, for the entire range of
realized working depths;
- it assures a good soils aeration, without reversing,
inverting or mixing the soil horizons.

CONCLUZII
n urma ncercrilor au rezultat urmtoarele avantaje ale
folosirii echipamentului tehnic DECOM-FERTI, destinat
tractoarelor de 180 -240 CP:
- poate lucra n toate tipurile de sol, la umiditatea optim
sau redus a solului la care se obine un grad maxim de
afnare a acestuia
- poate executa lucrarea solului (scarificarea solului, n
orizontul B1) n substratul arabil echipat cu trei organe
active de lucru i distanate ntre ele la 100 cm i
subsolajul solului (afnarea solului, n orizontul A2)
echipat cu cinci organe active de lucru i distanate ntre
ele cu 50 cm;
- administreaz elemente nutritive ntre norma minima de
70kg/ha i norma maxima de 120 kg/ha;
- ptrunde uor n sol, pn la adncimea maxim,
spaiul parcurs de agregat n acest timp este scurt (cca.
0,50 m);
- -are o bun stabilitate n poziia de lucru, att n plan
vertical, ct i n plan orizontal, pentru ntreaga gam
de adncimi de lucru realizate;
- asigur o bun afnare a solului, fr ntoarcerea,
inversarea sau amestecarea orizonturilor de sol.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Cojocaru I., a.o -.Studies and researches regarding
the soil working technology without reversing the furrow
and the experimenting technology of a Chisel at founding
of straw cereals crops - Symposium organized by ASAS
in collaboration with AOSR, 1999;
2. Cojocaru I., a.o Ecological technology for subsoilling
and soil working in conservative system and realization of
a high productivity technical equipment papers of
scientific session INMATEH 2004-II, Bucharest, 2004
3. Kolozsvari C., Constantin N. - Equipment for soils deep
aeration, MAS 220. Magazine Agriculture Mechanization,
nr.10/2005, Bucharest
4. Balaci, C. Machines and working organs for soils deep
aeration. Documentary synthesis, bibliotheca A.S.A.S.,
Bucharest, 1980.
5. Canarache, A. .a.- Soils compaction, causes and effects. In:
Magazine. Vegetal production, nr. 9 and 10, 1984
6. Canarache, A. .a. Researches and results regarding
the optimal agricultural-physical and hydro-physical parameters
of soils fertility. In: magazine. Cereals and technical plants,
nr. 10, 1989.
7. Brc, Gh. New gear and technologies for soil working
without furrow reversing. In the works of Symposium
Agricultures mechanization problems, vol. II, Technical
University Timioara, 1991
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Cojocaru I., .a. -.Studii i cercetri privind tehnologia
de lucrare a solului fr rsturnarea brazdei i
metodologia de experimentare a unui Cizel la nfiinarea
culturilor de cereale pioase - Simpozion organizat de
ASAS n colaborare cu AOSR, 1999;
2. Cojocaru I., a. - Tehnologie ecologic de subsolaj i
lucrarea solului n sistem conservativ i realizarea unui
echipament tehnic de mare productivitate - lucrrile
Sesiunii tiinifice INMATEH 2004-II, Bucureti, 2004
3. Kolozsvari C., Constantin N. - Echipament pentru
afnarea adnc a solului, MAS 220. Revista Mecanizarea
Agriculturii, nr.10/2005, Bucureti
4. Balaci, C. - Maini i organe de lucru pentru afnarea
adnc a solului. Sintez documentar, biblioteca A.S.A.S.,
Bucureti, 1980.
5. Canarache, A. .a.- Compactarea solului, cauze i
efecte. n: Rev. Producia vegetal, nr. 9 i 10, 1984
6. Canarache, A. .a. - Cercetri i rezultate privind
parametri agrofizici i hidrofizici optimi ai fertilitii solului.
n: Rev. Cereale i plante tehnice, nr. 10, 1989.
7. Brc, Gh. - Noi utilaje i tehnologii pentru lucrarea
solului fr rsturnarea brazdei. n Lucrrile Simpozionului
Probleme de mecanizarea agriculturii, vol. II, Universitatea
Tehnic Timioara, 1991.


24

DYNAMICS OF THE AIR FLOW MIXED WITH STRAW CEREAL SEEDS /
/
DINAMICA CURENTULUI DE AER N AMESTEC CU SEMINELE DE CEREALE PIOASE

MSc. Eng. Drago Manea INMA Bucharest
Prof. Dr. Eng. Ioan Cndea Transilvania University from Braov

Abstract: In the construction of straw cereal sowing
machines as mechano pneumatic type is used an
transport assembly for the sowing material on pneumatic
way to a central distributor which divides seeds for the
pipes driving them to the shares for incorporate into soil.
For this purpose the paper presents the dynamics of the
air seeds mixture from the mechanic distributor to the
seeds distribution head. There are presented the
movement of a seed as a heavy material point in a
vertical resisting environment, the air seed mixture flow
which hits an obstacle, the impact between seeds and
the cover of the distribution head.

Keywords: dynamics, distribution head, material point,
impact.

1. INTRODUCTION
For the devices with mechanic measuring and
pneumatic distribution, seeds measuring for all shares is
done mechanical, with a distributor and a grooved drum
or cells rotor and their distribution and transport to the
shares is done pneumatically. From the seed tank 1,
seeds measured by the grooved drum 2 are ejected in
the pipe 3, where are taken by the air flow delivered by
the fan 4. Through the vertical pipe 5, the air seeds
mixture gets to the distribution head 6, where its
distribution to the shares is done. The place where
seeds are taken by the air flow it is a Venturi shape for
obviate some overpressures which crank seeds back to
the cells rotor.
Rezumat: n construcia semntorilor pentru cereale
pioase de tipul mecano-pneumatice se utilizeaz un
ansamblu de transport a materialului de semnat pe cale
pneumatic pn la un distribuitor central care repartizeaz
seminele la tuburile ce conduc pe acestea la brzdarele de
ncorporare n sol. n acest scop n lucrare se prezint
dinamica amestecului aer semine de la distribuitorul
mecanic pn la capul de distribuie al seminelor. Astfel: se
prezint micarea unei semine considerat punct material
greu ntr-un mediu rezistent pe vertical; circulaia aerului
purttor de semine care ntlnete un obstacol; ciocnirea
dintre semine i capacul capului de distribuie.

Cuvinte cheie: dinamica, cap de distribuie, punct
material, ciocnire.

1. INTRODUCERE
La aparatele cu dozare mecanic i distribuie
pneumatic, dozarea seminelor pentru toate brzdarele se face
pe cale mecanic, cu un distribuitor cu cilindru canelat sau
rotor cu celule, iar repartiia i transportul lor spre brzdare se
face pneumatic. Din buncrul de semine 1, seminele dozate
de cilindrul canelat 2, sunt evacuate n conducta 3, unde sunt
preluate de curentul de aer debitat de ventilatorul 4. Prin
conducta vertical 5, amestecul aer-semine ajunge la capul
principal de distribuie 6, unde se face distribuia acestuia ctre
brzdare. Locul n care seminele sunt preluate de curentul de
aer are o construcie (form) de tip Venturi, pentru a se preveni
apariia unor suprapresiuni care s refuleze seminele napoi,
spre cilindrul cu alveole.

The vertical pipe walls, on their last sector, before the
distribution head, are puckered for assure the air
seeds mixture homogenization. In terms of their
destination, the sowing machines equipped with such
distribution devices work on 2496 rows, the distribution
device providing the norma adjustment between 2360
kg/ha. The sowing machine working speed is 812 km/h.
Pereii conductei verticale, pe ultima poriune, nainte
de capul principal de distribuie, sunt gofrai pentru a asigura
omogenizarea amestecului aer-semine. n funcie de
destinaie, mainile de semnat echipate cu astfel de aparate
de distribuie lucreaz pe 2496 de rnduri, aparatul de
distribuie asigurnd reglarea normei ntre 2360 kg/ha.
Viteza de lucru a mainii este de 812 km/h.
Fig. 1 - Diagram of the device with mechanic
measuring and pneumatic distribution /
Schema aparatului cu dozare mecanic i
distribuie pneumatic

25
2. MOVEMENT OF A SEED, AS A HEAVY MATERIAL
POINT, IN A VERTICAL RESISTING ENVIRONMENT
On consider that the seed grain has initial speed zero
or directional on the vertical of its initial position (v0 0). If
on consider the pipe motionless, then its trajectory is
vertical.
Air resistance
a
R
r
is generally in terms and contrary
of the grain speed. On consider generally its formula:
=
r
r
( )
v
R mg v
v
(1)
and the R modulus is given by:
) (v mg R = (2)
The function ) (v is generally unknown and should
be obtained through aerodynamic tests in specific
installations.
On admit that 0 ) ( v and because its known that
in fact the grain (material point) let free, without initial
speed, falls down vertically in descending movement, it
must be accomplished the condition 1 ) 0 ( 0 . On
admit that ) (v is an increasing continuous and differentiable
function by the v modulus of speed, thus + =
+
) ( lim v
v
.
Under these aspects, the vertical movement of the
material point is described by the equation:
=
r r
r
( )
dv v
m mg mg v
dt v
(3)
or upward vertically projected, Ox taken as axis:
v
x
v mg mg x m
&
& &
) ( =
(4)
and grain movement is studied in two states, descending
movement and upward movement.
a) Descending movement - initial speed is zero or
downward vertically directed, v x =
&
.
From relations (3) and (4) results:
)] ( 1 [ v g
dt
dv
= (5)
On consider vcr > 0 the critical value of v for which
1 ) ( =
cr
v
If the availability of speed v is assured, following over
the hypothesizes made on ) (v , results:
)] ( ) ( [ v v g
dt
dv
cr
= (6)
Applying the integration operator results:

=
0
0
( )
( ) ( )
v
cr v
dv
g t t
v v
(7)
Analyzing relations (5) and (7) results following
remarks:
If the initial speed modulus v0 < vcr, then
) ( ) ( v v
cr
is positive at start, and the ecuation (5)
shows that the speed increases. Generally speeds
can not exceed vcr, because from relation (7) results
that if
cr
v v then t .
If v0 > vcr, speed decreases from the initial value v0
tending to vcr for t .
If v0 = vcr, then we have v = v0 whatever is t.
The abscissa x is given in terms of v through:
0
0
1
1 ( )
v
v
vdv
x x
g v
(8)
b) The upward movement - initial speed vertically
directed upward, =
&
x v , that means x increases. In
2. MICAREA UNEI SEMINE, CONSIDERAT PUNCT
MATERIAL GREU, NTR-UN MEDIU REZISTENT PE VERTICAL
Se consider c bobul de smn are viteza iniial
nul sau dirijat pe verticala poziiei sale iniiale (v0 0).
Dac se consider tubul n poziie de repaus, atunci
traiectoria sa este vertical.
Rezistena aerului
a
R
r
este n general n funcie de viteza
bobului i este opus vitezei. Se consider, n general expresia
acesteia:
=
r
r
( )
v
R mg v
v
(1)
iar modulul lui R este dat de:
) (v mg R = (2)
Funcia ) (v este n general necunoscut i ar trebui
obinut prin experimentri aerodinamice n instalaii specifice.
Se admite c 0 ) ( v i deoarece se tie c n
realitate bobul (punctul material) lsat liber, fr vitez
iniial, cade pe vertical n micare descendent,
trebuie ndeplinit condiia 1 ) 0 ( 0 . Se admite c
) (v este o funcie cresctoare continu i derivabil de
modulul v al vitezei, astfel c + =
+
) ( lim v
v
.
n baza acestor consideraii, micarea pe vertical a
punctului material este descris de ecuaia:
=
r r
r
( )
dv v
m mg mg v
dt v
(3)
sau n proiecie pe vertical ascendent, luat ca ax Ox:
v
x
v mg mg x m
&
& &
) ( = (4)
iar micarea bobului se studiaz n dou stri, micare
descendent i micare ascendent.
a) Micare descendent viteza iniial este nul sau
dirijat pe vertical n jos, v x =
&
.
Din relaiile (3) i (4) rezult:
)] ( 1 [ v g
dt
dv
= (5)
Se consider vcr > 0 valoarea critic a lui v pentru
care 1 ) ( =
cr
v .
Dac existena vitezei v este asigurat, ca urmare asupra
ipotezelor fcute asupra lui ) (v , rezult:
)] ( ) ( [ v v g
dt
dv
cr
= (6)
Aplicnd operatorul de integrare rezult:

=
0
0
( )
( ) ( )
v
cr v
dv
g t t
v v
(7)
Din analiza relaiilor (5) i (7) rezult urmtoarele
comentarii:
Dac modulul vitezei iniiale v0 < vcr, atunci
) ( ) ( v v
cr
este la nceput pozitiv, iar ecuaia (5)
arat c viteza crete. n general vitezele nu pot
depi pe vcr, deoarece din relaia (7) rezult c dac
cr
v v atunci t .
Dac v0 > vcr, viteza descrete de la valoarea iniial
v0 tinznd ctre vcr pentru t .
Dac v0 = vcr, atunci avem v = v0 oricare ar fi t.
Abscisa x este dat n funcie de v prin relaia:
0
0
1
1 ( )
v
v
vdv
x x
g v
(8)
b) Micarea ascendent - viteza iniial dirijat pe
vertical n sus, =
&
x v , ceea ce nseamn c x

26
these conditions from relation (4) results:
= + [1 ( )]
dv
g v
dt
(9)
and results =
dx
v
dt
and therefore
=
+
1
1 ( )
vdv
dx
g v
.
The point (grain) leaves at the moment t=0 from
initial position x0 having speed v0 > 0, and its abscissa is
given by the relation:
=
+
0
0
1
1 ( )
v
v
vdv
x x
g v
(10)
and the time is in terms of v through:
=
+
0
1
1 ( )
v
v
dv
t
g v
(11)
From relation (9) results that speed decreases and
gets zero at the moment tcr given by:
=
+
0
max
1
1 ( )
v
v
dv
t
g v
(12)
At this moment, the grain touched the high:
= =
+
0
max 0
0
1
1 ( )
v
cr
vdv
h x x
g v
(13)
which measure the high above the initial position. From
this position, where the speed is zero, it starts the
descending state of the movement described at
paragraph (a).
The theoretical study presented in the upward
movement get to the relations 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13 which
are generally. For matching these relations at one of the
paper problem, on consider the vertical upward
movement having initial speed v0, figure no. 2, at low
speds, when the resistance force is proportional with
speed v.
crete. n aceste condiii din relaia (4) rezult:
= + [1 ( )]
dv
g v
dt
(9)
i rezult =
dx
v
dt
i deci
=
+
1
1 ( )
vdv
dx
g v
.
Punctul (bobul) pleac la momentul t=0 din poziia
iniial x0 cu viteza v0 > 0, iar abscisa sa este dat de
relaia:
=
+
0
0
1
1 ( )
v
v
vdv
x x
g v
(10)
iar timpul este exprimat tot ca funcie de v prin relaia:
=
+
0
1
1 ( )
v
v
dv
t
g v
(11)
Din relaia (9) rezult c viteza descrete i se
anuleaz la momentul tcr dat de relaia:
=
+
0
max
1
1 ( )
v
v
dv
t
g v
(12)
n acest moment, bobul a atins nlimea:
= =
+
0
max 0
0
1
1 ( )
v
cr
vdv
h x x
g v
(13)
care msoar nlimea deasupra poziiei iniiale. Din
aceast poziie, n care viteza mobilului este nul,
ncepe faza descendent a miscrii descris la
paragraful (a).
Studiul teoretic prezentat n micarea ascendent a
condus la relaiile 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 care au un caracter
de generalitate. Pentru adaptarea relaiilor respective la
una din problematica tezei se consider micarea
ascendent pe vertical cu viteza iniial v0, figura 2, in
varianta vitezelor mici, cnd fora de rezisten este
proporional cu viteza v.

On consider axis Ox directed upward having its
origin in point O from where the grains are taken by the
air flow delivered by fan.
The movement differential equation is:
=
&& &
mx mg kmx sau
+ =
&& &
x kx g (14)
where k is a coefficient which determines function ) (v .
Solving the inhomogenous differential equation (14)
and taking into account by the initial conditions at t=0,
x=0, =
&
0
x v get to:
displacement law,
+
=
0
2
(1 )
kt
g kv g
x e t
k k
(15)
speed,
+
=
&
0 kt
g kv g
x e
k k
(16)
Se consider axa Ox n sensul ascendent cu
originea n punctul O de unde boabele sunt luate de
curentul de aer generat de ventilator.
Ecuaia diferenial a micrii este:
=
&& &
mx mg kmx sau
+ =
&& &
x kx g (14)
n care k este un coeficient care determin funcia ) (v .
Rezolvnd ecuaia diferenial neomogen (14) i
innd seama de condiiile iniiale la t=0, x=0, =
&
0
x v
conduc la:
legea de micare,
+
=
0
2
(1 )
kt
g kv g
x e t
k k
(15)
viteza,
+
=
&
0 kt
g kv g
x e
k k
(16)

27
The maximum high is touchedd in point A where
speed is zero, =
&
0 x and from the relation (16) results:
+
=
0
0
A
kt
g kv g
e
k k
, from where results:
+
=
0
1
ln
A
g k
t
k g
(17)
In this way on obtain maximum high:
+
=
0 0
max 2
ln
v g k g
h
k g k
(18)
This study gets to the following conclusions:
The descending movement proves that in this
functional context the constructive and functional
parameters must be accomplished thus such a
grains movement must not exist;
The upward movement proves that the height of the
distribution head must be at a quota toward the start
position of grains at which their speed must not be
zero, for dont happen the descending movement (v0
> vcr - critical floating speed);
The condition for speed v not to be zero is imposed
by the distribution head operation inside where the
air flow carring seeds, in upward movement hits the
upper plate, and following the impact with this one
seeds are circular rebounded in the pipes which
drive seeds to the shares for soil incorporation.
Seeds transport is made under the air flow and
gravitational force action.
Following seeds rebound to be equally ditributed at
pipes driving seeds to shares it is necessary to be
accomplished a theoretical study regarding the
interaction between an air flow carring seeds which
moves in a pipe and meet a non-deflecting plate.

3. THEORETICAL STUDY REGARDING THE CIRCULATION
OF A FLUID CARRING SEEDS WHICH MEET AN
OBSTACLE (FLAT PLATE)
The theoretically study is based on mechanics
fundamental laws, such as impulse law which contains
geometric, kinematic and dinamic parameters as: -
density; Q - flow rate; v - speed; G - fluid weight; p -
resulting pressure on pipe walls; pa - air pressure; pr-
pipe action on the fluid; R - reaction on the angle pipe;
pi - pressures in normal sections on the fluid flow
direction; Si - fluid flow section; - angle of inclination of
the fluid flow in proportion with the plate position.
Studies reffer to the establishment of reaction
r
R
on
a angle pipe, fluid flow press on a flat plate having accliv
and normal incidence and the deviation of a fluid flow at
the impact with an wall and in the same time results the
seeds deviation carried by the fluid flow (the air flow)
and the reaction
r
R
.
Thus, in figure no. 3 on consider an angle pipe
wherethrough passes a fluid flow.
nlimea maxim este atins n punctul A unde viteza
se anuleaz, =
&
0 x i din relaia (16) rezult:

+
=
0
0
A
kt
g kv g
e
k k
, de unde rezult:
+
=
0
1
ln
A
g k
t
k g
(17)
Astfel se obine nlimea maxim:
+
=
0 0
max 2
ln
v g k g
h
k g k
(18)
Studiul efectuat conduce la urmtoarele concluzii:
Micarea descendent demonstreaz c n acest
context funcional parametrii constructivi i funcionali
trebuie s fie realizai astfel ca o astfel de micare a
boabelor s nu aiba loc;
Micarea ascendent demonstreaz c nlimea
capului de distribuie trebuie s fie la o cot fa de
poziia de plecare a boabelor la care viteza acestora
s nu fie nul, pentru a nu se produce micarea
descendent (v0 > vcr - viteza critic de plutire);
Condiia ca viteza v s fie diferit de zero este impus din
funcionarea capului de distribuie n care curentul de aer
purttor de semine, n micarea ascendent ciocnete
placa superioar, iar n urma impactului cu aceasta
seminele sunt ricoate circular n tuburile care conduc
seminele la brzdarele de ncorporare a acestora n sol.
Transportul seminelor se face sub aciunea curentului
de aer i a forei gravitaionale;
Ca n urma ricorii seminelor acestea s fie repartizate
uniform la tuburile ce conduc seminele la brzdare este
necesar s se efectueze un studiu teoretic cu privire la
interaciunea dintre un curent de aer purttor de semine
care se mic ntr-un tub urmnd s ntlneasc o
plac considerat nedeformabil.

3. STUDIUL TEORETIC CU PRIVIRE LA CIRCULAIA UNUI
FLUID PURTTOR DE SEMINE CARE NTLNETE
UN OBSTACOL (PLAC)
Studiul teoretic se bazeaz pe teoreme fundamentale ale
mecanicii, precum teorema impulsului i n care intervin
parametrii geometrici, cinematici si dinamici ca: - desitate;
Q - debit; v - vitez; G - greutatea fluidului; p - presiunea
rezultant pe pereii tubului; pa - presiunea atmosferic; pr-
actiunea tubului asupra fluidului; R - reaciunea asupra
cotului; pi - presiunile in sectiunile normale pe direcia
curentului de fluid; Si - seciunea curentului de fluid; -
unghiul de nclinare a curentului de fluid n raport cu poziia plcii.
Studiile se refer la stabilirea reaciunii
r
R asupra
unui cot de tub, apsarea curentului de fluid pe o plac
plan cu inciden nclinat i normal i devierea unui
curent de fluid la impactul cu un perete i concomitent
cu acesta rezult devierea seminelor antrenate de
curentul de fluid (curentul de aer), implicit i de reaciunea R.
Astfel, n figura 3 se consider un cot prin care
circul un curent de fluid.

Fig. 3 - Reaction on an angle pipe /
Reaciunea pe un cot

28
Under impulse law applied on a pipe wherethrough
fluid passes results:
= +
2 1
( ) Q v v G P , unde (19)
= =
1 1 2 2
Q v S v S (20)
If the external pressure is equal with air pressure pa,
then the resultant pressure on the pipe walls is:
= + +
1 1 1 2 2 2
( ) ( )
a a r
P n p p S n p p S P (21)
Finally results reaction R which is equal with -Pr:
= = + +
2 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
( ) ( ) ( )
r a a
R P G Qv v n p p S n p p S (22)
If the angle pipe is situated in an horizontal plane,
the fluid reaction is qualitatively directed as shown in
figure no. 3, and in other positions it is composed with
the fluid weight vector G.
In figure no. 4 on consider the action of a fluid flow
on a flat plate under an angle .
n baza teoremei impulsului aplicat la un tub prin
care circul fluidul rezult:
= +
2 1
( ) Q v v G P , unde (19)
= =
1 1 2 2
Q v S v S (20)
Dac presiunea exterioar este egal cu presiunea atmosferic
pa atunci rezultanta presiunii pe pereii tubului este:
= + +
1 1 1 2 2 2
( ) ( )
a a r
P n p p S n p p S P (21)
n final rezult reaciunea R care este egal cu -Pr:
= = + +
2 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
( ) ( ) ( )
r a a
R P G Qv v n p p S n p p S (22)
Dac cotul este situat ntr-un plan orizontal,
reaciunea fluidului are calitativ sensul artat n figura 2,
iar n alte poziii se compune cu vectorul greutatea
fluidului G.
n figura 4 se consider aciunea unui curent de fluid pe
o plac plan cu aciune asupra acesteia sub un unghi .

Fig. 4 - The action of a fluid flow on a flat plate / Aciunea unui curent de fluid pe o plac plan

On consider as a control volume, the volume limited
by the normal sections AB, CD, EF and the lines of flow
AF and BC, as are sketched in figure above, and
sections CD and EF being situated at the plate borders.
For simplification is neglected weight effect, which is
considered very small or suppose thea the mentioned
figure is in a horizontal plane. On consider the
approximation that the fluid flow speed is uniform in
sections CD and FE and speed has value v both in
section AB as in sections CD and EF. On all areas
ABCD and AFE the pressure has the same value with
the air pressure pa. This observation is necessary for
determine flow rates Q1 and Q2.
Reaction R comes from the pressures on DE face
which is normal on the plate. If on apply the impulse law
on normal direction, the reaction is equal with the
component on the same normal direction of the impulse
at entrance, because on a face of the plate DE acts the
fluid pressure, and on the other acts the air pressure.
= sin R vQ (23)
On the plate direction, when the fluid weight is not
considerred and taking DE as positive direction results
following equation:
+ =
2 1
cos 0 vQ vQ vQ (24)
whereon on attach the condition Q1 + Q2 = Q (25)
Solving the equation system results:
+
=
=
1
1
1 cos
2
1 cos
2
Q Q
Q Q
(26)
If on take into account the fluid weight and the mechanic
model from figure no. 4, on consider in vertical plane as
in figure no. 2, then the relations (23) and (24) become:
Se consider ca volum de control, volumul mrginit de
seciunile normale AB, CD, EF i liniile de curent AF i BC,
aa cum sunt schiate n figur, iar seciunile CD i EF fiind
situate la marginea plcii. Pentru simplificare, se
neglijeazefectul greutii, care se consider foarte mic
sau presupun c figura menionat se afl ntr-un plan
orizontal. Se consider aproximaia c viteza curentului de
fluid este uniform n seciunile CD i FE i c viteza are
valoarea v att n seciunea AB, ct i n seciunile CD i
EF. Pe toate zonele ABCD i AFE presiunea are aceiai
valoare cu presiunea atmosferic pa. Aceast observaie
este necesar pentru determinarea debitelor Q1 i Q2.
Reaciunea R este provenit din presiunile de pe
faa DE care este normal pe plac. Dac se aplic
teorema impulsului pe direcie normal, reaciunea este
egal cu componenta pe aceeai direcie normal a
impulsului la intrare deoarece pe o fa a plcii DE
acioneaz presiune alichidului, iar pe cealalt,
presiunea atmosferic.
= sin R vQ (23)
Pe direcia plcii, n condiiile n care greutatea
fluidului nu iuntervine i lund sensul pozitiv DE rezult
relaia:
+ =
2 1
cos 0 vQ vQ vQ (24)
la care se adaug condiia Q1 + Q2 = Q (25)
Prin rezolvarea sistemului rezult:
+
=
=
1
1
1 cos
2
1 cos
2
Q Q
Q Q
(26)
Dac se ine seama de greutatea fluidului i modelul
mecanic din figura 4 se consider n plan vertical ca in
figura 2, atunci relaiile (23) i (24) devin:

29

= +
+ =
2 2 1 1
sin cos
cos sin 0
R Qv G
Q v Qv Qv G
(27)
where it could be admit forwards
1 2
v v v . If the
flow acts upward, that means if is replaced with angle
( - ), the weigt effect is contrary in relations (27):
= sin cos R Qv G (28)
A case met in practice is when the upward vertical
fluid flow meet a horizontal flat plate (=/2) as in figure
no. 5.

= +
+ =
2 2 1 1
sin cos
cos sin 0
R Qv G
Q v Qv Qv G
(27)
unde se poate admite in continuare
1 2
v v v . Dac jetul
ar aciona de jos in sus, adic dac ar fi nlocuit cu
unghiul ( - ), efectul greutii ar fi invers n relaiile (27):
= sin cos R Qv G (28)
Un caz care se ntlnete n practic este cnd curentul de
fluid vertical ascendent ntlnete o plac plan
orizontal (=/2) ca n figura 5.

Fig. 5 - Upward vertical fluid flow which meet a horizontal flat plate /
Curent de fluid vertical ascendent ce ntlnete o plac plan orizontal

On apply the impulse law, the first relation (27) for
the control volume ABCDEF (fig. 4, a) and for the
volume ABCDEF. The fluid weight in these two
situations is different, but reaction on plate results the
same, because at the same flow rate Q, speeds v i v
from sections AB and AB are different. Indeed, from
Bernoulli formula results:
= +
2
2
' 1
'
gh
v v
v
(29)
while the section modifies thus the flow rate remains
constant.
Applying relation (29) and calculating the volume
ABBA weight on obtain the same value for reaction R.
Under the circumstances it is advisable in the chosen
technical solutions to consider section AB as close as
possible from the plate, and the weight be included or
neglected depending on case.
In figure no. 5, b on consider the flat plate situated
in a vertical fluid flow, from where we can see the
modification mode of the flow lines at the plate
avoidance. Based on the accomplished study, in figure
no. 5, c, on present, in principle, how must be
constructively realized the distribution head of a
mechano - pneumatic sowing machine. Thus, the fluid
flow transports seeds untill they meet (hit) the flate
plate De, and after impact, seeds will be directed to the
pipes entrances which are connected with the shares
for soil incorporation.

4. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS ON THE IMPACT
BETWEEN SEEDS AND FLAT PLATE
From the theoretical study accomplished resulted that
through the upward transport of seeds by the fluid flow
results between seeds and flat plate the impact
phenomena which could be realized by a centric or a
bevelled collision. The mechanical models are
presented in figure no. 6. In figure no. 6, a on present
the centric collision, in figure no. 6, b on present the
bevelled collision, without consider the friction, and in
figure no. 6, c on present the bevelled collision with friction.
Astfel se aplic teorema impulsului, respectiv prima relaie
(27) pentru volumul de control ABCDEF (fig. 5, a) i pentru
volumul ABCDEF. Greutatea fluidului n cele dou situaii
este diferit, dar reaciunea pe plac rezult aceeai,
deoarece la acelai debit Q, vitezele v i v din seciunile
AB i AB sunt diferite. ntr-adevr, din formula lui Bernoulli
rezult:
= +
2
2
' 1
'
gh
v v
v
(29)
n timp ce seciunea se modific astfel nct debitul s
rmn constant.
Aplicnd relaia (29) i calculnd greutatea volumului
ABBA se obine aceeai valoare pentru reaciunea R. n
consecin este recomandabil ca n soluiile tehnice
alese s se considere seciunea AB ct mai aproape de
plac, iar greutatea s se includ sau s se neglijeze
dup caz.
n figura 5, b se consider placa plan situat ntr-un
curent de fluid vertical, din care se vede modul de
modificare a liniilor de curent la ocolirea plcii. n baza
studiului efectuat, n figura 5, c se prezint, n principiu,
cum trebuie s se realizeze constructiv capul de
distribuie al unei semntori mecano-pneumatice.
Astfel, curentul de fluid transport seminele pn ce
acestea ntlnesc (ciocnesc) placa plan DE, iar dup
ciocnire, seminele vor fi dirijate spre gurile tuburilor care
sunt n legtur cu brzdarele pentru ncorporarea
seminelor n sol.

4. CONSIDERAII TEORETICE ASUPRA CIOCNIRII
DINTRE SEMINE I PLAC
Din studiul teoretic efectuat a rezultat c prin transportul
ascendent al seminelor de ctre curentul de fluid rezult
ntre semine i plac fenomenul de ciocnire care se
poate produce printr-o ciocnire centric i printr-o
ciocnire oblic. Modelele mecanice sunt prezentate n
figura 6. n figura 6, a se prezint ciocnirea centric, n
figura 6, b se prezinta ciocnirea oblic, fr s se
considere frecarea, iar n figura 6, c se prezint ciocnirea
oblica n care se consider frecarea.

30

Fig. 6 - The impact between a grain with the horizontal plate /
Ciocnirea dintre o smn cu placa orizontal

In figure no. 6, a, the speed after collision (v) is
directed to the normal direction on plate, having an
opposite sense to the speed before collision (v), but the
upward fluid flow action which is directed lateral left -
right, will direct seeds displacement to the lateral
entrances of pipes for driving seeds to shares.
In figure no. 6, b, the speed after collision (v) is
bevelled directed after a direction which has an angle
with the normal to plate. This situation is desired
because seeds are directed to the lateral entrances of
pipes which drive seeds to shares.
In figure no. 6, c, is presented the collision from
figure no. 6, b, the bevelled collision where the contact
between seeds and plate is done with friction.
The problem hypothesis are: grain is assimilate with
a sphere with mass m, radius r, moment of inertia
toward a diameter I=2mr
2
/5, the impact is done with
speed v, the grain hit the plate under the angle toward
the normal to plate, the restitution coefficient is k.
In the contact point O emerges percussion P
r
which
has two components: Pn percussion after the normal
direction and Pt - percussion after the tangent direction to
plate. These are connected through relation:
n t
P P = (30)
Wall being fixed results v2 = v2 = 0, where v2 - plate
speed before impact, v2 - plate speed after impact. For
the movement study on apply the impulse law:
=

r r r
2 1 i
H H P (40)
and the kinetic moment law:
i i
P x r K K
r
s
r r
=
1 2
(41)
where:
j mv i mv H
r r r
cos sin
1
= (42)
j mv i mv H
r r r
cos ' sin '
2
= (43)
; 0
1
=
Oz
K '
5
2
'
2
2
mr J K
Oz
= = (44)
where v - speed after impact, - speed from the
rotation movement after impact.
The restitution coefficient formula is:
= =
2 1
1 2
' ' ' cos
cos
n n
n n
v v v
k
v v v
(45)
With the equations (30), (42), (43), (44), (45) is
made a five equations system with five unknowns: v,
, , Pn, Pt.
Solving the equations system results following solutions:

= +
= +
(1 )cos
(1 )cos
n
t
P mv k
P mv k
(46)
n figura 6, a viteza dup ciocnire (v) este ndreptat
dup direcia normal la plac n sensul opus vitezei
nainte de ciocnire(v), dar aciunea curentului de fluid
ascendent care este orientat lateral stnga - dreapta, va
orienta deplasarea seminelor spre gurile laterale a tuburilor
de conducere a seminelor spre brzdare.
n figura 6, b viteza dup ciocnire (v) este ndreptat
oblic dup o direcie ce face cu normala la plac unghiul
. Situaia este dorit deoarece seminele sunt orientate
spre gurile laterale ale tuburilor ce conduc seminele la
brzdare.
n figura 6, c este considerat ciocnirea din figura 6,
b, adic ciocnirea oblic n care se consider contactul
dintre semine i plac cu frecare.
Ipotezele problemei sunt: smna se asimileaz cu
o sfer de mas m, raz r, momentul de inerie fa de
un diametru I=2mr
2
/5, se efectueaz ciocnirea cu viteza
v, smna ciocnete placa sub unghiul fa de
normala la plac, coeficientul de restituire este k.
n punctul de contact O apare percuia P
r
care are
dou componente: Pn percuia dup direcia normal i
Pt percuia dup direcia tangent la plac. Acestea
sunt legate prin relaia:
n t
P P = (30)
Peretele fiind fix rezult v2 = v2 = 0, unde v2 viteza
plcii nainte de ciocnire, v2 viteza plcii dup ciocnire.
Pentru studiul micrii se aplic teorema impulsului:
=

r r r
2 1 i
H H P (40)
i teorema momentului cinetic:
i i
P x r K K
r
s
r r
=
1 2
(41)
n care:
j mv i mv H
r r r
cos sin
1
= (42)
j mv i mv H
r r r
cos ' sin '
2
= (43)
; 0
1
=
Oz
K '
5
2
'
2
2
mr J K
Oz
= = (44)
n care v - viteza dup ciocnire, - viteza din micarea
de rotaie dup ciocnire.
Expresia coeficientului de restituire este:
= =
2 1
1 2
' ' ' cos
cos
n n
n n
v v v
k
v v v
(45)
Cu ecuaiile (30), (42), (43), (44), (45) se formeaz
un sistem de cinci ecuaii cu cinci necunoscute: v, , ,
Pn, Pt.
Rezolvnd sistemul de ecuaii rezult soluiile:

= +
= +
(1 )cos
(1 )cos
n
t
P mv k
P mv k
(46)

31
= + +
2 2
' cos [ (1 )] v v k tg k (47)
= +
1
[ (1 )] tg tg k
k
(48)
= + ' (1 )cos
rmv
k
I
(49)
The obtained solutions resulted for (1,0), 0 k
There are particulary cases such as:
a) k = 0, 0; b) k = 0, = 0; c) k = 1, 0; d) k = 1,
= 0; e) k (1,0), = 0; f) k (1,0), 0.
Keeping sight of the system solutions and
particulary cases results:
Case a: = cos
n
P mv ; = cos
t
P mv ;
= ' cos ( ) v v tg ; = = ,( ) tg undefined ;
= ' 0;
Case b: = cos
n
P mv ; = 0
t
P ; = ' sin v v ;
= = ,( ) tg undefined ; = ' 0 ;
Case c: = 2 cos
n
P mv ; = 2 cos
t
P mv ;
= +
2
' cos 1 ( 2 ) v v tg ; = 2 tg tg ;
=
2
' cos
rmv
I
;
Case d: = 2 cos
n
P mv ; = +
2
' cos 1 v v tg ;
= tg tg ; = ' 0 ;
Case e: = + (1 )cos
n
P mv k ;
= +
2 2
' cos v v k tg ;
=
tg
tg
k
; = ' 0 .
Case f: Results (46), (47), (48), (49).

5. CONCLUSIONS
Cases (a) and (b) where the collision is plastic, with
or without friction, results that the value of angle
(reflection angle) is undefined, that is not a seed reject,
seeds always keep the contact with the upper plate.
Case (c), angle is smaller than angle (incidence
angle) because of the friction coefficient , the grain in
its reflection movement accomplishes also a rotation
movement.
Case (d), angle is equal with angle (reflection is
equal with incidence), being the ideal reflection case for
the elastic impact.
Case (e), angle is bigger than angle because k
< 1, and in the reflection process the grain will move
without rotation.
Case (f) is generally when the impactis is
quasiplastic or quasielastic with friction.
In conclusion, cases admitted in practice are the
ones where < + (1 ) tg k , < 2 tg , > tg ktg ,
that are cases f, c i e. In this way seeds fall down from
the upper plate by jumping back with the angle and
then taken by the fluid flow to the pipes driving seeds to
the shares for soil incorporation.
= + +
2 2
' cos [ (1 )] v v k tg k (47)
= +
1
[ (1 )] tg tg k
k
(48)
= + ' (1 )cos
rmv
k
I
(49)
Soluiile obinute au rezultat n varianta (1,0), 0 k .
Se pot considera cazuri particulare ca:
a) k = 0, 0; b) k = 0, = 0; c) k = 1, 0; d) k = 1,
= 0; e) k (1,0), = 0; f) k (1,0), 0.
innd seama de soluiile sistemului i de cazurile
particulare rezult:
Cazul a: = cos
n
P mv ; = cos
t
P mv ;
= ' cos ( ) v v tg ; = = ,( ) tg nedefinit ;
= ' 0 ;
Cazul b: = cos
n
P mv ; = 0
t
P ; = ' sin v v ;
= = ,( ) tg nedefinit ; = ' 0 ;
Cazul c: = 2 cos
n
P mv ; = 2 cos
t
P mv ;
= +
2
' cos 1 ( 2 ) v v tg ; = 2 tg tg ;
=
2
' cos
rmv
I
;
Cazul d: = 2 cos
n
P mv ; = +
2
' cos 1 v v tg ;
= tg tg ; = ' 0 ;
Cazul e: = + (1 )cos
n
P mv k ;
= +
2 2
' cos v v k tg ;
=
tg
tg
k
; = ' 0 .
Cazul f: Sunt rezultatele (46), (47), (48), (49).

5. CONCLUZII
Cazurile (a) i (b) n care ciocnirea este plastic, fie cu frecare
sau fr frecare rezult c valoarea unghiului (unghi de
reflexie) este nedefinit, adic nu exist o respingere a
seminelor, acestea rmn mereu n contact cu placa superioar.
Cazul (c) unghiul este mai mic dect unghiul
(unghi de inciden) datorit coeficientului de frecare ,
iar smna n micarea de reflexie efectueaz i o
micare de rotaie.
Cazul (d) unghiul este egal cu unghiul
(reflexiaegal cu incidena) fiind cazul ideal de reflexie,
caracterizat ciocnirii elastice.
Cazul (e), unghiul este mai mare dect unghiul
deoarece k < 1, iar in procesul de reflexie smna se va
misca fara s se roteasc.
Cazul (f) este general cnd ciocnirea este cvasiplastic
sau cvasielastic considerndu-se i frecarea.
n concluzie, cazurile admise n realitate sunt cazurile
n care < + (1 ) tg k , < 2 tg , > tg ktg , adic
cazurile f, c i e. Astfel seminele se desprind de placa
superioar prin srirea napoi fcnd unghiul i apoi
preluate de curentul de fluid spre tuburile de conducere a
seminelor la brzdarele de ncorporare a acestora n sol.

BIBLIOGRAPHY / BIBLIOGRAFIE
[1]. Candea,I., Constantin, F., Pirna,I., Cotoros,L.D.,
Comanescu,I.S. - Mechanics/Statics Theory and
applications. Transilvania University Publishing House
2001.
[2]. Candea,I., Constantinescu,D., Macovici,M. - Mechanics /
Statics Transilvania University Brasov 1992.
[3]. Scripnic, V., Toma, G., Principii i realizri noi n
construcia mainilor de semnat, Editura Ceres,
Bucureti, 1973.

[4]. Toma, D., Maini i instalaii agricole, Editura
didactic i pedagogic, Bucureti, 1975.
[5]. Vergil, G., Cojocaru, I., Neacu, F., Studii i
cercetri privind perfecionarea sistemelor de
transmisie i distribuie ale semntorilor de cereale
pioase n vederea creterii fiabilitii acestora i a
calitii lucrrii de semnat, Lucrri tiinifice, INMA
Bucureti, 1998.

32

DETERMINATION OF THE QUALITATIVE INDEX OF THE EQUIPMENT FOR MICROBIAL
INOCULANTS APPLICATION
/
DETERMINAREA INDICILOR CALITATIVI DE LUCRU AI ECHIPAMENTULUI PENTRU
APLICAT INOCULANI MICROBIENI

MSc. Eng. Drago Manea, Dr. Eng. Iosif Cojocaru, Dr. Eng. Eugen Marin
- INMA Bucharest -

Abstract: The equipment for microbial inoculants application
is designed to the modern technology of sowing and
inoculating hoeing plants and vegetables, being used to
apply a targeted suspension of bacteria inoculated in the
best area for rhizosphere colonization for improve plants
nutrition, protection, stimulation and soil structure. This
paper presents the results obtained at the tests
accomplished in laboratory conditions of the equipment for
microbial inoculants application INOC, which has been
designed, realized and tested at INMA Bucharest.
Performing the laboratory tests it have been determined
following qualitative working index: pump debit, nozzles
debit, substance norms, stirring system efficiency.

Keywords: Microbial Inoculants, Equipment, Test,
Qualitative Working Index.

1. INTRODUCTION
The equipment is designed for microbial inoculants
application in hoeing plants and vegetables plants. Because
at present in exploitation, for setting up the main crops
whereon apply microbial inoculants (ex. soya, pea, bean,
chick pea, tick bean), there are used in the main the sowing
machines as SPC type, the equipment which has been
designed, realized and tested by INMA Bucharest works
attached to this kind of machine, having as energy source
the 65 HP tractors. This equipment accomplishes the
targeted application of the inoculum bacteria suspension and
allows, in the same time with the sowing process, the
radiculosphere inoculation (the radiculosphere is the area
where the small plant risen from seed will grow). Also, this
allows to eliminate the technical problems connected with
the seed treatment with inoculants, for example: low bio-
compatibility with other products used for seed treatment,
the high mortality of bacteria on the seeds surface because
of drying, of the exposure to the solar radiation and of
various handlings.
The equipment for microbial inoculants application INOC
presented in figure no. 1, is carried while working and has
the following main subassemblies: two liquid tanks attached
on the machine frame through mounting supports, one filter,
a liquid pump driven with a hydraulic engine, a pressure
controller, two hydraulic stirrers, pipes, nozzles for the
inoculant liquid application.
Rezumat: Echipamentul pentru aplicarea inoculanilor
microbieni este destinat tehnologiei moderne de
semnat i inoculat culturi de plante pritoare i
leguminoase pentru boabe, fiind utilizat la aplicarea intit a
suspensiei de bacterii inoculante n cea mai bun zon pentru
colonizarea rizosferei pentru mbuntirea nutriiei, proteciei,
stimulrii plantelor i a structurii solului. Lucrarea prezint
rezultatele obinute la experimentrile efectuate n condiii de
laborator a echipamentului pentru aplicarea inoculanilor
microbieni INOC, care a fost proiectat, realizat i testat de INMA
Bucureti. n urma experimentrilor efectuate s-au determinat
urmtorii indici calitativi de lucru: debitul pompei, debitul prin
duze, normele de substan, eficacitatea sistemului de agitare.

Cuvinte cheie: inoculani microbieni, echipament, testare,
indici calitativi de lucru.

1. INTRODUCERE
Echipamentul este destinat aplicrii inoculanilor
microbieni n culturi de plante pritoare i leguminoase
pentru boabe. Deoarece la ora actual n exploatare,
pentru nfiinarea principalelor culturi la care se aplic
inoculani microbieni (soia, mazre, fasole, nut, bob),
sunt utilizate cu preponderen semntorile tip SPC,
echipamentul care a fost proiectat, realizat i testat de
INMA Bucureti lucreaz ataat acestui tip de main, n
agregat cu tractoarele de 65 CP pe roi. Acest
echipament realizeaz aplicarea intit a suspensiei de
bacterii inoculante i permite, concomitent cu semnatul,
inocularea radiculosferei (adic a zonei n care se va
dezvolta plantula rezultat din smn). Totodat,
acesta permite eliminarea problemelor tehnice asociate
cu tratamentul seminei cu inoculani (biocompatibilitate
sczut cu alte produse folosite pentru tratarea seminei;
mortalitatea ridicat a bacteriilor de pe suprafaa
seminelor tratate datorit uscrii, expunerii la radiaia
solar i diferitelor manipulri ale seminelor etc.).
Echipamentul pentru aplicarea inoculanilor microbieni
INOC prezentat n figura 1, este de tipul purtat n lucru i are n
componen urmtoarele subansambluri principale: dou
rezervoare pentru lichid montate pe cadrul semntorii prin
intermediul unor supori, un filtru, o pomp de lichid
acionat de un motor hidraulic, un distribuitor, dou
agitatoare hidraulice, furtune i duze de aplicare a
lichidului inocul.

Fig. 1 - The equipment for microbial inoculant application attached to the sowing machine SPC6 /
Echipamentul pentru aplicarea inoculanilor microbieni ataat semntorii SPC 6


33
2. TESTS IN LABORATORY CONDITIONS OF THE
EQUIPMENT FOR MICROBIAL INOCULANTS
APPLICATION
The test in laboratory conditions of the equipment
for microbial inoculants application INOC has been made
at INMA Bucharest location.
The preparation for tests of the equipment for microbial
inoculants application INOC consisted in the following actions
requested for determination the qualitative working
index:
pump do not have to operate with rhythmic variations
of the liquid;
pump must be sealed, it doesnt have to drip liquid;
the liquid tank and the charging hole must be sealed
with a cover which doesnt open itself;
in the charging hole must be a clean sieve having
holes less than 2 mm;
the control device informations (pressure, debit,
speed) must be in the operator field of vision or they
must be exactly red of the operator from its place
(chair);
all the metering devices, the control, pressure and/or
debit adjustment devices must work without fail and
be sealed;
inspection the operation mode of the distribution controls;
the control parts which must be handled during the
operation of the inoculant application must be situated
that during working to be easy to reach and to handle;
the manometer scale must be visible and adequate to
the working pressure area used;
the precision limit of the manometer must be of:
- 0,2 bar for pressures between 1 and 8 bar;
- 0,5 bari for pressures between 8 and 20 bar;
- 1,0 bari for pressures higher than 20 bar.
the pipes (hoses) must be sealed at the maximum
working speed;
the pipes must be situated (posted) that dont emerge
bends or parts in friction, which may take off the pipe,
making visible the layer of reinforcement (textile);
the minimum radius of curvature must fits to the
manufacturer indications;
in working position, its not allowed the pipes to be
along the drops jet;
on the pressure joint (upset) of the pump must be at
least one filter;
the filter must be immaculate; the holes dimension
must be in accordance with the nozzles and to
comply with the indications given by the nozzles
manufacturer;
the operator must have the possibility to see the filter
clogging and the filter cell must be easy to get at;
the closing device (valve) must allow filter to be
cleaned with the liquid tank filled till the nominal
volume, without losing more liquid than is inside filter
and intake pipe (joint);
the filter cell must be detachable;
the control of the fitting mode for the nozzles supports;
all nozzles attached on the sowing sections must be
identical (as type, size, material and manufacturer);
all the other parts (nozzles filters, antidropping
devices) must be similar;
closing the under pressure liquid, the dropped liquid
quantity must not exceed 2 ml during 5 minutes;
the nozzles are not allowed to drop after liquid
application stop; after 5 seconds dropping is not
allowed;
control of the operating mode of nozzles for inoculant
application and correction of adjustments;
test in laboratory field conditions for determine the
constructive and functional parameters of the
2. EXPERIMENTAREA N CONDIII DE LABORATOR A
ECHIPAMETULUI PENTRU APLICAT INOCULANI
MICROBIENI
ncercarea n condiii de laborator a echipamentului
pentru aplicat inoculani microbieni INOC a fost efectuat la
sediul INMA Bucureti.
Pregtirea pentru experimentri a echipamentului INOC
a constat n efectuarea urmtoarelor operaiuni necesare n
vederea determinrii indicilor calitativi de lucru:
pompa nu are voie s produc pulsaii vizibile (ale
lichidului);
pompa trebuie s fie etan, nu are voie s picure lichid;
rezervorul i gura de umplere trebuie s fie etaneizate cu
un capac care s nu se deschid de la sine;
n gura de umplere trebuie s se gseasc o sit n stare
impecabil cu orificii mai mici de 2 mm;
indicaiile aparaturii de control (presiune, debit, vitez)
trebuie s se afle n cmpul vizual al operatorului sau s
poate fi citite cu exactitate de acesta de la locul su (scaun);
toate instrumentele (componentele) de msur, dispozitivele
de comand, de reglare a presiunii i/sau debitului trebuie
s funcioneze impecabil i s fie etane;
verificarea modului de funcionare a comenzilor distribuitorului;
piesele de comand care trebuiesc mnuite n timpul operaiunii
de aplicare a lichidului inocul, trebuie s fie astfel poziionate
nct n timpul aplicrii s fie uor accesibile i manipulabile;
diviziunile scalei manometrului trebuie s fie bine vizibile i
corespunztoare domeniului de presiune de lucru folosit;
tolerana de precizie a manometrului trebuie s fie:
- 0,2 bari pentru presiuni cuprinse ntre 1 i 8 bari;
- 0,5 bari pentru presiuni cuprinse ntre 8 i 20 bari;
- 1,0 bari pentru presiuni mai mari de 20 bari.
conductele (furtunurile) trebuie s fie etane la presiunea
maxim de lucru;
furtunurile trebuie s fie astfel amplasate (poziionate) nct s nu
apar ndoituri sau poriuni supuse frecrii, care pot s
uzeze furtunul fcnd vizibil stratul interior de armtur (estur);
raza minim de curbur trebuie s corespund indicaiilor
furnizorului;
n poziie de lucru, nu este permis ca furtunurile se se
gseasc pe direcia jetului de picturi;
pe racordul de presiune (refulare) al pompei trebuie s se
gseasc cel puin un filtru;
filtrul trebuie s fie n stare impecabil; dimensiunea
ochiurilor trebuie s se coreleze cu duzele folosite i s
corespund cu indicaiile date de productorul duzelor;
operatorul trebuie s aib posibilitatea sesizrii nfundrii
filtrului, iar elementul filtrant s fie uor accesibil;
dispozitivul de nchidere (robinetul), trebuie s permit
curirea filtrului cu rezervorul plin pn la volumul
nominal, fr a se pierde mai mult lichid dect cel existent n
carcasa filtrului i n conducta (racordul) de aspiraie;
elementul filtrant trebuie s fie schimbabil;
verificarea modului de montaj a suporilor duzelor;
toate duzele montate pe seciile de semnat trebuie s fie
identice (ca i tip, mrime, material i productor);
toate celelalte componente (filtre de duz, dispozitive
antipicurare) trebuie s fie similare;
la nchiderea accesului lichidului sub presiune, cantitatea de
lichid scurs nu trebuie s depeasc 2 ml, n timp de 5 min;
duzele nu au voie s picure dup oprirea stropirii. la 5
secunde dup dispariia jetului lenticular nu este permis
picurarea.
verificarea modului de funcionare a duzelor de aplicare a
lichidului i eventual corectarea reglajelor efectuate;
experimentarea n condiii de laborator - cmp n vederea
determinrii parametrilor constructivi i funcionali ai
echipamentului.

Pregtirea pentru experimentri a standului de ncercri

34
equipment.

Preparation for tests of the experimental stand
Tests in laboratory conditions for determine the
qualitative working index of the equipment for microbial
inoculants application INOC have been accomplished
on the stand presented in figure 2, which endows the
DITRMA INMA Laboratory and has following main
components:
- the frame in welding structure, provided with a
system for board sliding and fixing;
- three-phase electric engine with the power of 7,5 kW
and rotative speed of 1440 rot/min;
- reducer, C 21 2 P P132 type, ratio 2,6;
- cardan drive.
Experimentrile n condiii de laborator pentru
determinarea indicilor calitativi de lucru ai echipamentului
pentru aplicat inoculani microbieni INOC s-au efectuat pe
standul prezentat n figura 2, aflat n dotarea Laboratorului
DITRMA - INMA, care se compune n principal din urmtoarele
echipamente:
- cadrul, format din profile sudate, prevzut cu sistem de
culisare i fixare n pardoseal;
- motor electric trifazat cu puterea de 7,5 kW i turaia
1440 rot/min;
- reductor, tip C 21 2 P P132, raport de transmisie 2,6;
- transmisie cardanic.

Fig. 2 - The experimental stand used / Standul de ncercri utilizat:
1 frame / cadrul; 2 electric engine / motor electric; 3 reducer / reductor; 4 cardanic drive / transmisie cardanic

The preparation of experimental stand for tests
consisted in adjustments and fixing the support elements of
the frame, cardanic drive coupling at the pump driving axle
and the inspection of cardanic drive cover to be adequate
fixed, the inspection of joints for the electric engine, the
electric network connection and the inspection of its
integrity and operation. There have been accomplished
trainings for all operators safety work.
Assurance of the instrumentation and metering devices
For the tests accomplishment the team used following
metering devices which are adequate calibrated and
adjusted:
- manometer of 6 bar, uncertainty of 0,008 bar (fig. 3, a);
- liquid container for the nozzles;
- measuring cylinders for liquid, 1000 ml (fig. 3, b);
- mechanical chronometer with the uncertainty of 0,4 s
(fig. 3, c);
- revmeter with the uncertainty of 2 rot/min.
Pregtirea standului pentru experimentri a constat n
efectuarea reglajelor i fixarea elementelor de sprijin a cadrului,
cuplarea transmisiei cardanice la arborele de antrenare al
pompei i verificarea ca aprtoarea transmisiei cardanice s
fie montat n stare corespunztoare, verificarea conexiunilor
pentru acionarea motorului electric, cuplarea la reeaua electric i
verificarea integritii i funcionrii lui. Au fost efectuate
instructaje pentru securitatea muncii tuturor operatorilor.
Asigurarea aparaturii i a dispozitivelor de msurare
Pentru efectuarea experimentrilor colectivul de
ncercri a utilizat urmtoarele mijloace de msur
etalonate i reglate n mod corespunztor:
- manometru de 6 bar incertitudine de 0,008 bar (fig. 3, a);
- recipient colector pentru duze;
- cilindrii gradai pentru msurarea lichidului, 1000 ml
(fig. 3, b);
- cronometru mecanic cu incertitudinea de 0,4 sec (fig. 3, c);
- turometru cu incertitudinea de 2 rot/min.

a) b) c)
Fig. 3 - Metering devices / Dispozitive de msurare
a) manometer 6 bar / manometru 6 bar; b) measuring cylinder 1000 ml / cilindru gradat 1000 ml; c) mechanical chronometer / cronometru mecanic

3. RESULTS OBTAINED AT TESTS IN LABORATORY
CONDITIONS
At the tests in laboratory conditions of the equipment for
microbial inoculants application INOC have been
determined following qualitative working index:
pump debit;
nozzles debit;
liquid norms;
stirring system efficiency.
In figure 4 there is presented the equipment for microbial
inoculants application INOC attached to the sowing
3. REZULTATE OBINUTE LA EXPERIMENTRILE N
CONDIII DE LABORATOR
La experimentrile n condiii de laborator a
echipamentului pentru aplicat inoculani microbieni INOC
s-au determinat urmtorii indici calitativi de lucru:
debitul pompei;
debitul prin duze;
normele de substan;
eficacitatea sistemului de agitare.
n figura 4 este prezentat echipamentul pentru aplicat
inoculani microbieni INOC ataat semntorii SPC 6 n
1
2
3
4

35
machine SPC 6 during tests in laboratory conditions.
Pump debit has been determined using volumetric
method, at the entrance rotative speed of 540 rot/min.
Tests have been accomplished whith the pump working at
pressures between 0 and 5 bar.
timpul experimentrilor n condiii de laborator.
Debitul pompei s-a determinat prin metoda volumetric,
la turaia de intrare de 540 rot/min. Probele s-au efectuat
n condiiile n care pompa lucreaz pe main la
presiuni de lucru cuprinse ntre 0 i 5 bar.

Fig. 4 - The INOC equipment during tests on experimental stand /
Echipamentul INOC n timpul experimentrilor pe stand

In table 1 there are presented the measurements
results of the liquid debits at the chosen working pressures.
n tabelul 1 sunt prezentate rezultatele msurtorilor
debitelor de lichid la presiunile de lucru alese.

Table 1
Specifications /
Specificaii
Measured values /
Valori msurate [l/min]
Rot. speed / Turaia
[rot/min]
Pressure / Presiunea
[bar]
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
Average /
Media
[l/min]
0,5 14,5 14,8 14,5 14,9 15 14,7
1,0 12,9 13,3 13,7 13,5 13,5 13,3
1,5 11,7 11,1 12,0 11,5 11,8 11,6
2,0 9,8 10,2 10,6 9,9 10,4 10,1
2,5 7,2 7,5 7,6 7,1 7,9 7,4
540
3,0 4,8 5,0 4,9 5,1 5,0 4,9

Following tests resulted that pump aqccomplished liquid
debits between 4,9 and 14,7 l/min at pressures between 0
and 3 bar and a rotative speed of 540 rot/min, these
values comply with the equipment functional requests.
The average values of the liquid debit are presented
in table 2, and the diagram of its variation in terms of
pressure is presented in figure 5.
A rezultat c pompa realizeaz debite de lichid
cuprinse ntre 4,9 i 14,7 l/min la presiuni cuprinse ntre
0 i 3 bar i o turaie de 540 rot/min., aceste valori
satisfcnd cerinele funcionale ale echipamentului.
Valorile medii intermediare ale debitului de lichid sunt
prezentate n tabelul 2, iar aspectul grafic al variaiei
acestuia funcie de presiune este prezentat n figura 5.

Table 2

0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
pressure [bar]
d
e
b
i
t

(
l
/
m
i
n
)

Fig. 5 - Diagram of the debit variation in terms of pressure / Reprezentarea grafic a variaiei debitului funcie de presiune

Working pressure
Presiunea de lucru [bar]
0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3
Liquid debit /
Debitul de lichid [l/min]
14,7 13,3 11,6 10,1 7,4 4,9
Nozzles debit has been determined using volumetric
method for each nozzle, collecting the liquid through every
nozzle during 1 minute, at the same pressures for pump debit
determination, that means: 0,5; 1; 1,5; 2; 2,5 and 3 bar. The
working pressure has been written on the manometer
attached to the equipment. There has been determined the
average value of the debit on each nozzle. This last value
doesnt have to deviate with more than 10% with the
nominal debit indicated by the nozzle manufacturer. For each
Debitul prin duze s-a determinat prin metoda volumetric
pentru fiecare duz n parte, colectnd lichidul debitat
prin fiecare duz n interval de 1 minut, la presiunile la care s-
au fcut determinrile pentru debitul pompei, respectiv: 0,5;
1; 1,5; 2; 2,5 i 3 bar. Presiunea de lucru a fost citit la
manometrul montat pe echipament. S-a determinat apoi
valoarea medie a debitului pe fiecare duz n parte. Aceast
ultim valoare nu are voie s se abat cu mai mult de 10%
fa de debitul nominal indicat de productorul (fabricantul)

36
pressure have been accomplished three measurements. The
liquid quantity in liters, which flows through nozzle during 1
minute, is the real debit through that nozzle.
In table 3 there are presented the measurements results
helping with on determined the debit through nozzles.
duzei. Pentru fiecare presiune s-au fcut 3 msurtori.
Cantitatea de lichid exprimat n litri, care se scurge prin duz n
timp de 1 minut, reprezint debitul real prin duza respectiv.
n tabelul 3 sunt prezentate rezultatele msurtorilor cu ajutorul
crora s-a determinat debitul prin duze i coeficientul de debit.

Table 3
Specifications /
Specificaii
Measured values /
Valori msurate [l/min]
Nozzle type /
Tipul duzei
Pressure /
Presiune [bar]
Nozzle no./
Nr. duz
R1 R2 R3
Nozzle debit /
Debit duz
[l/min]
1 0,515 0,520 0,510 0,515
2 0,510 0,500 0,510 0,507
3 0,590 0,520 0,540 0,550
4 0,450 0,480 0,460 0,463
5 0,480 0,500 0,510 0,497
0,5
6 0,515 0,530 0,500 0,515
1 0,590 0,630 0,610 0,610
2 0,590 0,650 0,630 0,623
3 0,720 0,700 0,680 0,700
4 0,600 0,640 0,620 0,620
5 0,530 0,550 0,580 0,553
1
6 0,670 0,690 0,650 0,670
1 0,750 0,720 0,760 0,743
2 0,680 0,660 0,690 0,677
3 0,750 0,730 0,750 0,743
4 0,700 0,760 0,720 0,727
5 0,750 0,740 0,780 0,757
1,5
6 0,810 0,780 0,770 0,787
1 1,100 0,990 1,050 1,047
2 0,880 0,950 0,960 0,930
3 0,960 0,980 1,050 0,997
4 0,930 0,980 0,950 0,953
5 1,100 1,000 1,050 1,050
2
6 1,100 0,990 1,200 1,097
1 1,180 1,110 1,130 1,140
2 1,060 1,120 1,060 1,080
3 1,180 1,200 1,150 1,177
4 1,000 1,050 1,100 1,050
5 1,130 1,180 1,100 1,137
2,5
6 1,160 1,200 1,160 1,173
1 1,210 1,210 1,230 1,217
2 1,170 1,210 1,190 1,190
3 1,270 1,230 1,200 1,233
4 1,240 1,210 1,250 1,233
5 1,210 1,220 1,190 1,207
ARAG
0,3
3
6 1,230 1,210 1,200 1,213

Flow of liquid through the nozzle ranged from 0463 l /
min at 0.5 bar pressure and 1233 l / min at 3 bar pressure.
Change the graphics of flow depending on the nozzle
pressure is shown in figure 6.

Debitele de lichid prin duze sunt cuprinse ntre 0,463
l/min la presiunea 0,5 bar i 1,233 l/min la presiunea 3
bar. Aspectul grafic al variaiei debitului prin duze funcie de
presiune este prezentat n figura 6.

0,400
0,500
0,600
0,700
0,800
0,900
1,000
1,100
1,200
1,300
0,5
presiune [bar]
d
e
b
i
t

[
l
/
m
i
n
]
Duza 1 Duza 2 Duza 3 Duza 4 Duza 5 Duza 6

Fig. 6 - Graphical representation of variation of flow depending on the nozzle pressure /
Reprezentarea grafic a variaiei debitului prin duze funcie de presiune

37
Norms of liquid are based on the flow of liquid of width
and speed of movement using the relation:
N = 60 q /0,1 L v [l/ha], where:
N = liquid norm [l/ha];
q = liquid debit [l/min];
L = equipment working width [m];
v = equipment working speed [km/h].
In laboratory on determined the flow, colecting
substance that is leaking through the nozzles equipment for
1 minute. Determinations were made in 3 rehearsals, the
results of measurements are presented in table 4.
Normele de lichid se determin n funcie de debitul de
lichid, de limea de lucru i viteza de deplasare folosind
relaia: N = 60 q /0,1 L.V [l/ha], unde:
N = norma de lichid [l/ha];
q = debitul de lichid [l/min];
L = limea de lucru a mainii [m];
v = viteza de lucru a mainii [km/h].
n laborator s-a determinat debitul, colectnd substana
care se scurge prin duzele echipamentului timp de 1 minut.
Determinrile s-au fcut n 3 repetiii, rezultatele
msurtorilor fiind prezentate n tabelul 4.

Table 4
Specifications / Specificaii
Measured values of debit /
Valori msurate ale debitului [l/min]
Pressure / Presiunea [bar] R1 R2 R3 Average / Media
Liquid norm /
Norma de lichid [l/ha]
0,5 3,060 3,050 3,030 3,040 91,20
1 3,700 3,860 3,770 3,776 113,28
1,5 4,440 4,390 4,470 4,433 132,99
2 6,070 5,890 6,260 6,073 182,19
2,5 6,710 6,860 6,700 6,756 202,68
3 7,330 7,290 7,260 7,293 218,79

Provided with nozzle ARAG 0,3, the equipment
accomplishes liquid norms between 91,20 and 218,79 l/ha
for working pressures between 0,5 and 3 bar at a average
speed of movement of the sowing aggregate of 7 km/h.
Standard liquid values are presented in table 4, the
graphics and the variation with pressure is shown in
Figure 7.
Prevzut cu duze ARAG, 0,3, echipamentul realizeaz
norme de lichid cuprinse ntre 91,20 i 218,79 l/ha pentru
presiuni de lucru cuprinse ntre 0,5 i 3 bar, la o vitez
medie de deplasare a agregatului de semnat de 7 km/h.
Valorile normei de lichid sunt prezentate n tabelul 4,
iar aspectul grafic al variaiei acesteia cu presiunea este
prezentat n figura 7.
0
50
100
150
200
250
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
pressure [bar]
l
i
q
u
i
d

n
o
r
m

[
l
/
h
a
]

Fig. 7 - Graphical representation of the variation liquid norm depending on pressure /
Reprezentarea grafic a variaiei normei de lichid funcie de presiune

Effectiveness of stirring
To avoid variations in the concentration of illegal liquid
inocul equipment is provided with a mixing system
composed of two ejector (Venturi tube), fig. 8, placed at
the bottom of the tank, parallel to the longitudinal axis
thereof and fed through a shunt directly from the
distributor.
Eficacitatea sistemului de agitare
Pentru a evita variaiile nepermise ale concentraiei
lichidului inocul, echipamentul este prevzut cu un sistem
de agitare alctuit din dou ejectoare (tub Venturi), fig. 8,
plasate n partea de jos a rezervoarelor, paralel cu axa
longitudinal a acestora i alimentate printr-o derivaie
direct de la distribuitor.

Fig. 8 - Hydraulic agitator / Agitator hidraulic

The agitators rise of the liquid reservoir stirring all the
time and thus maintaining a constant concentration of
liquid inocul, over 85%. To determine the parameters of
shaking used turdacupral a suspension of 3% which was
left in tanks for 2 hours at rest, during which time the
suspension was deposited in the bottom of the tank. At the
end of this period was the agitation system in operation for
3 minutes, after which the liquid collected by the spray
nozzles. Concentration determined after the operation and
Agitatoarele antreneaz lichidul din rezervor, agitndu-l tot
timpul i meninnd astfel o concentraie constant a lichidului
inocul, peste 85%. Pentru determinarea parametrilor sistemului
de agitare s-a folosit o suspensie de turdacupral 3%-care s-a
lsat n rezervoare timp de 2 ore n repaus, timp n care
suspensia s-a depus n partea de jos a rezervoarelor. La
sfritul acestei perioade s-a pus sistemul de agitaie n
funciune timp de 3 minute, dup care s-a colectat lichidul
prin duzele de pulverizare. Concentraia determinat dup perioada

38
rest 3 minutes of the agitation was not greater than 5%
of the training.

4. CONCLUSIONS
Following experiments carried out with equipment for
applied microbial inoculants INOC have the following
result:
It is simply designed and easy to carry out all
agrotechnical requirements imposed to microbial
inoculants application at hoeing plants and grain
legumes;
Pump liquid flow of liquid carried out between 4,9 and
14,7 l/min at pressures of 0,53 bar and rotative speeds
of 540 rpm, these values satisfy functional requirements
of equipment;
Equipment was provided with ARAG 0,3 nozzles;
Nozzles debits were between 0,463 l/min and 1,233
l/min at pressures of between 0,5 - 3 bar;
Provided with nozzles ARAG, 0,3, made the fluid
norms between 91,20 and 218,79 l/ha for working
pressures between 0,5 and 3 bar at a average speed of
movement of the sowing aggregate 7 km/h and meets
agrotechnical requests to all schemes of work;
The effectiveness of mixing of liquid inocul is over 85%.
The technical equipment ensures parameters at high
quality work, safe operating, contains constructive
solutions for the major sub-assemblies to the best
products on the global plan and technological solutions for
component parts leading to savings in material and
manufacturing at a low table equipment, so at a reduced
cost of manufacture.
de repaus i funcionare de 3 minute a sistemului de agitaie
nu a fost mai mare de 5% din concentraia de pregtire.

4. CONCLUZII
n urma experimentrilor efectuate cu echipamentul pentru
aplicat inoculani microbieini INOC, au rezultat
urmtoarele:
Este simplu, uor de deservit i realizeaz toate
cerinele agrotehnice impuse pentru aplicarea
inoculanilor microbieni la culturi de plante pritoare i
leguminoase pentru boabe;
Pompa de lichid realizeaz debite de lichid cuprinse ntre 4,9
i 14,7 l/min la presiuni de 0,53 bar i turaii de 540 rot/min,
aceste valori satisfcnd cerinele funcionale ale echipamentului;
Echipamentul a fost prevzut cu duze ARAG 0,3 ;
Debitele duzelor

au fost cuprinse ntre 0,463 l/min i
1,233 l/min la presiuni de lucru cuprinse ntre 0,53 bar;
Prevzut cu duze ARAG, 0,3, echipamentul realizeaz
norme de lichid cuprinse ntre 91,20 i 218,79 l/ha pentru
presiuni de lucru cuprinse ntre 0,5 i 3 bar, la o vitez medie
de deplasare a agregatului de semnat de 7 km/h i ndeplinete
cerinele agrotehnice la toate regimurile de lucru;
Eficacitatea sistemului de agitare a lichidului inocul este
de peste 85%.
Echipamentul tehnic asigur parametrii calitativi de lucru
superiori, siguran n exploatare, conine soluii constructive
pentru principalele subansambluri la nivelul celor mai bune
produse similare existente pe plan mondial i soluii
tehnologice pentru piesele componente care conduc la
economii de material n fabricaie i la o mas redus a
echipamentului, deci la un cost de fabricaie redus.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Manea D., Cojocaru I., Pirn I., Report Testing, Phase
no. 3, Experimentation equipment for applying microbial
inoculants, Project: Inoculated Microbial Systems for
Sustainable Agriculture, contract no. 31-048 / 14.09.2007.

BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Manea D., Cojocaru I., Pirn I., Raport de experimentare, faza nr.
3, Experimentarea echipamentului pentru aplicarea inoculanilor
microbieni, proiectul Inoculani microbieni pentru sisteme
de agricultur durabil, contract nr. 31-048 / 14.09.2007.


39

RESEARCHES REGARDING THE MANUFACTURING OF A MACHINE
FOR CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS AND AMENDMENTS SPREADING, MA-3.6
/
CERCETRI PRIVIND REALIZAREA UNEI MAINI PENTRU ADMINISTRAT
NGRMINTE CHIMICE I AMENDAMENTE, MA-3,6

Dr.ing. Lucreia POPA, Ing. Vasilica TEFAN - INMA Bucureti
Ing. Livian Victor ANDREI, Ing. Gicu GURAN - SC MAT SA Craiova

Abstract: The machine for spreading chemical fertilizers
and amendments, MA-3,6, is designed for transporting and
spreading fertilizers and amendments in field crops.The
machine works in aggregate with over 45 HP tractors. The
machine MA-3,6 contributes to diversifying the range of
machines designed tor chemical fertilizing and soil quality
improvement and spreadings low quantities of mineral
fertilizers, according to the actul orientations regarding the
environmental protection.

Keywords: chemical fertilizer process .
Rezumat: Maina pentru administrat ngrminte chimice
i amendamente, MA-3,6, este destinat transportului i
mprtierii ngrmintelor chimice i amendamentelor n
culturile de cmp. Maina lucreaz n agregat cu tractoare
avnd puterea de minim 45 CP. Maina MA-3,6 contribuie
la diversificarea gamei de maini destinate fertilizrii
chimice i ameliorrii calitilor solului i asigur norme de
mprtiere reduse, n conformitate cu orientrile actuale
privind protecia mediului.

Cuvinte cheie: fertilizare cu ngrminte chimice

1. GENERALITIES
For the plants germination, the fertility of the soil has un
important function, which it means the capacity of the soil to
offer, all over the germination period, permanently and
simultaneously, water and nourishing substances. Because
of the frequent cultivation on the same surfaces, the fertility
of the soil decreases, therefore the men intervention is
necessary. For increasing the fertility of the soil, the
sustainable agriculture advices the utilisation of the manure,
but this is not possible all the time, because the manure
doesnt exist enough, being very difficult to obtain them.
Consequently, it is necessary to use the chemical fertilizers,
but only keeping that under a strict control, spreading the
minimum quantity, according to the agro technical
requirements.
Chemical fertilizers must fulfil certain agro technical
requirements such us:
to spread granulates, crystal or powder fertilizers,
granulates organic-mineral fertilizers and amendments under
7 mm grain, their humidity being under the standard
values;
to provide the uniformity of chemical fertilizers and
amendments spreading, both on length and width of the
spreading area, the maximum deviation from the medium
value must be under 15%;
to spread quantities according to the standards, with
35% deviation;
during the technological process, the spreaders mustnt
break the granulates fertilizers.

2. DESCRIPTION OF THE SPREADER MA 3,6
According to RNTR 2, the machine MA 3.6 is a rigid hitch
trailer.
The main subassemblies of the spreading machine are:
- assembled frame;
- mechanism for act the conveyer;
- centrifugal spreading device;
- bin;
- assembled beam;
- electrical installation;
- single axle;
- inertial principal braking system;
- mechanical parking braking system;
- transport conveyor;
- other assemblies and fits elements.
1. CONSIDERAII GENERALE
Pentru dezvoltarea corespunztoare a plantelor, un rol
deosebit l are solul, n principal capacitatea acestuia de a fi
fertil, de a pune la dispoziia plantelor, n tot timpul vegetaiei,
permanent i simultan, substane nutritive i ap. Datorit cultivrii
repetate pe aceleai suprafee, fertilitatea solului se reduce,
fiind necesar intervenia omului. Agricultura durabil
prevede utilizarea ngrmintelor organice pentru
creterea fertilitii solului, dar acest lucru nu este posibil,
deoarece ngrmintele organice nu se gsesc n cantiti
suficiente, fiind foarte greu de obinut. De aceea, este necesar
aplicarea n continuare a fertilizrii cu ngrminte minerale,
numai c acest lucru trebuie realizat n regim controlat, cu
administrarea unor norme minime, n concordan cu cerinele
agrotehnice.
Mainile de fertilizat trebuie s ndeplineasc anumite
cerine agrotehnice i anume:
s distribuie ngrminte n form granulat, cristalizat sau
pulbere, ngrminte organo-minerale granulate i amendamente
cu granulaia la dimensiunea maxim de 7 mm, a cror
umiditate s nu depeasc valorile prevzute n norme;
s asigure distribuirea uniform a ngrmintelor i
amendamentelor, att pe lungimea de distribuie ct i
pe lime, abaterea maxim admis de la valoarea
medie fiind de max.15%;
s asigure respectarea normelor impuse cu abateri de
35% din norm;
pe parcursul procesului tehnologic efectuat de maini
s nu se produc spargerea granulelor.

2. DESCRIEREA MAINII MA 3,6
Maina MA-3,6, se ncadreaz conform RNTR 2, n
categoria remorc cu proap rigid.
Principalele subansambluri componente ale mainii sunt:
- asiu asamblat,
- mecanism de acionare transportor,
- aparat pentru mprtiere centrifugal,
- buncr,
- travers asamblat,
- instalaie electric,
- tren de roi asamblat,
- sistem de frnare prin inerie,
- frn de parcare mecanica,
- band de transport,
- alte elemente de asamblare i fixare.

40

Fig.1 - Spreading machine for chemical fertilizers, MA 3.6 /
Maina pentru administrat ingrasaminte chimice granulate MA 3,6

The assembled chassis comprises welded frame, eye
hitch and nuts for fixing the hitchs eye. The welded
chassis is made by longerons and beams, realized by
special standardized profiles. The hitch is mounted in
front of the chassis and it is provided by a trailer eye,
diameter 50+0.8, torus section, according to SR ISO 5692.
asiul asamblat are n componen asiul sudat, ochiul de
remorcare i piuliele de fixare a ochiului de remorcare. asiul
sudat este o construcie metalic sudat, alctuit din lonjeroane
i traverse, realizate din profile speciale standardizate. Proapul
se afl la partea inferioar a cadrului i este prevzut cu un ochi
de remorcare 50+0,8 cu seciune toric, conform SR ISO 5692.

Fig.2 - Main frame / Sasiul

The acting device of the conveyor is compounded by a
special iron pressing wheel, acted from the left transport
wheel. The moving is transferred by a universal coupling
to an axle, and than, by a transmission chain, at the drive
axle of the conveyor. For maintaining the spreading
uniformity, according to the agricultural norms, the
movement has been taken from the transport wheel,
therefore the quantity of the fertilizers which is spread, to
be in correlation with the speed of the machine.
During the spreading work, the mechanism is
maintained in contact with the transport wheel, by traction
helicoidally spring.
During the transport, for uncoupling the pressing wheel
and to break off the alimentation of the spreading device, it is
mounted a plunger hydraulic cylinder, by this cylinder the
Mecanismul de acionare a transportorului are n componen
o roat presoare de construcie metalic special, care preia
micarea de la roata de transport din stnga, micare ce se
transmite prin intermediul unei transmisii cardanice la un ax i
apoi prin intermediul unei transmisii cu lan la axul motric al benzii
transportoare. Pentru asigurarea uniformitii de mprtiere
conform cerinelor agrotehnice, micarea a fost preluat de la
roata motric a mainii, astfel nct cantitatea de ngrminte
distribuit s fie corelat cu viteza de deplasare a mainii.
n timpul lucrului, mecanismul este meninut n
contact cu roata de transport cu ajutorul unui arc elicoidal
de traciune.
La transport, n scopul decuplrii roii presoare i
ntreruperii alimentrii cu material a aparatului de
mprtiere, este prevzut un cilindru hidraulic tip plunjer

41
force of the spring is surmounted and the pressing wheel can
be moved away, in case of the movement between the fields
or between the charging place and the surface where the
fertilizers will be spread, because the transport speed is
higher than the work speed (transport speed=15 km/h work
speed = 8 km/h). On the same time, during the work, acting
this cylinder, it is possible to modify the pressing between
both wheels, avoid the slipping which can be appear
between the pressing wheel and the transport wheel.
In case that the worker forget to uncoupling the acting
mechanism and he move the machine backward, it is
mounted a single directional coupling to protect the
conveyor. This can stop the transmission of the rotation
movement of the pressing wheel to the driving axle of the
conveyor.
cu ajutorul cruia se nvinge fora din arc i se
ndeprteaz roata presoare, n cazul deplasrii ntre
sole sau de la punctul de ncrcarea pn la postaa ce
urmeaz a fi lucrat, viteza de deplasare fiind mai mare
dect n timpul lucrului (vtransport=15 km/h; vlucru=8 km/h).
Totodat, n timpul lucrului, prin acionarea acestui
cilindru se poate modifica presiunea de contact ntre cele
dou roi, evitndu-se apariia patinrii roii presoare pe
roata motric.
Pentru protejarea transportorului cu band n situaia
n care mecanizatorul uit s decupleze mecanismul de
acionare i se manevreaz maina ctre napoi, este
prevzut un cuplaj unisens cu clichet, ceea ce face ca
micarea de rotaie a roii presoare s nu mai fie
transmit la axul motric al benzii transportoare.
The centrifugal spreading device is mounted on the
back of the machine, by a joint screw-nut. It is possible to
modify the spreading width and the fertilizer norm,
modifying the angle of the aisles on the disc, in horizontal
plane, function the type of the fertilization (granulated or
powder, diameter of the granules, the volume weight etc.).
The acting is made by a universal coupling, taking the
movement from the tractors PTO. The rotation movement
is transferred by a multiplier group, mounted on the back
side of the machine.
Aparatul pentru mprtiere centrifugal se fixeaz pe buncr, la
partea posterioar a acestuia, cu ajutorul unor mbinri urub-
piuli. Se poate modifica astfel limea de mprtiere i implicit
norma de ngrminte la hectar, prin reglarea unghiului n plan
orizontal a paletelor pe disc, funcie de tipul ngrmntului
(granule sau pulverulente, diametrul granulelor , greutatea volumic).
Acionarea se face de la priza de putere a tractorului,
prin intermediul unei transmisii cardanice, ax intermediar
i caseta de antrenare fixat n partea din spate a
suportului buncrului.

Fig. 3 - Centrifugal spreader device / Aparatul de distribuie centrifugal

The bin of the machine is made of welded sheet iron,
the shape of the bin being truncated pyramid. It was
selected this shape, because the pitch of the walls allows
an easily flow of the fertilizers, the pith being according to
the natural talus angle of the fertilizers.
At the bottom of the bin, there is an iron sheet pail, in
this pail coulisses the conveyor.
Buncrul este o construcie metalic sudat, fiind confecionat
din tabl i avnd forma tronco-piramidal. S-a ales aceast form a
buncrului deoarece nclinarea pereilor buncrului permite
scurgerea cu uurin a materialului ncrcat, nclinarea fiind n
concordan cu unghiul de taluz natural al materialelor mprtiate.
La partea inferioar se afl o cuv confecionat tot din
tabl, pe care culiseaz banda transportoare.

Fig. 4 - Assembled bin / Buncr asamblat

To modify the fertilizers overflow transported by the
conveyor to the spreading device, at the backside of the
bin has been mounted a gate which allows the flow of the
fertilizer, the opening of the gate is obtained by the action
of a lever. On the other side of the gate, on the back wall
of the bin, there is a branch strip and on the gate there is
a needle. The correlation of these two elements, it is
Pentru modificarea debitului de material transportat de
band pe aparatul de mprtiere centrifugal, n partea
posterioar a buncrului a fost prevzut un uber prin care
se scurge materialul, deschiderea acestuia putnd fi reglat
cu ajutorul unei prghii. Pe partea lateral a uberului, pe
peretele posterior al buncrului, a fost montat o reglet
gradat iar pe uber se afl un ac indicator. Prin corelarea

42
possible to obtain the good-size of the fertilizer, function
with the type of the fertilizer and the necessity, according to
the agro technical conditions. The gate is acted by the
lever.
In order to detach the foreign objects, or the
agglomerated fertilizers or amendments, top of the bin
there is a sieve, foursquare holes.
The fertilizer which has been transported by the
conveyor is distributed on the spreading discs by a
deflector, mounted bottom of the bin, therefore the
fertilizer falling down in central area of the discs.
The conveyor. Bottom of the bin, inside, there is the
conveyor, made by special chains, with alveoli which
bring the movement of the fertilizers to the spreading
device.
The conveyor is conducted by a barrel mounted in
front side of the bin. For acting the conveyor, backside of
the conveyor there is a driving axle with chain wheels.
This axle takes the rotation movement, by a chain
transmission, from the acting mechanism situated on the
left of the machine.
celor dou se poate face o dozare corespunztoare a
materialului, funcie de tipul ngrmntului i de necesarul
determinat din condiiile agrotehnice. uberul este acionat cu
ajutorul unei prghii.
n scopul separrii corpurilor strine ori a fertilizatorilor
aglomerate sub form de bulgri, la partea superioar a
buncrului a fost prevzut o sit de cernere, cu guri ptrate.
Pentru dirijarea materialului adus de banda transportoare
pe discul de mprtiere, la partea inferioar a buncrului
este prevzut un deflector, astfel nct materialul s cad
pe discuri n zona central a acestora.
Banda de transport. La partea inferioar, n interiorul
buncrului, se afl banda transportoare, sub form de lan de
tip special, cu alveole ce fac posibil deplasarea materialului,
respectiv a ngrmintelor ctre aparatul de mprtiere.
Banda transportoare este ghidat la partea anterioar de
un tambur. Pentru antrenare, la partea posterioar a benzii
a fost prevzut un ax motric pe care sunt montate nite
roi de lan. Acest ax motric primete micarea, prin
intermediul unei transmisii cu lan, de la mecanismul de
acionare dispus pe partea stng a mainii.

Fig.5 - Conveyor / Banda de transport

The assembled beam makes the connection between
the bin and the chassis.
Traversa asamblat face legtura ntre buncr i asiu.

Fig.6 - Assembled beam / Traversa asamblata

Electrical installation. Because the machine moves
on the public roads to arrive at the spreading surfaces,
the machine compound an electrical installation, which
contains lighting and flashing lamps, according to the
rules concerning the displacement on the public roads,
added in Rules regarding the technical conditions which
must perform the road vehicles to be allowed in traffic on
the Romanian public roads RNTR 2 and which are in
accordance with the European rules.
The machine has a single axle.
The principal braking system is an inertial system,
acted by the inertia of the trailer, at the moment of the
tractors braking.
The inertial braking system is compound by a levers
assembly, a middle lever, joint parts, all of these reacting
under the action of the hitch eye, which coulisses inside
the bushes mounted on the chassis. This movement
displaces the levers of the braking system, which act the
principal brake of the braking system.

Instalaia electric. Deoarece maina se deplaseaz i pe
drumuri publice pentru a ajunge acolo unde trebuiesc distribute
ngrmintele, maina a fost prevzut cu instalaie electric
care are n componen elementele necesare iluminrii i
semnalizrii, n concordan cu cerinele reglementate de
normele interne privind circulaia pe drumurile publice cuprinse n
Reglementri privind condiiile tehnice pe care trebuie s
le ndeplineasc vehiculele rutiere n vederea admiterii n
circulaie pe drumurile publice din Romnia - RNTR-2 i
care sunt n concordan cu reglementrile UE.
Trenul de roi asamblat este de tip monoax.
Frna de serviciu a mainii este constituit dintr-un sistem
de frnare inerial, care este pus n funciune de ineria
remorcii n momentul frnrii tractorului.
Sistemul de frnare inerial este compus dintr-un ansamblu
de prghii, un cntar intermediar, elemente de articulaie, toate
acestea intrnd n funciune sub aciunea ochiului de remorcare
care culiseaz n interiorul unor buce fixate pe asiu i determinnd
acionarea prghiilor din componenta frnei trenului de rulare.

TECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
- Type ......................................................... semi mounted
CARACTERISTICI TEHNICE:
- Tipul mainii ..................................................... semipurtat

43
- Tractor of the aggregate ...................................... 45CP
- Effective mass, t ........................................................ 3,6
- Overall dimensions, mm
- Length ............................................................ 4420
- Width .............................................................. 1900
- Height ............................................................ 1945
- Spreading device ........................................... centrifugal,
with 2 discs and 4 aisles
- Acting of the spreading device .......... from tractors PTO
- Revolution speed at the discs, rot/min ...................... 729
- Spreading width, m ................................................. 618
- Spreading norm, kg/ha
- chemical fertilizers ................................... 50...1.000
- amendments ......................................... 80010.000
- Axle ................................................................ single axle
- Wheels ........................................................ 10.0/75-15.3
- Wheel track, mm ..................................................... 1625
- Wheelbase, mm ............................................ 35003600
- Conveyor ............................................. chain with alveoli
- Conveyors width, mm ............................................... 200
- Conveyer acting ................................ with friction wheel,
from the left movement wheel
- Speed, km/h
- transport ............................................................. 15
- work ............................................................ 6,258
- Tractorul din agregat ................................................ 45CP
- Masa util, t .................................................................... 3,6
- Dimensiunile de gabarit, mm
- Lungime ............................................................. 4420
- Lime ................................................................ 1900
- nlime............................................................... 1945
- Dispozitiv de mprtiere ................................... centrifugal,
cu 2 discuri cu 4 palete reglabile
- Acionare dispozitiv de mprtiere .. de la APP al tractorului
- Turaie la disc, rot/min................................................... 729
- Limea de mprtiere, m......................................... 618
- Norma de mprtiere, kg/ha
- ngrminte chimice ................................. 50...1.000
- amendamente ........................................ 800...10.000
- Tren de rulare......................................................... monoax
- Pneuri .............................................................. 10.0/75-15.3
- Ecartament, mm.......................................................... 1625
- Ampatament tren de rulare, mm....................... 3500...3600
- Transportor..........................................lan cu zale speciale
- Limea transportorului, mm.......................................... 200
- Acionare transportor ...........................cu roat de friciune,
de la roata de la transport stg.
- Viteza max.de deplasare, km/h
- n transport 15
- n lucru........................................................... 6,25...8

3. CONCLUSIONS
The spreader is a novelty in our country, because is
designed to realize reduces norms, till 50 kg/ha,
according to the fertilizer type, in this way it is possible to
protect the environment.
In the same time, the spreader allows the transport
of a great quantity of fertilizer to be spread, max.3.6 tons,
therefore allows the reduction of the fuel consumption at
the spreading fertilizers ton.

3. CONCLUZII
Maina constituie o noutate pe plan intern, deoarece
este proiectat s realizeze distribuia unor norme reduse,
de pn la 50 kg/ha, funcie de tipul de ngrmnt, n
acest fel contribuindu-se la protejarea mediului nconjurtor.
Totodat, maina permite transportul n vederea distribuiei,
a unei cantiti de ngrminte destul de mari, max.3,6
tone, acest lucru favoriznd reducerea consumului de
combustibil la tona de ngrmnt distribuit.

4. BIBLIOGRAPHY / BIBLIOGRAFIE
[1]. Lucreia Popa, Gicu Guran .a.- Studiu tehnologic.
Etapa 1. Ctr.13/2007. Programul INOVARE;
[2]. Lucreia Popa, Gicu Guran .a.- Memoriu tehnic de
prezentare. Etapa 2. Ctr.13/2007. Programul INOVARE;
[3]. Lucreia Popa, Gicu Guran .a.- Memoriu tehnic de
prezentare. Etapa 3. Ctr.13/2007. Programul INOVARE.


44

RESEARCHES ON THE REDUCTION OF FUEL CONSUMPTION IN CASE OF AUTOMATIC
SYSTEMS FOR POSITION CONTROL USE
/
CERCETRI PRIVIND REDUCEREA CONSUMULUI DE COMBUSTIBIL N CAZUL UTILIZRII
SISTEMELOR AUTOMATE DE REGLAJ DE POZIIE

Conf.dr.ing. G. Paraschiv
1)
, .l.dr.ing. G. Muuroi
1)
, As.drd.ing. N. Ungureanu
1)
,

Conf.dr.ing. S.t. Biri
1)
, Dr.ing. V.
Vldu
2)
,

Dr.ing. E. Marin
2)

1)
Politehnica University of Bucharest, Romania,
2)

Abstract. Tillage machines, especially ploughs, require
high traction forces, limited by the value of adhesion
forces between the tractor driving wheels and the soil.
One of the means used to increase the adhesion force
between the tractor wheels and the soil is to use a part of
the vertical component of the resultant force acting on the
working parts as increase force of the adhesion weight. In
order to transfer this part of the vertical component on the
tractor driving wheels, are used hydraulic systems with
automatic position control of the agricultural machine
towards the soil. This article presents a new automatic
system for position control of the machine towards the
soil, whose use, according to the experimental results
presented, leads to the reduction of hourly fuel
consumption with approximately 0.7 kg / h.

Keywords: plough, automatic system for position control,
fuel consumption .

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Rational use of tractor power, increased productivity,
reduced fuel consumption, preventing soil degradation,
ease of aggregates exploitation are issues that concern
specialists in the field.
Agricultural machinery development and continuous
improvement requires ever more the use of hydraulic
installations, in order to facilitate the driving, simplify the
machinery transmissions and construction, as well as
facilitate and ensure the control of their optimal operation
regimes. However, the use of these equipments creates
the possibility to automatize the work processes carried
out by the agricultural machines.
In order to optimize fuel consumption for the soil tillage
aggregates, solutions were soughed to increase the
traction force, forces generally limited by the adhesion
forces. The traction force can be increased using a part of
the vertical component of the resultant forces acting on
the working parts as increase force of the adhesion
weight. This becomes possible if agricultural tractors are
equipped with hydraulic systems with automatic position
control of the agricultural machine towards the soil.
This article presents a new automatic system for
position control of agricultural machine towards the soil,
system tested on the field, with good results.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
The hydraulic system with automatic position control of
the agricultural machine towards the soil, presented in
this paper, was designed to be mounted on the 65 HP
tractor and to use, from its hydraulic equipment, the
hydraulic pump, distributor and hydraulic cylinder, to drive
the suspension mechanism with three-points grip.
Figure 1 shows a functional diagram of the hydraulic
system with automatic position control of the agricultural
machine towards the soil, in which the following notations
were made: 1 - suspension mechanism with three-points
Rezumat. Mainile de lucrat solul, n special plugurile, necesit
fore mari de traciune, care ns sunt limitate de valoarea
forelor de aderen dintre roile motoare ale tractorului i
sol. Unul din mijloacele utilizate pentru mrirea forei de
aderen dintre roile tractorului i sol este acela de a folosi
o parte din componenta vertical a rezultantei forelor care
acioneaz asupra organelor de lucru ca for de mrire a
greutii de aderen. Pentru transferarea acestei pri din
componenta vertical pe roile motoare ale tractorului se
folosesc sistemele hidraulice cu reglare automat a poziiei
mainii agricole fa de sol. n acest articol se prezint un
nou sistem automat de reglare a poziiei mainii fa de sol,
a crui utilizare, conform rezultatelor experimentale prezentate,
conduce la reducerea consumului orar de combustibil cu
aproximativ 0,7 kg/h.

Cuvinte cheie: plug, sistem automat de reglare a
poziiei, consum de combustibil.

CONSIDERAII GENERALE
Folosirea raional a puterii tractorului, mrirea productivitii,
reducerea consumului de combustibil, evitarea degradrii
solului, uurarea exploatrii agregatelor sunt probleme
care preocup specialitii n domeniu.
Dezvoltarea i perfecionarea continu a mainilor agricole
impune folosirea, din ce n ce mai mult, a instalaiilor de
acionare hidraulic n vederea uurrii comenzilor, simplificrii
transmisiilor i construciei mainilor, precum i a uurrii
i asigurrii reglrii regimurilor optime de funcionare a
acestora. Totodat, utilizarea acestor instalaii creeaz
posibilitatea automatizrii proceselor de lucru executate
de mainile agricole.
n vederea optimizrii consumului de combustibil pentru agregatele
de prelucrare a solului au fost cutate soluii n vederea creterii
forei de traciune, fore care n general sunt limitate de forele de
aderen. O modalitate prin care se poate obine creterea forei
de traciune este aceea de a folosi o parte din componenta vertical
a rezultantei forelor care acioneaz asupra organelor de lucru
ca for de mrire a greutii de aderen. Lucrul acesta devine
posibil dac tractoarele agricole sunt echipate cu sisteme hidraulice
cu reglare automat a poziiei mainii agricole fa de sol.
n acest articol se prezint un nou sistem automat de
reglare a poziiei mainii agricole fa de sol, sistem care a
fost ncercat n cmp, cu rezultate bune.

MATERIALE I METODE
Sistemul hidraulic cu reglare automat a poziiei mainii
agricole fa de sol, prezentat n aceast lucrare, a fost gndit
pentru a fi montat pe tractorul de 65 CP i s foloseasc de la
instalaia hidraulic a acestuia pompa hidraulic, distribuitorul i
cilindrul hidraulic pentru acionarea mecansimului de
suspendare cu prindere n trei puncte.
n figura 1 este prezentat schema funcional a
sistemului hidraulic cu reglare automat a poziiei mainii
agricole fa de sol, n care s-au notat: 1 - mecansimul de
suspendare cu prindere n trei puncte; 2 palpator; 3

45
grip, 2 - palpable, 3 plough body working at depth a; 4 -
flexible cable; DT tractors distributor; D1 distributor of
automatic system with dual action from the lever on
board and from the palpable; Sr1, Sr2 restraint valves forming
the double blocking valve; Ch - hydraulic cylinder.
trupia ce lucreaz la adncimea a; 4 cablu flexibil; DT
distribuitorul tractorului; D1 distribuitorul sistemului automat
prevzut cu dubl acionare de la maneta aflat la bord
i de la palpator; Sr1, Sr2 supape de reinere ce
alctuiesc supapa dubl de blocare; Ch cilindru hidraulic.

Fig. 1 - Functional scheme of the hydraulic system with automatic position control of the agricultural machine towards the soil /
Schema funcional a sistemului hidraulic cu reglare automat a poziiei mainii agricole fa de sol

The D1 distributors command from the palpable runs
through the flexible cable, as follows:
- if the palpable lowers, the D1 distributor is passed in
lower position (C);
- if the palpable goes up, the D1 distributor passes in
high position;
To operate the hydraulic system with automatic
position control of the agricultural machine towards the
soil, the following operations are necessary:
- adjust the palpable position, corresponding to the
desired working depth;
- pass the DT distributor in upper position in (R);
- lower the plough using the command lever of the D1
distributor;
- perform a test and measure the working depth;
- if the depth is appropriate, bring the thrust of the
command lever of the D1 distributor near it and fix it;
- if the desired depth is not obtained, modify the
position of the palpable and redo the working test.
At the end of the parcel, for return, the distributor of the
automat system is operated to lift the plough. After returning,
for the ploughs driving into the soil, the lever of D1 distributor
must be brought near the thrust and then the tractors DT
distributor must be brought in high position. The plough
begins to lower, falling into the soil until it reaches the
adjusted depth, when the palpable will command the D1
distributor to transit in neutral position.
the agricultural machine towards the soil consists of:
hydraulic equipment of the tractor IH-1; automatic control
system, including distributor D1 with three positions and four
ways and the double blocking valve, composed of restraint
valves Sr1 and Sr2; double-acting hydraulic cylinder CH.
The conventional scheme for the hydraulic system with
automatic position control of the agricultural machine
towards the soil is presented in Figure 2, where following
notations were used: IH-1 - hydraulic equipment of
Universal 650 tractor; P pump; F - filter; St crossing
valve; Ss - safety valve; Rh - hydraulic resistance; RZ -
reservoir; DT - distributor; D.R.A. - automatic control
device; Dl - distributor with three positions and four ways;
Sr1, Sr2 restraint valves; CH - hydraulic cylinder.
Comanda distribuitorului D1 de la palpator se execut
prin intermediul cablului flexibil, astfel:
- dac palpatorul coboar, distribuitorul D1 este trecut n
poziia cobort (C);
- dac palpatorul se ridic, distribuitorul D1 este trecut
n poziia ridicat;
Pentru punerea n funciune a sistemului hidraulic cu
reglare automat a poziiei mainii agricole fa de sol
sunt necesare urmtoarele operaii:
- se regleaz poziia palpatorului, corespunztoare adncimii
de lucru dorite;
- se trece distribuitorul DT n poziia ridicat (R);
- se coboar plugul utiliznd maneta de comand a
distribuitorului D1;
- se efectueaz o prob i se msoar adncimea de lucru;
- dac adncimea de lucru este corespunztoare, se
aduce limitatorul manetei de comand a distribuitorului
D1 lng aceasta i se fixeaz;
- dac adncimea dorit nu este obinut, se modific
poziia palpatorului i se reface proba de lucru.
La captul parcelei, pentru ntoarcere, se acioneaz
distribuitorul sistemului automat pentru ridicarea plugului.
Dup ntoarcere pentru antrenarea plugului n sol se aduce
maneta distribuitorului D1 lng limitator i se trece
distribuitorul tractorului DT n poziia ridicat. Plugul ncepe
s coboare, intr n sol pn la adncimea reglat, cnd palpatorul
comand trecerea distribuitorul D1 n poziia neutru.
Sistemul hidraulic cu reglare automat a poziiei
mainii agricole fa de sol are n componen: instalaia
hidraulic a tractorului IH1; dispozitivul de reglare
automat ce include distribuitorul D1 cu trei poziii i patru
ci i supapa dubl de blocare, alctuit din supapele de
reinere Sr1 i Sr2; cilindrul hidraulic cu dubl aciune CH.
Schema convenional a sistemului hidraulic cu
reglare automat a poziiei mainii agricole fa de sol
este prezentat n figura 2, n care au fost folosite
notaiile: IH-1 - instalaia hidraulic a tractorului Universal
650; P pomp; F filtru; St supap de trecere; Ss
supap de siguran; Rh rezisten hidraulic; Rz
rezervor; DT distribuitor; D.R.A. dispozitiv de reglare
automat; Dl distribuitor cu trei poziii, patru ci; Sr1, Sr2
supape de reinere; CH cilindru hidraulic.

46

Fig. 2 - Conventional scheme for the hydraulic system with automatic position control of the agricultural machine towards the soil /
Schema convenional a sistemului hidraulic cu reglare automat a poziiei mainii agricole fa de sol

In the neutral position (N) of the DT distributor drawer it
is made the connection between pump and tank, through
passage valve St.
If the hydraulic system with automatic position control
of the agricultural machine towards the soil is working (DT
distributor drawer is in high position - R), Dl distributor
makes the following connections, corresponding to the
positions occupied by the drawer:
- the neutral position (N) - oil flows through the pump P,
covering DT and Dl distributors, reaching the reservoir.
The two chambers of the hydraulic cylinder are blocked;
- the high position (R) - connection is made between the pump
and the chamber in front of the hydraulic cylinder piston
by DT (b-d), Dl (h-k), Sr2. In the same time, connection is
made between the chamber behind the hydraulic
cylinder piston and the reservoir by means of Sr1, Dl (j-i),
DT (c-g);
- lowered position (C) connection is made between the
pump and hydraulic cylinder by DT (b-d), Dl (h-j), Sr1,
and the connection between hydraulic cylinder and
reservoir by Sr2, Dl (k-i), DT (c-g).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
the agricultural machine towards the soil, whose functional
and conventional schemes were presented in Figures 1
and 2, was developed (fig. 3 - automatic hydraulic system,
fig. 4 - the control position device) and tested on the field.
For the developement of the automatic hydraulic
system, the hydraulic equipment of U 650 tractor (IH-1)
was supplemented with (fig. 3): the position control device
-1; flexible cable - 2; distributor - 3; blocking valve - 4;
control lever - 5.
n poziia neutru (N) a sertarului distribuitorului DT
este realizat legtura dintre pomp i rezervor, prin
supapa de trecere St.
n cazul n care sistemul hidraulic cu reglare automat
a poziiei mainii agricole fa de sol funcioneaz
(sertarul distribuitorului DT se afl n poziia ridicat R),
distribuitorul Dl realizeaz urmtoarele legturi, corespunztoare
poziiilor ocupate de sertarul acestuia:
- poziia neutru (N) uleiul debitat de pompa P parcurge
distribuitoarele DT i Dl ajungnd n rezervor. Cele
dou camere ale cilindrului hidraulic sunt blocate;
- poziia ridicat (R) se realizeaz legtura ntre
pomp i camera din faa pistonului cilindrului
hidraulic prin DT (b-d), Dl (h-k), Sr2. n acelai timp
este realizat i legtura ntre camera din spatele
pistonului cilindrului hidraulic i rezervor prin Sr1, Dl
(j-i), DT (c-g);
- poziia cobort (C) se realizeaz legtura pomp
cilindru hidraulic prin DT (b-d), Dl (h-j), Sr1, precum i
legtura dintre cilindrul hidraulic i rezervor prin Sr2,
Dl (k-i), DT (c-g).

REZULTATE I DISCUII
mainii agricole fa de sol, a crui schem funcional,
respectiv convenional, au fost prezentate n figurile 1 i
2, a fost realizat (fig. 3 sistemul hidraulic automat; fig. 4
dispozitivul de reglare a poziiei) i ncercat n cmp.
Pentru realizarea sistemului hidraulic automat,
instalaia hidraulic a tractorului U 650 (IH-1) a fost
completat cu (fig. 3): dispozitivul de reglare a poziiei -1;
cablul flexibil - 2; distribuitorul - 3; supapa de blocare - 4;
maneta de comand - 5.

Fig. 3 - Components of the automatic hydraulic system / Prile componente ale sistemului hidraulic automat

47
On the position control device (fig. 4) it can be
intervened to:
- modify the precompression resort 4 to ensure
different pressings of the palpable on the soil;
- change the connection point (joint) between rod 3
and lever 5, to adjust the work depth;
- change the holding point of the flexible cable at lever
5, to modify the sensitivity of the automatic hydraulic
system;
- block or release joint 6 to prevent or allow horizontal
oscillations of the palpable.
Following the automatic hydraulic system tests, the
results pointed that is necessary to replace the fixed skid
with a mobile one, to prevent the system to operate at
very low subsidences, as well as the replacement of the
flexible cable with another flexible cable that works both in
stretching and compression (steel wire inserted in the
flexible shirt).
The method of use for this system is the following:
- adjust the depth of work by intervening on the joint
point between rod 3 and lever 5;
- pass the tractor distributor in high position;
- lower the plough using the command lever of the
automatic systems distributor;
- perform a test and measure the depth of work;
- if the depth is appropriate, bring the thrust of the
command lever for the automatic system distributor
near it and fix it.
Asupra dispozitivului de reglare a poziiei (fig. 4) se
poate interveni pentru:
- modificarea precomprimrii resortului 4 pentru a
asigura apsri diferite ale palpatorului pe sol;
- modificarea punctului de legtur (articulaiei) dintre tija 3 i
prghia 5, pentru a regla adncimea de lucru;
- modificarea punctului de prindere a cablului flexibil la
prghia 5, pentru a modifica sensibilitatea sistemului
hidraulic automat;
- blocarea sau eliberarea articulaiei 6 pentru a mpiedica sau a
permite oscilaiile palpatorului n plan orizontal.
n urma ncercrilor sistemului hidraulic automat a
rezultat necesitatea nlocuirii patinei fixe cu o patin
mobil, pentru a mpiedica sistemul s intre n funciune
la denivelari foarte mici, precum i a cablului flexibil cu un
cablu flexibil ce lucreaz att la ntindere, ct i la
compresiune (srm de oel introdus n cmaa
flexibil).
Modul de utilizare a acestui sistem este urmtorul:
- se regleaz adncimea de lucru intervenind asupra
punctului de articulaie dintre tija 3 i prghia 5;
- se trece distribuitorul tractorului n poziia ridicat;
- se acioneaz coborrea plugului utiliznd maneta de
comand a distribuitorului sistemului automat;
- se efectueaz o prob i se msoar adncimea de lucru;
- dac adncimea de lucru este corespunztoare, se aduce
limitatorul manetei de comand a distribuitorului
sistemului automat lng aceasta i se fixeaz.

Fig. 4 - Position control device / Dispozitivul de reglare a poziiei

At the end of the parcel, for return, the automatic
system distributor is operated from the command lever, to
lift the plough. After the return, to drive the plough into the
soil, the automatic system distributor lever must be
brought near the thrust, followed by the lift command from
the tractor distributor. The plough begins to lower, being
drived into the soil to the adjusted depth, when the
palpable commands the shift of the automatic system
distributor in neutral position.
Within the experimental tests using the new hydraulic
system for position control of the agricultural machine towards
the soil, were observed: the depth of work, the aggregate
speed, hourly fuel consumption, traction force and
wheels slippage.
For comparison, the same parameters were measured
for an aggregate with a support wheel plough for limiting
depth of work.
The two aggregates were subjected to tests on the
same soil (without subsidences and natural barriers), in
La captul parcelei, pentru ntoarcere, se acioneaz
distribuitorul sistemului automat de la maneta de
comand pentru ridicarea plugului. Dup ntoarcere,
pentru antrenarea plugului n sol se aduce maneta
distribuitorului sistemului automat lng limitator i se
comand ridicarea de la distribuitorul tractorului. Plugul
ncepe s coboare, se antreneaz n sol pn la
adncimea reglat, cnd palpatorul comand trecerea
distribuitorului sistemului automat n poziia neutru.
n cadrul ncercrilor experimentale cu noul sistem
hidraulic de reglare a poziiei mainii agricole fa de sol
au fost urmrite: adncimea de lucru, viteza agregatului,
consumul orar de combustibil, fora de traciune i
patinarea roilor.
Pentru comparaie, aceiai parametri au fost urmrii
i n cazul unui agregat format cu un plug cu roat de
limitare a adncimii de lucru.
Cele dou agregate au fost supuse ncercrilor pe
acelai teren (fr denivelri i obstacole naturale), n

48
the same conditions of humidity, temperature and degree
of weed infestation. The experimental results for the two
aggregates are presented in Table 1.
It should be noted that prior to the tests execution on
the comparative analysis of the two aggregates (with
hydraulic system with automatic position control of the
agricultural machine towards the soil and with classical
system) test have been performed on the operation of the
hydraulic system with automatic position control of the
agricultural machine towards the soil.
During the tests several attempts have been made to
observe the behavior of hydraulic automatic system in
work.
To determine the slippage coefficient have been
accomplished empty trips of the tractor plough aggregate.
The measurements for the two tested aggregates were
performed for three values of the working depth, in two
rehearsals.
aceleai condiii de umiditate, temperatur i grad de
mburuienare al solului. Rezultatele experimentale,
pentru cele dou agregate, sunt prezentate n tabelul 1.
Se impune observaia ca nainte de efectuarea
probelor privind analiza comparativ a celor dou
agregate (cu sistem hidraulic cu reglare automat a
poziiei mainii agricole fa de sol i cu sistem clasic)
s-au efectuat ncercri privind modul de funcionare a
sistemului hidraulic cu reglare automat a poziiei mainii
agricole fa de sol.
Pe durata ncercrilor s-au fcut mai multe ncercri
pentru a urmri comportarea sistemului hidraulic automat
n lucru.
Pentru determinarea coeficientului de patinare s-au
realizat deplasri n gol ale agregatului tractor - plug.
Determinrile, n cazul celor dou agregate
ncercate, s-au efectuat pentru trei valori ale adncimii
de lucru, n dou repetiii.

Table 1 / Tabel 1

Wheel slippage / Patinarea roilor [%]
No.
crt.
Medium depth /
Adncimea medie
[m]
Aggregate
speed / Viteza
agregatului
[m/s]
Hourly
consumption/
Consumul
orar [kg/h]
Left wheel /
Roat stnga
Right wheel /
Roat dreapta
Mean /
Media
Traction force /
Fora de
traciune [daN]
Plough with automatic system / Plug cu sistem automat
1 0,1972 0,735 5,53 13,5 4,4 8,95 839,5
2 0,1963 0,725 5,70 9,9 5,6 7,75 1173,9
3 0,1631 1,042 4,45 6,0 1,7 3,85 712,7
4 0,1585 1,059 7,75 7,6 2,3 4,59 980,6
5 0,2315 0,862 9,59 22,7 24,8 23,75 1811,3
6 0,2377 0,954 9,92 20,4 13,2 16,80 1785,5
Support wheel plough for depth limitation / Plug cu roat de limitare a adncimii
7 0,24 0,709 11,71 33,5 23,8 28,65 1712,3
8 0,237 0,975 8,95 20,1 17,1 18,6 1555
9 0,2055 0,794 9,47 18,8 13,8 16,3 1465,5
10 0,205 0,926 9,44 17,75 16,05 16,9 1639,5
11 0,1668 0,943 6,85 10,25 6,95 8,6 1018,7
12 0,1681 0,877 9,94 18 16,4 17,20 1701,8

Figure 5 shows the graphical representation of the
dependence between hourly fuel consumption and
traction force, for the two tested aggregates. .
Reprezentnd grafic consumul orar de combustibil n
funcie de fora de traciune, pentru cele dou agregate
supuse ncercrilor, se obin variaiile din figura 5.

Fig. 5 - Graphical representation of the dependence between hourly fuel consumption and traction force, in both cases /
Reprezentarea grafic a consumului orar de combustibil n funcie de fora de traciune, n cele dou cazuri

CONCLUSIONS
Because the systems with force and position control
ensure an adhesion increase, a reduction in fuel
consumption and increased productivity, they were
CONCLUZII
Deoarece sistemele cu reglaj de for i poziie
asigur o mrire a aderenei, o reducere a consumului de
combustibil i o cretere a productivitii, ele s-au

49
generalized to modern tractors, choosing the appropriate
control of working conditions.
Given the fact that in our country the soils are not
leveled and neighter homogeneous, in which case are
worked with the classic support wheel system, losing the
advantages mentioned above, solutions are quested to
ensure the transfer of machine weight and vertical
component of the resulting forces acting on the tractor
working organs, regardless of the conditions.
The system presented in this article removes the
disadvantages of classical systems, by ensuring,
regardless of the working conditions (unleveled soil or/and
heterogeneous) a constant ploughing depth and at the
same time transferring the ploughs weight and of the
vertical components of the forces acting on it, to the
tractor, increasing the pressure on the driving wheels, and
therefore, by increasing the adhesion, also increases the
traction force and aggregate productivity, downsizing
slippages energy consumption.
Following the analysis of experimental datas presented
in Table 1, it can be observed that, when using automatic
hydraulic system with position control of the agricultural
machine towards the soil, the pressure on the driving
wheels increases with 750 daN and the slippage
decreases, on average, by 29%.
Hourly fuel consumption, as it can be observed in
Figure 5, reduces when using the presented automatic
hydraulic system, by approximately 0.7 kg/h.
Researches on the hydraulic systems with automatic position
control of the agricultural machime towards the soil could
continue with the achievement of a automatic hydraulic system
electrical connection response. Determination of agricultural
machines position towards the soil could be achieved by
substituting the palpable mounted on the machine with a
system consisting of a transmitter and a ultrasounds receiver,
to measure the distance from the car to the soil and to
command the distributor of the automatic hydraulic system.
The presented hydraulic system with automatic
position control of the agricultural machine towards the
soil can be completed with a device for traction force
control, or with a slippage device control.
In this situation, the automatic hydraulic system can
operate with position control and it can switch on force or
slippage control when the traction force, respectively the
slippage, exceeds the maximum prescribed values.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Babiciu P., .a. Hydraulic systems for tractors and
agricultural machines, Ceres Reader, Bucharest, 1984;
2. Caproiu t., .a. Tillage machines, harvesting and
yield sustenance, Teaching and Pedagogic Reader,
Bucharest, 1982;
3. Ciulu Gh. Exploitation of hydraulic mechanisms
from 65 and 80 HP tractors, Ceres Reader,
Bucharest, 1983;
4. Muuroi G. Researches on the achievement of a
hydraulic system with automatic position control of
the agricultural machine towards the soil, Doctoral
Thesis, Bucharest, 2002;
5. Paraschiv G., .a. Hydraulic drive of agricultural
machines, Printech Reader, Bucharest, 2000.
generalizat la tractoarele moderne, alegndu-se reglajul
potrivit condiiilor concrete de lucru.
innd seama de faptul c n ara noastr terenurile
nu sunt nivelate i nici omogene, caz n care se lucreaz
cu sistemul clasic cu roat de sprijin, pierzndu-se
avantajele menionate mai sus, se caut soluii care s
asigure transferul greutii mainii i a componentei
verticale a rezultantei forelor ce acioneaz asupra
organelor de lucru pe tractor n orice condiii.
Sistemul prezentat n cadrul acestui articol nltur
dezavantajele sistemelor clasice prin aceea c asigur n
orice condiii de lucru (teren denivelat sau/i neomogen)
o artur de adncime constant i n acelai timp
transfer greutatea plugului i a componentelor verticale
ale forelor ce acioneaz asupra acestuia tractorului,
mrind apsarea pe roile motoare, i ca urmare, prin
creterea aderenei crete fora de traciune i
productivitatea agregatului, micorndu-se patinrile i
consumurile energetice.
n urma analizei datelor experimentale, prezentate n
tabelul 1, se poate constata c n cazul utilizrii
sistemului hidraulic automat de reglare a poziiei mainii
agricole fa de sol, apsarea pe roile motoare crete cu
750 daN iar patinrile scad, n medie, cu 29%.
n cazul consumului orar de combustibil, aa cum se
poate constata i din figura 5, acesta se reduce n cazul
utilizrii sistemului hidraulic automat prezentat cu
aproximativ 0,7 kg/h.
Cercetrile privind sistemele hidraulice cu reglare
automat a poziiei mainii agricole fa de sol ar putea
continua cu realizarea unui sistem hidraulic automat cu
legtura de reacie electric. Determinarea poziiei mainii
agricole fa de sol s-ar putea realiza nlocuind palpatorul
montat pe main cu un sistem format dintr-un emitor
i un receptor de ultrasunete care s msoare distana
de la cadrul mainii la sol i s comande distribuitorul
sistemului hidraulic automat.
mainii agricole fa de sol prezentat poate fi completat
fie cu un dispozitiv de control al forei de traciune, fie cu
un dispozitiv de control al patinrii.
n aceast situaie, sistemul hidraulic automat poate
funciona cu reglaj de poziie i poate comuta pe reglajul
de for sau patinare cnd fora de traciune, respectiv
patinarea, depesc valorile maxime prescrise.

BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Babiciu P., .a. Sisteme hidraulice ale tractoarelor i
mainilor agricole, Editura CERES, Bucureti, 1984;
2. Caproiu t., .a. Maini agricole de lucrat solul,
semnat i ntreinere a culturilor, Editura Didactic i
Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1982;
3. Ciulu Gh. Exploatarea mecanismelor hidraulice
de la tractoarele de 65 i 80 CP, Editura Ceres,
Bucureti, 1983;
4. Muuroi G. Cercetri privind realizarea unui
sistem hidraulic cu reglare automat a poziiei mainii
agricole fa de sol, Tez de doctorat, Bucureti, 2002;
5. Paraschiv G., .a. Acionarea hidraulic a mainilor
agricole, Editura Printech, Bucureti, 2000.


50

RELEVANT CHARACTERISTICS OF ALTERNATIVE LIQUID FUELS AIMED
AT DIESEL ENGINES EXPLOITATION IN POLYCARBURATION DUTY
/
PROPRIETILE RELEVANTE ALE COMBUSTIBILILOR LICHIZI ALTERNATIVI
VIZAI PENTRU EXPLOATAREA MOTOARELOR DIESEL N REGIM POLICARBURAT


Abstract. Following the route of fuel starting the feeding
tank till its combustion in a Diesel engine cylinder, the
current paper presents all the actions at witch the fuel is
exposed. From this point of view, for each phenomenon
in witch the fuel is involved, certain analyses are made,
aiming to emphasize the influences of its charactristics
upon the development of the respective phenomenon and
the technical environment as well as the extent of these
influences. The rich inventory of these features tinted by
significant influences will contain the relevant
characteristics appropriate to any liquid fuel aimed at
being used for Diesel engines feeding. Furthermore, the
evaluations even those qualitative related to
intensities of influences which have been emphasized,
allow a first assessment of capabilities of a fuel that
should be used at polycarburation exploitation of engines
designed at Diesel oil feeding.

Keywords: Diesel engine, alternative fuel, policarburation.

1. Delivery fuel way of the working cycle of a Diesel engine
In the arrangement of operating any internal
combustion engine installed, load controlled delivery dose
of fuel needed for each deployment cycle engine it is an
assembly that can be called, generically, feeding
installation of the engine cycle. Formally, in the traveled
route by the fuel through this installation facility can
distinguish two sections. The first section, called currently
the feeding installation of the engine and considered as
auxiliary installation in the engine, the fuel tank includes a
whirlpool with a coarse filter, a transfer pump, filter and
pipes fin what binds these elements and ensure delivery
of fuel, in a continuous manner, to the entry into the
engine. The second section, considered as part of the
motor is made, in the case of Diesel engines, from the
injection installation, which provides fuel dosage and
preparation for the formation of the mixture. In stage -
considered mature - development of Diesel engines, are
two variants of injection technologies. The first of these
widespread, which was the historical development of
modern diesel engines technology is making use of
injection pumps and injectors controlled by the fuel
pressure. In this variant, the facility includes an pump for
fuel pre-compression and, in principle, for each cylinder
of the engine, a sequential volumetric pump with
adjustable flow rate, injector connected to corresponding
hydraulic cylinder respectively. Overall, the supply cycle
engine variant for the injection pump and injectors
controlled by the pressure of fuel composition are shown
schematically in figure 1.
Rezumat. Urmrind drumul parcurs de combustibil din
rezervorul de alimentare pn la arderea n cilindrul unui
motor Diesel, lucrarea prezint toate aciunile la care
acesta este supus. Pe acest fundal, pentru fiecare
fenomen la care combustibilul ia parte, sunt fcute
analize menite s evidenieze influenele pe care
proprietile acestuia le au asupra desfurrii
fenomenului respectiv i a mediului tehnic de
desfurare, precum i amploarea acestor influene.
Inventarul nuanat al proprietilor cu influene
semnificative va conine proprietile relevante pentru
orice combustibil lichid vizat a fi folosit pentru alimentarea
motoarelor Diesel. n plus, evalurile chiar i calitative
privind intensitile influenelor evideniate, permit o prim
apreciere a capabilitii ca un combustibil alternativ s
poat fi folosit pentru exploatarea n regim policarburat a
motoarelor construite pentru alimentarea cu motorin.

Cuvinte cheie: motor Diesel, combustibil alternativ, policarburare

1. Traseul de alimentare a ciclului unui motor Diesel
n aranjamentul de funcionare al oricrui motor cu
ardere intern instalat, sarcina de livrare controlat a
dozei de combustibil necesar desfurrii fiecrui ciclu
motor i revine unui ansamblu ce poate fi denumit, generic,
instalaia de alimentare a ciclului motor. Formal, n traseul
parcurs de combustibil prin aceast instalaie se pot distinge
dou seciuni. Prima seciune, numit curent instalaia de
alimentare a motorului i considerat ca instalaie auxiliar
acestuia, corespunztoare instalrii motorului n punctul de
lucru, cuprinde rezervorul de combustibil, un sorb
prevzut cu un filtru grosier, o pomp de transfer, un filtru
fin i conductele ce leag aceste elemente i asigur
livrarea combustibilului, n mod continuu, la intrarea n
motor. Cea de a doua seciune, considerat ca fcnd
parte integrant din motor, este constituit, n cazul
motoarelor Diesel, din instalaia de injecie, care asigur
dozarea combustibilului i pregtirea acestuia pentru procesul
de formare a amestecului. n stadiul actual considerat matur
de dezvoltare a motoarelor Diesel, sunt folosite dou variante
de tehnologii de injecie. Prima dintre acestea, larg rspndit,
care a constituit baza de dezvoltare istoric a motoarelor
Diesel moderne, este tehnologia care apeleaz la pompe de
injecie i injectoare comandate de nivelul presiunii combustibilului.
n aceast variant, instalaia de injecie cuprinde o pomp
pentru precomprimarea combustibilului i, n principiu, pentru
fiecare cilindru al motorului, cte o pomp volumetric
secvenial, cu debit reglabil, conectat hidraulic la injectorul
corespunztor cilindrului respectiv. n ansamblu, instalaia de
alimentare a ciclului motor pentru varianta de injecie cu
pomp i injectoare comandate de presiunea combustibilului
are componena prezentat schematic n figura 1.

Fig. 1 - Instalaia de alimentare a ciclului motor n varianta cu pomp de injecie / Feeding installation of the Diesel working cycle in injection pump technology
R rezervor de combustibil / fuel tank ; FG filtru grosier / raw filter ; PT pomp de transfer / conduction pump; FF filtru fin / fine filter ; PPC pomp de precomprimare / pre-
compression pump; EPI element de pomp de injecie / injection pumping element ; ICP injector comandat de presiune / pressure-controlled injector

51
A second injection technology, developed and
matured over the last two decades, is so-called common
rail injection technology. In this technology, the fuel is
compressed until the pressure required for injection into a
single chamber (common rail) and continuously
distributed to the injectors which are with electrical
ordered opening, placed in each cylinder. In this case, the
injection installation includes a high pressure pump, the
high pressure precinct (common rail) and, for each
engine cylinder, a pipe connecting an injector opening
electric ordered. Overall, the feeding installation of the
Diesel working cycle in common rail technology has the
component presented schematically in the figure 2.
A doua tehnologie de injecie, dezvoltat i maturizat
n ultimele dou decenii, este aa-numita tehnologie de
injecie cu ramp comun. n aceast tehnologie,
combustibilul este comprimat, pn la presiunea necesar
injeciei, ntr-o incint unic (rampa comun) i distribuit
continuu ctre injectoare cu deschidere comandat
electric, plasate n fiecare cilindru. n acest caz, instalaia
de injecie cuprinde o pomp de nalt presiune, incinta de
nalt presiune (rampa comun) i, pentru fiecare cilindru
al motorului, cte o conduct de legtur i un injector cu
deschidere comandat electric. n ansamblu, instalaia de
alimentare a ciclului motor n varianta de injecie cu ramp
comun are componena prezentat schematic n figura 2.

Fig. 2. Instalaia de alimentare a ciclului motor n varianta cu ramp comun /
Feeding installation of the Diesel working cycle in common rail technology
R rezervor de combustibil / fuel tank ; FG filtru grosier / raw filter ; PT pomp de transfer / conduction pump;
FF filtru fin / fine filter ; PIP pomp de nalt presiune / high-pressure pump ; RC rampa comun / common rail ;
ICE injector comandat electric / electrical-controlled injector

2. Features, local phenomena and influence factors along
delivery fuel way of the working cycle
Each from the elements of the feeding installation of
cycle engine performs functions well defined and, in
exercising these functions, participating in fuel
phenomena whose conduct may be influenced by its
physical properties. Highlighting impact assessment and
consequences of carrying out a normal process of
feeding functions involve descriptions and examine in
detail the phenomena involved.
The fuel tank has the function to ensure the fuel
necessary for the engine, without assistance, for a set
period of time. Beyond a natural lack of solid impurities,
the fuel storage tank, even for a limited period of time,
requires that it be homogeneous from the viewpoint of
phase and composition. Phase homogeneity refers, for
example, the lack of so-called "liquid crystal" (microzone
mass of liquid in which it acquires properties of gel)
which is formed in diesel temperature close to freezing
point and the present lack of gums form of
microfilaments in crude vegetable oils. Compozition
homogeneity when the composition of the fuel used is a
mixture of two or more liquids and indicate requirement,
otherwise elementary, liquids that are mixed move.
The raw filter intended to prevent penetration into the
plant mechanical impurities are, accidentally, in the
supply tank. Filtration process conducted at the level can
be influenced, in itself, the phase homogeneity of the fuel
through the filing of any gels or gums sections flow. Also,
the energy ad filtering process is dependent on fuel
viscosity.
The transfer pump provides tank retrieval of the fuel
and sending him to the injection with crossing of the
filters posted on the route. Regardless of pump type of
transfer, the amount of energy consumed by it is affected
by fuel viscosity.
The fine filter is to keep impurities from microscopic fuel
2. Funcii, fenomene locale i factori de influen n
traseul de alimentare a ciclului motor
Fiecare dintre elementele instalaiei de alimentare a
ciclului motor ndeplinete funcii bine precizate i, n
exercitarea acestor funcii, combustibilul particip la
fenomene a cror desfurare poate fi influenat de
proprietile sale fizice. Evidenierea influenelor i
evaluarea consecinelor acestora asupra desfurrii
normale a procesului de alimentare presupun descrierea
funciilor i examinarea n detaliu a fenomenelor implicate.
Rezervorul de combustibil are funcia de a asigura
combustibilul necesar funcionrii motorului, fr asisten,
pentru o perioad stabilit de timp. Dincolo de o fireasc
lips a impuritilor solide, stocarea combustibilului n rezervor,
chiar i pentru o perioad limitat de timp, reclam ca
acesta s fie omogen din punctele de vedere al fazei i
al compoziiei. Omogenitatea de faz se refer, de pild, la
lipsa aa-numitelor cristale lichide (microzone din masa
lichidului n care acesta capt proprieti de gel) care se
formeaz n motorine la temperaturi apropiate de punctul de
congelare a acestora i la lipsa gumelor prezente, sub forma
de microfilamente, n uleiurile vegetale crude. Omogenitatea
de compoziie privete cazurile n care combustibilul folosit
este un amestec de dou sau mai multe lichide i indic cerina,
altminteri elementar, ca lichidele amestecate s fie miscibile.
Filtrul grosier are rolul de a mpiedica ptrunderea n instalaie a
impuritilor mecanice aflate, accidental, n rezervorul de
alimentare. Procesul de filtrare desfurat la nivelul acestuia
poate fi influenat, n sine, de omogenitatea de faz a
combustibilului, prin eventuale depuneri de geluri sau gume
n seciunile de curgere. De asemenea, cantitatea de
energie reclamat de procesul de filtrare este dependent
de viscozitatea combustibilului.
Pompa de transfer asigur extragerea combustibilului
din rezervor i trimiterea lui ctre instalaia de injecie cu
strbaterea filtrelor nseriate n traseu. Indiferent de tipul
pompei de transfer, cantitatea de energie consumat de
aceasta este influenat de viscozitatea combustibilului.

52
before entry into the injection engine. Similar cases
occur filtration, fine filtration process can be influenced
by the homogeneity of the fuel phase and its
viscosity.
The precompression fuel pump present in classical
variants of injection technology, has a discreet
existence, is usually integrated, as a rule, in the building
currently known as engine injection pump. Its role is to
raise the pressure of fuel sent to the dosing pump and
injectors sequentially by up to a value which is to avoid
the phenomenon of cavitation in the suction routes of
these items. Obviously, the precompression level of fuel,
decided by construction, is set according to the vapor
pressure of the fuel concerned. As in any process of
pumping, the fuel viscosity involved and in this case in
terms of quantities of consumed energy.
The sequential element of dosage and pumping
ensure separation of quantities of fuel controlled by the
control of the task of sending its engine and, under the
injection pressure, to the injector mounted in cylinder.
Energy involved in the process of transferring the dose
inside the cylinder depends, practically proportionally by
its table built, in turn, by the volume determined and
density of the fuel.
The injector controlled by the level of fuel pressure
is to allow the entry of fuel into the cylinder only achieve
a preset pressure and to shape the flow in one or more
jets characterized by high flow speeds. Modeling flow in
streams is achieved by passing fuel through a number of
very small holes, and in this process, the fuel viscosity
are very important influences, which must be detailed.
In the classical technology of injection, with injection
pumps and injectors controlled by the fuel pressure, the
flow of fuel injected is determined by the size of dose
and duration of injections. The laminate process
corresponding to formation of injected fuel jets is
governed by the difference between upstream pressure
injector (injection pressure) and the pressure inside the
cylinder engine. In the design of injection equipment,
must taking into account the viscosity of concerned fuel
and seeks for the opening of injector at a pressure which
ensures the laminate conditions said. If the fuel is used
with higher viscosity, the rolling process, must be
conducted at the same rates, differences will ad higher
pressure and this will be achieved by increasing the
injection pressure. Therefore, even if the injector to open
at preset pressure, injection pressure will increase until
the required dose to achieve lamination streams. These
increases in injection pressure are generated at the
injector but the effects were especially sensitive to the
injection pump, where the forces involved in sequential
dose pump fuel can accuse significant increases, which
may significantly affect the duration of its operation.
High pressure pump, present in common rail injection
technology is intended to raise fuel pressure to a
prescribed level, regarded as sufficient for carrying
Injection. It should be noted that in this technology,
injection pressures are much higher to allow
fragmentation dose of fuel and practicing several
sequences injection fuel cycle (the technology of multi-
injection). In terms of quantities of consumed energy ,
the fuel viscosity affect its compression into the
common ramp.
The injector with electrical-controlled opening, used
in the common rail injection technology, allowing fuel to
enter the cylinder at times decided by the electrical
signals emitted by an electronic control of engine
operation and the flow model in the same way as with
classical injector described above. In this case, the
viscosity of fuel does not influence the parameters of
Filtrul fin are rolul de a reine impuritile microscopice
din combustibil naintea intrrii acestuia n instalaia de
injecie a motorului. Similar cazului filtrrii grosiere, procesul
de filtrare fin poate fi influenat de omogenitatea de faz a
combustibilului i de viscozitatea acestuia.
Pompa de precomprimare a combustibilului, prezent
n variantele clasice de tehnologie de injecie, are o
existen discret fiind, de regul, nglobat n construcia
ansamblului denumit curent pompa de injecie a motorului.
Rolul ei este acela de a ridica presiunea combustibilului trimis
ctre elementele de dozare i pompare secvenial ctre
injectoare pn la o valoare la care este evitat fenomenul de
cavitaie n traseele de aspiraie ale acestor elemente.
Evident, nivelul de precomprimare a combustibilului, decis
prin construcie, este stabilit n funcie de presiunea de
vapori a combustibilului vizat. Ca n orice proces de
pompare, viscozitatea combustibilului intervine i n acest
caz sub aspectul cantitilor de energie consumate.
Elementul de dozare i pompare secvenial asigur
separarea unei cantiti de combustibil controlat prin
comanda de sarcin a motorului i trimiterea acesteia,
sub presiunea de injecie, ctre injectorul montat n
cilindru. Energia implicat n procesul de transfer al dozei
ctre interiorul cilindrului depinde, practic proporional, de
masa acesteia modelat, la rndul ei, de volumul dozat i de
densitatea combustibilului.
Injectorul comandat de nivelul presiunii combustibilului
are rolul de a permite ptrunderea combustibilului n cilindru
numai la atingerea unei presiuni prestabilite i de a modela
curgerea acestuia n unul sau mai multe jeturi caracterizate
de viteze de curgere foarte mari. Modelarea curgerii n jeturi se
obine prin trecerea combustibilului printr-un numr corespunztor
de orificii foarte mici i, n acest proces, viscozitatea combustibilului
are influene deosebit de importante, care trebuie detaliate.
n varianta clasic de tehnologie de injecie, cu pompe de injecie
i injectoare comandate de nivelul presiunii combustibilului,
debitul de combustibil injectat este stabilit de mrimea dozei
i de durata injeciei. Procesul de laminare corespunztor
formrii jeturilor de combustibil injectate este guvernat de
diferena dintre presiunea din amontele injectorului (presiunea
de injecie) i presiunea din cilindrul motorului. La proiectarea
echipamentului de injecie, se ine seama de viscozitatea
combustibilului vizat i se urmrete deschiderea injectorului
la un nivel de presiune care asigur condiiile de laminare
amintite. n cazul n care se folosete un combustibil cu
viscozitate mai mare, procesul de laminare, obligat s se desfoare
la aceleai debite, va reclama diferene de presiune mai mari
i acest lucru se va realiza prin creterea presiunii de injecie.
Prin urmare, chiar dac injectorul se deschide la presiunea
prestabilit, presiunea de injecie va crete n continuare
pn la nivelul necesar realizrii laminrii dozei n jeturi.
Aceste creteri ale presiunii de injecie sunt generate la nivelul
injectorului dar au efecte sensibile mai ales la nivelul pompei de
injecie, unde forele implicate n pomparea secvenial a
dozelor de combustibil pot acuza creteri importante, ce pot
afecta semnificativ durata de funcionare a acesteia.
Pompa de nalt presiune, prezent n tehnologia de
injecie cu ramp comun, are rolul de a ridica presiunea
combustibilului la un nivel prescris, considerat ca suficient
pentru desfurarea injeciei. Trebuie menionat faptul c, n
aceast tehnologie, presiunile de injecie sunt mult mai
ridicate, pentru a permite fragmentarea dozei de combustibil
i practicarea mai multor secvene de injectare a combustibilului
n ciclu (tehnologia de injecie multipunct). Sub aspectul
cantitilor de energie consumate, viscozitatea combustibilului
influeneaz comprimarea acestuia n rampa comun.
Injectorul cu deschidere comandat electric, folosit n
instalaiile de injecie cu ramp comun, permite ptrunderea
combustibilului n cilindru la momente decise prin semnale
electrice emise de o instalaie electronic de control al funcionrii
motorului i modeleaz curgerea acestuia n acelai mod ca i
n cazul injectorului clasic descris mai sus. n acest caz,

53
the plant, but influence the energy performance of the
engine and this should be detailed.
In thecommon rail technology, injection pressure is
invariable, so the flow of flux in the lamination of the fuel
jets is constant. In this case, the size of the dose of
injected fuel in the engine cycle is determined by the
total ordered injector opening. In the design of injection
equipment, the total opening of the injector in each cycle
is fixed taking into account the viscosity of fuel in
question. If the fuel is used with higher viscosity, the
laminate will take place with lower rates and, given the
total fixed injection, this will lead to a decrease of fuel
injected cycle dose. As a result, the actual power
delivered by the engine will be lower.
Injection pipes are designed to ensure hydraulic
contact between the injectors and injection pump or
common rail. Although the influences at this level are
negligible, it must be said that the fuel flow through these
pipes is influenced, in terms of quantities of energy
consumed by its viscosity.

3. Phenomena and factors of influence inside the
cylinder
The introduced fuel by injection inside the cylinder
engine in the form of one or more jets, enters into an
established environment, in principle, of a quantity of air
(fresh load) heated in the process of compression and
in a motion agitation promoted by the routing
architecture admission. In a formal succession after
entering the cylinder, the dose of fuel is subjected to
spraying, vaporizing, mixing with air, self-ignition and
combustion. It should be noted that, beyond some
overlapping of these processes in real engine cycle, an
efficient advertising phenomena as spraying,
vaporization and mixing with air united, generically, as
the mixture training to achieve more fast. Of course,
all these processes shows marked dependency of some
properties of the fuel.
Fuel spraying takes place under the combined effect of
vibration of the jet-induced flow during the overcritical
regime during lamination and friction with the air cylinder.
The spraying depends, especially in terms of quality size
drops, on the surface pressure of fuel.
Fuel vaporization takes place at the drops of fuel
surfaces, following contact with hot air from cylinder.
Naturally, in the data rate of vaporization depends on the
specific heat of fuel and the latent heat of
vaporization of it.
Mixing air with fuel vapor occurs as a result of the
entrainment of these in turbulent movements of the
compressed air inside the cylinder. The only fuel
property affecting this process is molecular weight, but
the influences are negligible compared with the intensity
of turbulence said.
Selfignition is a complex process, polistadial, marked by
numerous influences of composition and molecular structure
of fuel. Formally, all these influences have been
aggregated in a specific property expressed by cetane
number fuel, which expressed by a number of self-
ignition tendency of the mixture formed in the cylinder in
a standard engine.
Burning of fuel is taking place, in principle, by the flame
propagation of self-ignition kernels in the preforms
mixtures existing inside the cylinder. In reality, this model
is valid for conducting simultaneously or in succession,
only for limited areas of the cylinder, and environmental
movements of duplication events leading to a chaotic,
but progressive party of combustion. Under these
conditions, the evaluation process of burning can be
viscozitatea combustibilului nu influeneaz parametrii din
instalaie, dar influeneaz performanele energetice ale
motorului i acest aspect trebuie detaliat.
n varianta de tehnologie de injecie cu ramp comun,
presiunea de injecie este invariant, deci debitul de curgere
n procesul de laminare a combustibilului n jeturi este
constant. n acest caz, mrimea dozei de combustibil injectat n
ciclul motor este stabilit de timpul total comandat de
deschidere a injectorului. La proiectarea echipamentului de
injecie, timpul total de deschidere a injectorului n fiecare ciclu
este fixat innd seama de viscozitatea combustibilului vizat. n
cazul n care se folosete un combustibil cu viscozitate mai
mare, procesul de laminare se va desfura cu debite mai mici
i, dat fiind durata total fix a injeciei, acest lucru va
conduce la o micorare a dozei de combustibil injectat n ciclu.
Ca urmare, puterea efectiv livrat de motor va fi mai redus.
Conductele de injecie au rolul de a asigura legtura
hidraulic ntre injectoare i pompa de injecie sau, dup caz,
rampa comun. Dei influenele la acest nivel sunt
neglijabile, trebuie spus c i curgerea combustibilului prin
aceste conducte este influenat, sub aspectul cantitilor de
energie consumate, de viscozitatea acestuia.

3. Fenomene i factori de influen n interiorul
cilindrului
Combustibilul introdus prin injecie n cilindrul motorului, sub
forma unuia sau mai multor jeturi, ptrunde ntr-un mediu
constituit, n principiu, dintr-o cantitate de aer (ncrctura
proaspt) nclzit n urma procesului de comprimare i
aflat ntr-o micare de agitaie promovat prin arhitectura
traseului de admisie. ntr-o succesiune formal, dup ptrunderea
n cilindru, doza de combustibil este supus pulverizrii, vaporizrii,
amestecrii cu aerul, autoaprinderii i arderii. Este de menionat
faptul c, dincolo de unele suprapuneri ale acestor procese n
ciclul motor real, desfurarea eficient a fenomenelor reclam
ca pulverizarea, vaporizarea i amestecarea cu aerul unite,
generic, sub denumirea de formare a amestecului s se
realizeze ct mai rapid. Bineneles, toate aceste procese
prezint dependene marcante de unele proprieti ale
combustibilului.
Pulverizarea combustibilului are loc sub efectul combinat
al unor vibraii induse n jet n timpul curgerii n regim
supracritic din timpul laminrii i al frecrii cu aerul din cilindru.
Procesul de pulverizare depinde, mai ales sub aspectul calitativ
al mrimii picturilor, de tensiunea superficial a combustibilului.
Vaporizarea combustibilului se desfoar la suprafaa
picturilor de combustibil pulverizat, n urma contactului acestora
cu aerul cald din cilindru. Firete, n condiiile date, ritmul de
vaporizare depinde de cldura specific a combustibilului i
de cldura latent de vaporizare a acestuia.
Amestecarea cu aerul a vaporilor de combustibil are loc n
urma antrenrii acestora n micrile turbulente ale aerului
comprimat din cilindru. Singura proprietate a combustibilului
care influeneaz acest proces este masa molecular,
dar influenele sunt neglijabile n raport cu cele ale
intensitii turbulenelor amintite.
Autoaprinderea este un proces complex, polistadial, marcat
de numeroase influene ale compoziiei i structurii moleculelor
de combustibil. Formal, toate aceste influene au fost cumulate
ntr-o proprietate specific exprimat prin cifra cetanic a
combustibilului, care exprim printr-un numr tendina de
autoaprindere a amestecului format n condiiile existente n
cilindrul unui motor etalon.
Arderea combustibilului are loc, n principiu, prin
propagarea flcrilor din nucleele de autoaprindere pe
amestecurile preformate existente n cilindru. n realitate,
acest model de desfurare este valabil, simultan sau
succesiv, numai pentru zone limitate din volumul cilindrului,
micrile mediului i suprapunerile de fenomene ducnd la o
imagine haotic, dar progresiv, de petrecere a arderii. n
aceste condiii, evaluarea procesului de ardere poate fi fcut

54
done under two aspects, namely the quantity of heat
developed and composition of combustion products.
Apart from some aspects of the quality of the specific
combustion engine, the quantity of heat developed by
combustion of the fuel is dose-dependent low calorific
power of it. Regarding compounds combustion
compozition, must to observe the influence of ultimate
composition of the fuel. Thus, the number of carbon
atoms and hydrogen molecule determine the proportions
of carbon dioxide and water - products of normal perfect
combustion - from the combustion gases discharged
from the engine. The existence of molecules in fuels
(alcohols, vegetable oils, biodiesel) of oxygen atoms is
likely to lead to a more complete combustion, with the
evacuation of lower quantities of pollutants such as
carbon monoxide and solid particles carbon.

4. The ranked inventory of relevant properties of
alternative liquid fuels
Prepare an inventory of relevant properties of liquid
fuels that can be used to power Diesel engines and the
ranking of these properties requires a reasoned selection
of some of the properties, the factors that influence the
descriptions above. One such approach involves
defining the purpose for which the inventory can be used
and criteria for ranking.
Therefore, it is proposed an inventory of properties to
be assessed when one wishes to use a certain
alternative fuel to power a Diesel engine designed for
diesel fuel, in policarburate regime defined by the
convenient and rapid possibility of passage from supply
with diesel fuel to alternative fuel and vice versa. Criteria
for determining the hierarchy of these properties, and in
order, lack of need for special measures to supply
alternative energy to maintain engine performance within
reasonable limits, unaffecting and safety in operation
and sustainability of the engine. In these circumstances,
the following properties can be considered:
1. Fuel homogeneity in the normal fuel supply, both in
terms of phase and that of the composition, guarantee
the possibility of food-cycle engine;
2. Cetane number of fuel indicates, depending on its
value, a fuel capability of self-ignition engine operation in
hot and cold engine startup. That allows the use of fuel
in the engine warm, but do not start the engine cold,
requires the conduct of dual feeding - the supply of oil
at startup and during heating and fuel switching to
alternative power supply to achieve normal thermal
regime;
3. Lower calorific value of fuel is a measure of
chemical potential energy invested in the engine cycle. It
is expected that when using a fuel compatible with motor
processes, but with a lower calorific value different from
that of diesel, the difference in calorific value to be
reflected as a sense of order and size, the power
developed by the engine;
4. Viscosity of fuel has influenced almost all the
sequences of feeding the working cycle. Most of these
influences relate to quantities of energy that the engine
consumed in the food. However, the influence of the
viscosity of fuel is one that shapes the forces of
mechanisms of injection equipment engines in classical
injection technology because the uncontrolled growth of
forces, manifested in the use of a fuel with higher
viscosity can have devastating effects equipment for
sustainability.
5. The vapor pressure of fuel has relatively hidden
influences and effects over time. Thus, at the use of an
alternative fuel having a vapor pressure higher than that
of diesel fuel, it is possible the emergence of the cavity
sub dou aspecte i anume cantitatea de cldur dezvoltat
i compoziia produilor de ardere. Dincolo de unele aspecte
privind calitatea procesului de ardere specific motorului,
cantitatea de cldur dezvoltat prin arderea complet a
dozei de combustibil este dependent de puterea caloric
inferioar a acestuia. n ceea ce privete compoziia
compuilor de ardere, trebuie observat influena
compoziiei moleculare a combustibilului. Astfel, numrul
de atomi de carbon i de hidrogen din molecul decid
proporiile de dioxid de carbon i de ap produi normali ai
arderii perfecte din gazele de ardere evacuate din motor.
De asemenea, existena n moleculele unor combustibili
(alcooli, uleiuri vegetale, biodiesel) a unor atomi de oxigen
este de natur s conduc la o ardere mai complet, cu
evacuarea unor cantiti mai reduse de noxe cum ar fi
monoxidul de carbon i particulele solide de carbon.

4. Inventarul ierarhizat al proprietilor relevante ale
combustibililor lichizi alternativi
ntocmirea unui inventar al proprietilor relevante ale
combustibililor lichizi ce pot fi folosii pentru alimentarea
motoarelor Diesel i ierarhizarea acestor proprieti presupune o
selectare argumentat a unora dintre proprietile menionate, ca
factori de influen, n descrierile de mai sus. Un asemenea
demers presupune definirea scopului n care acest inventar
poate fi folosit i stabilirea criteriilor de ierarhizare.
Aadar, se propune un inventar al proprietilor care
trebuie evaluate atunci cnd se dorete folosirea unui
combustibil alternativ oarecare, la alimentarea unui motor
Diesel construit pentru alimentarea cu motorin, n regim
de policarburare definit de posibilitatea de trecere comod
i rapid de la alimentarea cu motorin la alimentarea
alternativ i invers. Criteriile de stabilire a ierarhiei acestor
proprieti vizeaz, n ordine, lipsa nevoii de msuri speciale
pentru alimentarea alternativ, meninerea performanelor
energetice ale motorului n limite rezonabile i neafectarea
siguranei n funcionare i a durabilitii motorului. n aceste
condiii, pot considerate urmtoarele proprieti:
1. Omogenitatea combustibilului n condiiile normale de
alimentare, att sub aspectul fazei ct i sub acela al compoziiei,
constituie garania posibilitii de alimentare a ciclului motor;
2. Cifra cetanic a combustibilului indic, n funcie de
valoarea ei, capabilitatea unui combustibil de a se autoaprinde
n funcionarea motorului cald i la pornirea motorului rece.
Faptul c un combustibil permite utilizarea n motorul cald, dar
nu asigur pornirea motorului rece, impune adoptarea
conduitei de alimentare dual alimentarea cu motorin la
pornire i pe timpul nclzirii i comutarea alimentrii pe
combustibilul alternativ la atingerea regimului termic normal;
3. Puterea caloric inferioar a combustibilului este o
msur a energiei poteniale chimice investite n ciclul
motor. Este de ateptat ca atunci cnd se folosete un
combustibil compatibil cu procesele din motor, dar cu o
putere caloric inferioar diferit de aceea a motorinei,
diferena de putere caloric s fie reflectat, ca sens i
ordin de mrime, la nivelul puterii dezvoltate de motor;
4. Viscozitatea combustibilului are influene n aproape
toate secvenele alimentrii ciclului motor. Cele mai multe
dintre aceste influene se refer la cantitile de energie pe
care motorul le consum n procesul de alimentare. Totui,
influena cea mai important a viscozitii combustibilului este
aceea care modeleaz forele din mecanismele echipamentului
de injecie la motoarele cu tehnologie de injecie clasic,
deoarece creterile necontrolate de fore, manifestate n
cazul folosirii unui combustibil cu viscozitate mai ridicat, pot
avea efecte devastatoare pentru durabilitatea echipamentului.
5. Presiunea de vapori a combustibilului are influene
relativ ascunse i cu efecte n timp. Astfel, la folosirea
unui combustibil alternativ cu presiune de vapori mai
ridicat dect aceea a motorinei, este posibil apariia

55
and destruction, through specific mechanisms of this
phenomenon, of the route of the fuel suction from the
pumping equipment.

5. CONCLUSIONS
The ranked inventory for relevant properties of liquid
fuels aimed for Diesel engines policarburation, shown above
in a deliberately minimal variant, aims to have practical
values. Thus, the experimentors foolhardy, who want to
try to find some empirical ways for policarburation of
Diesel engines designed for diesel fuel, can use the
inventory to determine what properties of the alternative
fuel must be compared with those of diesel fuel and
which are the risks of using a fuel with significantly
different properties. In turn, researchers who aim to find
new formulas for fuels in view of partial or total
substitution of diesel fuel, can learn through the entire
work, the whole picture of existing conditionings between
the searched fuel properties and engines Diesel aimed
as beneficiary of these fuels.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Aram, C.; Grnwald, B. - Motoare cu ardere intern.
Procese i caracteristici. Editura Tehnic, Bucureti
1966
2. Bosch, R. - Diesel-engine Management. McGraw-Hill
Mechanical Engineering, N.Y., 2003
3. Vasilescu, C. A. .a. - Corelaiile dintre combustibilul
lichid i motorul cu ardere intern. Editura Academiei,
Bucureti, 1972
cavitaiei i distrugerea, prin mecanismele specifice
acestui fenomen, a traseului de aspiraie a combustibilului
n elementele de pompare din echipament.

5. CONCLUZII
Inventarul ierarhizat al proprietilor relevante ale
combustibililor lichizi vizai pentru policarburarea motoarelor
Diesel, prezentat mai sus ntr-o variant voit minimal, i
propune s aib valene practice. Astfel, experimentatorii
temerari, care doresc s ncerce gsirea empiric a unor
variante de policarburare a motoarelor Diesel construite
pentru alimentarea cu motorin, pot folosi inventarul pentru a
afla ce proprieti ale combustibilului alternativ vizat trebuiesc
comparate cu cele ale motorinei i care sunt riscurile folosirii
unui combustibil cu proprieti semnificativ diferite. La rndul
lor, cercettorii care i propun gsirea de noi formule de
combustibili pentru substituirea parial sau total a motorinei pot
afla, parcurgnd ntrega lucrare, ntregul tablou al condiionrilor
existente ntre proprietile combustibililor cutai i motoarele
Diesel vizate ca beneficiare ale acestor combustibili.

BIBLIOGRAFIE
1966
2. Bosch, R. - Diesel-engine Management. McGraw-Hill
Mechanical Engineering, N.Y., 2003
3. Vasilescu, C. A. .a. - Corelaiile dintre combustibilul
lichid i motorul cu ardere intern. Editura Academiei,
Bucureti, 1972


56

VARIANTS TACKLED IN POLYCARBURATION PRACTICE OF DIESEL ENGINES
DESIGNED TO BE FED WITH DIESEL OIL
/
VARIANTE ABORDABILE N PRACTICA POLICARBURRII MOTOARELOR DIESEL
CONSTRUITE PENTRU ALIMENTAREA CU MOTORIN


Abstract. The current level of world economy and its
forecasted growing rates have brought to up-to-date the
necessity of finding and developing the alternative and
renewable energy sources. Certainly the relevant also
aim the fuels designed to feed the internal combustion
engines the most mature and spread sources of
producing local energy and the first resource which
has been updated is represented by biofuels. This paper
presents a realistic analysis of modalities in which is
made possible the biofuels use extent to Diesel engines
feeding and this extention rates. Within this context,
some possible approaches are emphasized related to
the relatively rapid extension of first extraction liquid
biofuels (vegetable oils and alcohols) and on which in
authors opinion the field researches should be
focused.

Keywords: Biofuels, Diesel engine, policarburation

1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The facts. Use on large-scale growing in the last
century, fossil fuels has been and is likely to rise to the
problems of mankind whose conjuctural amplification led
to crisis situations. One such issue is the awareness that
the pace of alert more consumption of fossil fuels is likely
to approach the term depletion of existing reserves.
Another problem, linked to the accelerated spread of
vehicles, loading is more accentuated with pollutants
produced the inherent deviations from ideal combustion
the atmosphere in large urban areas. Finally, changes
in the climate-sensitive land in the last period brought to
the attention of a general product of the normal
combustion carbon dioxide whose presence in
increasing concentrations in the atmosphere leads to the
well-known greenhouse effect. In the current stage of
technology development, internal combustion engines
are the only energy source that can operate
independently in terms of mobility or isolation with a
satisfactory efficiency. This favorable feature, which led
to explosive development of the phenomenon of
dodget-up-ing in human affairs, but is accompanied by
issues that are unfavorable, at least look at the global
level, are likely to create problems and natural
responses to them. Thus, internal combustion engines
consume, generally comes from fossil fuels and
associated spread their explosive, are responsible for
higher rates as their operation is accompanied by
emission in the atmosphere natural produced by burning
carbon carbon dioxide and some specific compounds
nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbon fractions, soot particles
etc. that are toxic, in varying degrees, for the living.
Perspective. Studies relating to the prospects of
development of mankind require that, in the current
tumult of industrialization, will reach the motor rhythms
that will mean, at least for the next 20 years, doubling
the number of engines in use in every ten years. In these
circumstances, it is expected that the fuel consumption
and pollution is increasingly obvious.
Global response. Human side of issues are referred
Rezumat. Nivelul actual atins de economia mondial i
ritmurile prognozate de cretere a acesteia au adus n
actualitate necesitatea gsirii i dezvoltrii unor surse
alternative i regenerabile de energie. Bineneles, cutrile
vizeaz i combustibilii pentru alimentarea motoarelor cu
ardere intern cele mai mature i cele mai rspndite surse
de producere local a energiei i prima resurs readus, de
fapt, n actualitate este cea a biocarburanilor. Lucrarea
prezint o analiz realist a modurilor n care este posibil
extinderea folosirii biocarburanilor la alimentarea motoarelor
Diesel i a ritmurilor n care este posibil aceast extindere.
n acest context, sunt evideniate unele posibile abordri care
permit extinderea relativ rapid a folosirii biocarburanilor
lichizi de prim extracie (uleiuri vegetale i alcooli) i asupra
crora dup opinia autorului ar trebui s se concentreze
cercetrile de profil.

Cuvinte cheie: Biocarburani, motor Diesel, policarburare

Starea de fapt. Folosirea, pe scar tot mai larg n ultimul
secol, a combustibililor fosili a fost i este de natur s
ridice n faa omenirii unele probleme a cror amplificare
conjuctural a condus la situaii de criz. O astfel de
problem este contientizarea faptului c ritmul tot mai alert
al consumului de combustibili fosili este de natur s
apropie termenul epuizrii rezervelor existente. O alt problem,
legat de rspndirea accelerat a autovehiculelor, este
ncrcarea tot mai accentuat cu noxe produse inerente
ale abaterilor de la arderea ideal a atmosferei din marile
aglomerri urbane. n fine, schimbrile sensibile nregistrate
de clima terestr n ultima perioad au adus n atenia
general un produs principal al arderii normale dioxidul de
carbon a crui prezen n concentraii tot mai mari n atmosfer
conduce la binecunoscutul efect de ser. n stadiul actual
de dezvoltare a tehnologiilor, motoarele cu ardere intern
sunt singurele surse de energie care pot funciona independent,
n condiii de mobilitate sau de izolare i cu o eficien
satisfctoare. Aceast caracteristic favorabil, care a condus
la dezvoltarea exploziv a fenomenului de motorizare n
activitile umane, este nsoit ns i de aspecte defavorabile
care, cel puin privite la nivel global, sunt de natur s
creeze probleme i rspunsuri fireti la acestea. Astfel, motoarele
cu ardere intern consum, n general, combustibili de
provenien fosil i, asociat rspndirii lor explozive,
sunt responsabile de ritmurile nalte n care funcionarea
lor este nsoit de emisia n atmosfer a cuvenitului
produs de ardere a carbonului dioxidul de carbon i a
unor compui specifici oxizi de azot, fraciuni de
hidrocarburi, particule de funingine etc. care sunt
toxice, n diferite grade, pentru mediul viu.
Perspective. Studii de referin privind perspectivele de
dezvoltare a omenirii prevd c, n actuala efervescen
a industrializrii, motorizarea va atinge ritmuri care vor
nsemna, cel puin pentru urmtorii 20 de ani, dublarea
numrului de motoare aflate n exploatare la fiecare zece
ani. n aceste condiii, este de ateptat ca problemele
consumului de combustibil i polurii s fie tot mai pregnante.
Rspunsul global. Reaciile societii umane la aspectele

57
unfavorable more active lately and consist of well-
directed action in administrative which, normally,
manufacturers of engines and fuels they seek answers
to technical. Thus, rate increases in the use of oil
resources were opposed to administrative measures
such as limiting global production of crude oil, in the sea
of a quota system between its producers in order to
increase its price on the specific market and adding
taxes on refined petroleum products in order to
modeling fuel pump-price in line with global
consumption limits deemed acceptable. In the technical,
industry producing internal combustion engines
responded by developing more efficient engines as the
specific fuel consumption (specific consumption means
less pollution and fewer emissions per unit of energy
produced) and exhaust gas composition, and chemical
industry has intensified efforts to obtain alternative fuels,
some promoters of lower pollutant emissions and
possibly derived from renewable sources.
Organizational response. Effects of oil crisis episodes
in postwar period were always in a re-setting of oil price
at higher levels, with damaging consequences on world
economic balance and global economic and industrial
growth rate of all states. On the background of these
consequences in industrialized countries, the family of
industrialized countries was born the concept of energy
security, under the banner of which they were made
and initialed on the arrangements planned rates of
extraction and oil price developments predictable
marketing it. At the same time, the status of the energy
security has begun to be examined and developed the
concept of energy independence. Under the overall
energy issue, this concept has generated in each state
or groups of countries, development strategy and
promotion of technology intensive production of energy
such as nuclear fission reactors or technologies for
sustainable production energy such as hydroelectric
facilities. Under particular aspect, but very important as a
share of fuel for heat engines, the concept of energy
independence has enabled concerns to produce
alternative fuels.

2. GENERIC SOLUTION OF BIOFUELS FOR ENGINES
Concern for obtaining and use of alternative fuels for
engines is not new. One can even say that the use of
alternative fuels even biofuels is entered in the
genetics of internal combustion engines. Thus, on the
things in historical perspective, we can mention that at
the Universal Exhibition of 1900, in Paris, Rudolf Diesel
himself made a demonstration copy of the engine he
invented, operating with peanut oil. Moreover, intuit
problems like today concerns the field of alternative fuel
engine, Rudolf Diesel stated that in the year 1911, that
The engine can work with vegetable oil and this could
be a considerable aid to countries agriculture, and in
1912 stated that Using vegetable oils in engine power
may be devoid of significance today, but they may
become with time, as important as oil and coal now.
Also, in their long period of production, located in the first
decades of the last century, many famous series of car
Ford "Model T" were equipped with engine designed to
be fueled with ethanol. Other periods of concern for an
alternative supply of engines have been generated by
the "distortion" of history. Thus, during the Second World
War in Germany dominated by sea and unable to
award the Caucasian oil area was created a
technology for obtaining synthetic petrol by chemical
processing of lignite (concern IG Farben Industrie,
1943). Also, according to some reports, in the last
months of the war, Japanese contingents that operated
defavorabile menionate sunt tot mai active n ultimul timp i
constau din aciuni bine dirijate n plan administrativ crora, n
mod firesc, productorii de motoare i cei de combustibili le
caut rspunsuri n plan tehnic. Astfel, creterilor de ritm n
folosirea resurselor de petrol li s-au opus msuri administrative
cum ar fi limitarea produciei mondiale de iei, n condiiile
cartelrii acesteia ntre marii productori cu scopul de a
crete preul acestuia pe piaa specific i adugarea de
sarcini fiscale asupra produselor rafinate din petrol cu
scopul modelrii preului combustibililor "la pomp" n acord
cu limitele de consum global considerate acceptabile. n plan
tehnic, industria productoare de motoare cu ardere intern a
rspuns prin dezvoltarea de motoare tot mai performante sub
aspectele consumurilor specifice de combustibil (consumuri
specifice mai mici nseamn i emisii poluante mai puine pe
unitatea de energie obinut) i compoziiei gazelor evacuate,
iar industria chimic i-a intensificat eforturile de obinere de
combustibili alternativi, promotori ai unor emisii poluante mai
reduse i posibil de obinut din surse regenerabile.
Rspunsul organizaional. Efectele episoadelor de criz
petrolier din perioada postbelic au constat ntotdeauna ntr-
o reaezare a preului petrolului la niveluri mai ridicate, cu
consecine nefaste asupra echilbrelor economice mondiale i
ritmurilor de cretere industrial ale tuturor statelor. Pe
fundalul acestor consecine, n familia rilor industrializate s-
a nscut conceptul de securitate energetic, sub stindardul
cruia au fost fcute i parafate aranjamente privind ritmuri
planificate ale extraciei ieiului i evoluii predictibile ale
preurilor de comercializare a acestuia. n acelai timp, cu
statut de parte n securitatea energetic, a nceput s fie
examinat i s-a dezvoltat conceptul de independen
energetic. Sub aspect energetic general, acest concept a
generat, la nivelul fiecrui stat sau al unor grupuri de state,
strategii de dezvoltare i promovare a unor tehnologii
intensive de obinere a energiei cum ar fi reactoarele
nucleare cu fisiune sau a unor tehnologii durabile de
obinere a energiei cum ar fi amenajrile hidroenergetice.
Sub aspectul particular, dar foarte important ca pondere, al
combustibililor pentru motoarele termice, conceptul de
independen energetic a activat preocupri pentru
obinerea de combustibili alternativi.

2. Soluia generic a biocarburanilor pentru motoare
Preocuparea pentru obinerea i folosirea de combustibili
alternativi pentru motoare nu este nou. Se poate chiar afirma c
folosirea combustibililor alternativi chiar a biocombustibililor
este nscris n genetica motoarelor cu ardere intern.
Astfel, privind lucrurile din perspectiv istoric, putem meniona
faptul c, la Expoziia Universal din anul 1900, de la Paris,
nsui Rudolf Diesel a fcut demonstraii cu un exemplar al
motorului inventat de el, funcionnd cu ulei de arahide. Mai
mult, intuind parc problemele i preocuprile legate astzi
de domeniul combustibililor alternativi pentru motoare, acelai
Rudolf Diesel afirma, n anul 1911, c Motorul poate funciona
cu ulei vegetal i acest lucru ar putea fi un ajutor considerabil
pentru agricultura rilor respective, iar n anul 1912 declara
c Folosirea uleiurilor vegetale la alimentarea motoarelor
poate fi lipsit de importan astzi, dar acestea pot deveni,
cu trecerea timpului, la fel de importante cum sunt petrolul i
crbunele n prezent. De asemenea, n ndelungata lor perioad
de producere, situat n primele decenii ale secolului trecut,
numeroase serii ale celebrului automobil Ford Model T au
fost dotate cu motoare concepute s fie alimentate cu etanol.
Alte perioade de preocupri pentru alimentarea alternativ a
motoarelor au fost generate de distorsiuni ale istoriei. Astfel,
n timpul celui de al doilea rzboi mondial, n Germania
dominat pe mare i incapabil s-i adjudece zona
petrolier caucazian a fost creat o tehnologie de obinere
a benzinelor sintetice prin prelucrarea chimic a lignitului
(concernul IG Farben Industrie, 1943). De asemenea, potrivit

58
in conditions of isolation in Southeast Asia, have flat
agony practicing warlike power of Diesel engines
equipped with eucalyptus oil. Unfortunately, the
conditions in which the Japanese surrender and the
priorities related to effective conclusion as soon as
possible hostilities, made possible by the experimental
value of this practice remain unknown. More recently,
under pressure from oil crisis orchestrated political
from the beginning of the eighth decade of the last
century, large building cars companies (General Motors
in the U.S., Audi and DaimlerBenz in Europe) made out
with vehicles whose engines were fitted with
equipment specifically designed for injection using
crude vegetable oils. The results of these tests were
satisfactory, the only problems related to the occurrence
of gums deposits in the injection facilities and in
cylinders. Unfortunately, the relatively rapid removal of
said oil crisis, followed by an unprecedented release of
petroleum resources, has led to the abandonment
ofvisible research in this direction.
Alternative fuels to power internal combustion engines
have, obviously, do not contain oil intake and to be, in a
term related to real exhaustion of petroleum resources,
produced in sufficient quantities to cover all the current
rational needs . In these circumstances, if we can obtain
the abstraction of hydrogen by the decomposition of
water using solar energy variation that can be
disregarded for that use hydrogen to power internal
combustion engines raises some difficult problems to
solve, the only affordable renewable fuels to make
alternative fuels for engines are those of biological origin.
Therefore, the solution viable alternative fuel, produced
from renewable sources to power internal combustion
engine is represented by biofuels. This assertion is
supported by some achievements which currently are
already exploited commercially and are in full stage of
technological development. Alternative use of biofuels, in
fact, a sustainable solution for use of internal
combustion engines. Thus, the potential reserve of
biofuels is limited in rate of use, but is not exhausted,
being regenerated by periodic cycles of life of energy
plants. Also, the presence of oxygen atoms in complex
molecules of a burning biofuels favors closer to
perfection and, in this way, the amount of pollutants from
combustion gases is lower. Finally, the most important,
burning biofuels does not contribute to increasing the
greenhouse effect as carbon dioxide emitted is formed
on the basis of fossil carbon, as with conventional
fuels, but the intake part of participating in the natural
carbon cycle in the atmosphere.

3. REALISTIC APPROACH TO FEEDING DIESEL
ENGINES WITH BIOFUELS
By spreading and their high rates of use, diesel
engines are responsible for a significant share of total
consumption of fossil fuels of mankind. Therefore, the
current concerns for promoting biofuels as an alternative
supply of Diesel engines are legitimate, especially if
account is taken of the prospects mentioned by the
increase in engine operation and a clear trend of
increase in total Diesel engines units new products.
The problem of selection of those types of biofuels
that can be considered alternative, viable and applicable
in a near time horizon, to power diesel engines claim
establish criteria for choice. The main criteria that can be
used for this purpose are:
availability of raw materials from renewable sources
and stable;
availability of mature technologies and cost-effective
production;
unor relatri, n ultimele luni ale rzboiului, contigentele japoneze
ce operau, n condiii de izolare, n Asia de sud-est, i-au
lungit agonia belicoas practicnd alimentarea motoarelor
Diesel din dotare cu ulei de eucalipt. Din pcate, condiiile n
care Japonia a capitulat i prioritile legate de ncheierea
efectiv ct mai rapid a ostilitilor, a fcut ca aspectele cu
eventual valoare experimental din aceast practic s
rmn necunoscute. Mai recent, sub presiunea crizei
petroliere orchestrat politic de la nceputul celui de-al
optulea deceniu al secolului trecut, mari firme constructoare
de autovehicule (General Motors n SUA, Audi i Daimler
Benz n Europa) au fcut ncercri cu autovehicule ale cror
motoare au fost dotate cu echipamente de injecie concepute
special pentru utilizarea uleiurilor vegetale crude.
Rezultatele acestor ncercri au fost mulumitoare, singurele
probleme aprute innd de apariia unor depuneri de gume
n instalaiile de injecie i n interiorul cilindrilor. Din nefericire,
ieirea relativ rapid din criza petrolier menionat, urmat
de o disponibilizare fr precedent a resurselor petroliere, a
dus la abandonarea cercetrilor vizibile pe aceast direcie.
Combustibilii alternativi pentru alimentarea motoarelor cu
ardere intern trebuie, evident, s nu conin aport petrolier i
s poat fi, ntr-o perspectiv ce ine de termenul real de
epuizare a resurselor petroliere, produi n cantiti suficiente
pentru acoperirea tuturor nevoilor curente raionale. n aceste condiii,
dac facem abstracie de posibilitatea obinerii de hidrogen
prin descompunerea apei folosind energia solar variant ce
poate fi neglijat pentru c folosirea hidrogenului la alimentarea
motoarelor cu ardere intern ridic unele probleme greu de
rezolvat, singurele resurse regenerabile abordabile n vederea
obinerii combustibililor alternativi pentru motoare sunt cele de
sorginte biologic. Prin urmare, soluia viabil de combustibili
alternativi, obinui din surse regenerabile, pentru alimentarea
motoarelor cu ardere intern este reprezentat de biocombustibili.
Aceast afirmaie este susinut de unele realizri care, la
momentul actual, sunt deja exploatate comercial i se afl n
plin faz de dezvoltare tehnologic. Alternativa utilizrii biocombustibililor
constituie, n principiu, o soluie durabil pentru utilizarea motoarelor
cu ardere intern. Astfel, rezerva potenial de biocombustibili
este limitat ca ritm de utilizare, dar nu este epuizabil, fiind
periodic regenerat prin ciclurile de via ale plantelor
energetice. De asemenea, prezena unor atomi de oxigen n
moleculele complexe ale biocombustibililor favorizeaz o ardere
mai aproape de perfeciune a acestora i, pe aceast cale,
cantitatea de noxe degajat la ardere este mai redus. n
fine, aspectul cel mai important, arderea biocombustibililor nu
contribuie la sporirea efectului de ser, deoarece dioxidul de
carbon emis nu este format pe baza carbonului fosil, ca n
cazul combustibililor convenionali, ci prin aportul unei pri
din carbonul care particip la ciclul natural al acestuia n atmosfer.

3. ABORDAREA REALIST A ALIMENTRII MOTOARELOR
DIESEL CU BIOCOMBUSTIBILI
Prin rspndirea lor i ritmurile ridicate de utilizare, motoarele
Diesel sunt responsabile de o parte nsemnat din consumul
total de combustibili fosili ai omenirii. Prin urmare, preocuprile
actuale pentru promovarea biocombustibililor ca alternativ
de alimentare a motoarelor Diesel sunt legitime, mai ales dac
se ine seama de perspectivele menionate de cretere a numrului
de motoare aflate n exploatare i de tendina clar de cretere a
ponderii motoarelor Diesel n totalul de uniti nou produse.
Problema seleciei acelor categorii de biocombustibili care
pot fi considerate alternative, viabile i aplicabile ntr-un orizont
de timp apropiat, pentru alimentarea motoarelor Diesel
pretinde stabilirea unor criterii de alegere. Principalele
criterii ce pot fi utilizate n acest scop sunt urmtoarele:
disponibilitatea materiilor prime din surse stabile i
regenerabile;
existena unor tehnologii mature i rentabile de
obinere;

59
the safe storage and handling;
compatibility with existing engines in the current
operation.
Availability of raw materials from stable renewable
sources is a subject in dispute. In the context of
accelerated increases of fuel consumption, the only
alternative to using raw materials derived from energy
crops and to some opinions that forecast a future food
crisis, was launched debate biofuels versus food. If
you take into account the potential of intensive
development of energy crops (which can be obtained by
improving the plants concerned and the improvement of
cultivation technologies) and the possible expansion of
the global raw materials (use of waste products
household and industrial, use of seaweed cultivation
etc.), we can look at the issue further sources of raw
materials to produce biofuels with reserved optimism.
As regards the possibilities of obtaining, the current
technologies are safe and effective for the main first
generation biofuels. Thus, we have mature technology
and traditional right to obtain alcohol and "dry" it (the
release of water to concentrations of at least 95%) and
for obtaining and purification vegetable oils. Also, in
recent decades have been successfully developed
technologies to produce biogas and processing
vegetable oils and biodiesel obtained.
The safety storage and handling of biofuels produced
are significantly higher than those produced by fossil fuel
counterparts. This claim is based on the fact that biofuels
have ignition temperatures equal or higher than their
counterparts, are completely deprived of toxicity and
totally biodegradable.
Compatibility of biofuels with existing engines in the
current operation requires a more nuanced analysis,
starting from the justification of this criterion.
Indicating a type of biofuel as an alternative option to
supply Diesel engines involves finding solutions to
several issues. First aspect concerns the access safe
and relatively easy for users of biofuel in engines and in
this regard included the manufacture, distribution and
disposal at levels comparable to those attained in the
fuel oil. The second aspect involves setting clear any
engine changes or additional features to be added, for
the supply of biofuel to be possible and profitable. Point
out that profitability should confirm a favorable balance
between fault of equipment modifications needed and
some benefits (lower costs of fuel and / or maintenance,
the entry of consciousness into a current ecological
etc.). Finally, a third aspect, the binding was the practice
until the use of biofuel in question loses its character of
novelty and becomes a current matter, is ensuring the
possibility of returning to simple supply of fuel oil.
Basically, this last point lies in ensuring the operation of
engines in policarburation mode, definite by possibility of
convenient and rapid transition from diesel fuel to supply
alternative and vice versa.
Once given these issues, it can switch to compatibility
analysis for engines types in service of biofuels that we
have established that there are mature technologies and
cost-effective production.
Biodiesel is the only target of biofuels, which
currently can replace partially or wholly used to power
diesel engines Diesel, in conditions of minimum
intervention to them (the replacement of rubber
elements with similar, made of a material most
appropriate) and the possibility of natural
policarburation. However, obtaining this biofuel from
vegetable oils or fats processing presents a
disadvantage relatively complicated, which is
profitable only on a large scale, using ingredients of
nivelul de siguran la stocare i manipulare;
compatibilitatea cu motoarele existente n exploatarea
curent.
Disponibilitatea materiilor prime din surse stabile i
regenerabile este un subiect aflat n disput. n contextul
creterilor accelerate al consumurilor de combustibili,
privind numai la alternativa folosirii materiilor prime obinute
din culturi energetice i la unele preri care prognozeaz o
viitoare criz alimentar, a fost lansat dezbaterea
biocombustibili contra hran. Dac inem seama de
potenialele dezvoltri intensive ale culturilor energetice (care
pot fi obinute prin ameliorarea plantelor vizate i
mbuntirea tehnologiilor de cultivare) i de posibile lrgiri
ale bazei globale de materii prime (folosirea unor deeuri i
subproduse casnice i industriale, folosirea culturilor de alge
etc.), putem privi problema surselor viitoare de materii prime
pentru obinerea biocombustibililor cu un optimism rezervat.
n privina posibilitilor de obinere, la momentul actual exist
tehnologii sigure i rentabile pentru principalii biocombustibili
de prima generaie. Astfel, dispunem de tehnologii mature i
chiar tradiionale pentru obinerea alcoolului etilic i uscarea
acestuia (eliberarea de ap pn la concentraii de cel puin
95 %) i pentru obinerea i purificarea uleiurilor vegetale. De
asemenea, n ultimele decenii au fost dezvoltate tehnologii de
succes pentru obinerea de biogaz i pentru prelucrarea
uleiurilor vegetale i obinerea biodieselului.
Nivelurile de siguran la stocare i manipulare prezentate
de biocombustibili sunt net superioare celor prezentate de
combustibilii fosili omologi. Aceast afirmaie se bazeaz pe
faptul c biocombustibilii au temperaturi de aprindere egale
sau mai ridicate dect omologii lor, sunt complet lipsii de
toxicitate i total biodegradabili.
Compatibilitatea biocombustibililor cu motoarele existente
n exploatarea curent necesit o analiz mai nuanat,
plecnd chiar de la justificarea acestui criteriu.
Indicarea unui tip de biocombustibil ca variant alternativ
pentru alimentarea motoarelor Diesel presupune gsirea de
soluii pentru mai multe aspecte. Primul aspect vizeaz accesul
sigur i relativ comod al utilizatorilor de motoare la biocombustibilul
respectiv i n acest aspect sunt incluse problemele fabricrii,
distribuiei i desfacerii la niveluri comparabile cu cele atinse n
domeniul combustibililor petrolieri. Al doilea aspect presupune
stabilirea clar a eventualelor modificri ale motoarelor, sau dotrile
suplimentare ce trebuiesc adugate acestora, pentru ca
alimentarea cu biocombustibil s fie posibil i rentabil. Precizm
c rentabilitatea trebuie s confirme un bilan favorabil ntre
deranjul modificrilor sau dotrilor necesare i unele beneficii
(cheltuieli mai mici cu combustibilul i/sau ntreinerea, contiina
nscrierii ntr-un curent ecologic etc.). n fine, un al treilea
aspect, obligatoriu de avut n vedere pn cnd practica
folosirii biocombustibilului respectiv i pierde caracterul de
noutate i devine una curent, ine de asigurarea posibilitii
de rentoarcere simpl la alimentarea cu combustibili petrolieri.
Practic, acest ultim aspect revine la asigurarea funcionrii
motoarelor n regimul de policarburare definit de posibilitatea de
trecere comod i rapid de la alimentarea cu motorin la
alimentarea alternativ i invers.
Odat precizate aceste aspecte, se poate trece la
analiza compatibilitii cu motoarele aflate n serviciu a
tipurilor de biocombustibili pentru care am stabilit c exist
tehnologii mature i rentabile de obinere.
Biodieselul este singurul dintre biocombustibilii vizai
care, la momentul actual, poate nlocui parial sau
total motorina folosit la alimentarea motoarelor
Diesel, n condiii de minim intervenie la acestea
(nlocuirea unor elemente din cauciuc cu unele
similare, fabricate dintr-un material mai adecvat) i cu
posibilitatea fireasc de policarburare. Totui,
obinerea acestui biocombustibil din uleiuri vegetale
sau alte grsimi prezint dezavantajul unei prelucrri
relativ complicate, care este rentabil numai pe scar

60
high-risk environment (methanol and sodium
hydroxide).
Vegetable oils, gums escaped in advance, can be
directly used to power Diesel engines, provided with
injection equipment specially designed for this fuel.
Obviously, such a practice makes it difficult to conduct
policarburation because return to oil feeding will claim
the change of the injection equipment with one
designed for diesel oil. You said that at present, some
limited practices are reported about alternative uses
of vegetable oils to supply agricultural tractor (United
States, Germany, France), using a technology in
which gums-free oils are heated from the cooling of
the engine. Such practices are somewhat
controversial, because heating to about 100 C is not
likely to sufficiently reduce the viscosity of oils and
increases the task of injection equipment, due to high
viscosity, often causing damage to them. Also
reported to be a sporadic partial replacement of diesel
fuel using mixtures gas - crude oil. The relative
silence of the scientific specialists in this conduct, in
spite of some media, is likely to give thought to.
In essence, vegetable oils and biodiesel prepared
from them is a variant of total feeding Diesel engines
with biofuels first extraction. Summary description of
this behavior is shown in Figure 1.
mare i folosete ingrediente cu risc ridicat de mediu
(metanol i hidroxid de sodiu).
Uleiurile vegetale, degumate n prealabil, pot fi folosite
direct pentru alimentarea motoarelor Diesel, cu condiia
instalrii pe acestea a unor echipamente de injecie special
concepute pentru acest tip de combustibil. Evident, o astfel
de conduit face dificil practica policarburrii, pentru c
revenirea la motorin va reclama schimbarea instalaiei de
injecie dedicat uleiului cu aceea conceput pentru
motorin. Trebuie spus c, n prezent, sunt semnalate
unele practici restrnse de utilizri alternative ale uleiurilor
vegetale la alimentarea tractoarelor agricole (Statele Unite,
Germania, Frana), folosind o tehnologie n care uleiurile
degumate sunt nclzite de la agentul de rcire din motor.
Astfel de practici sunt ntructva controversate, deoarece
nclzirea pn la circa 100C nu este de natur s reduc
suficient viscozitatea uleiurilor i creterile de sarcini din
echipamentele de injecie, datorate viscozitii mari, provoac
adesea defectarea acestora. De asemenea, trebuie semnalat
o sporadic nlocuire parial a motorinei prin folosirea de
mixturi motorin ulei vegetal crud. Relativa tcere a mediilor
tiinifice de specialitate fa de aceast conduit, n ciuda
unei oarecare mediatizri, este de natur s dea de gndit.
n esen, uleiurile vegetale i biodieselul preparat din
acestea reprezint o variant de alimentare a motoarelor
Diesel numai cu biocombustibili de prim extracie. Descrierea
sintetic a acestei conduite este prezentat n figura 1.

Fig. 1 - Posibilitile de alimentare alternativ a motoarelor Diesel numai cu biocombustibili de prim extracie/
Possibilities of alternative feeding of diesel engines using only the first extraction biofuels

Biogas is currently commonly used to power diesel
engines working in stationary regime and modified to
support this practice. Scale changes to be made a
Diesel engine to switch to biogas fuel is very high,
because the whole installation involves the
replacement feeding installation and adding an
ignition installation. Obviously, such changes may
remove the engine from target practice of
policarburation as defined above.
Bioethanol can be targeted as part of diesel fuel
substitute, but again, the changes to be made to the
engine are important. Thus, ethanol is to move oil
only little, the vapor pressure is much higher than that
of diesel fuel and acts as an inhibitor of self-ignition.
These issues requires that any dose of ethanol to be
introduced separately in the engine cycle and this
means equipping the engine with an additional
supply. In these circumstances, obtaining of
policarburation regime desired implies, at least,
coupling or uncoupling of the supply and recovery of
Biogazul este, la momentul actual, folosit frecvent n
alimentarea unor motoare Diesel exploatate n regim
staionar i modificate ca s accepte aceast practic.
Anvergura modificrilor care trebuie aduse unui motor
Diesel pentru trecerea la alimentarea cu biogaz este foarte
mare, deoarece presupune nlocuirea ntregii instalaii de
alimentare i adugarea unei instalaii de aprindere.
Evident, astfel de modificri ndeprteaz motorul vizat de
la practica policarburrii aa cum a fost definit mai sus.
Bioetanolul poate fi vizat ca substitut parial al motorinei
dar, din nou, modificrile ce trebuie aduse motorului sunt
importante. Astfel, etanolul este miscibil cu motorina
numai n mic msur, are presiunea de vapori mult mai
mare dect aceea a motorinei i acioneaz ca un
inhibitor de autoaprindere. Aceste aspecte oblig ca o
eventual doz de etanol s fie introdus separat n
ciclul motor i aceasta nseamn dotarea motorului cu o
instalaie suplimentar de alimentare. n aceste condiii,
obinerea regimului dorit de policarburare presupune, cel
puin, cuplri sau decuplri ale instalaiei de alimentare

61
ethanol on dosage adjustments of injection
installation.
Besides the practical use of mixtures containing
vegetable oils and diesel, use of biogas and bioethanol
are other possibilities for alternative food Diesel engines
with first extraction biofuels. Such behavior is
synthetical shown in Figure 2.
cu etanol i refacerea unor reglaje privind dozajul
injeciei de motorin.
Alturi de practica utilizrii mixturilor coninnd uleiuri
vegetale i motorin, folosirea biogazului i a bioetanolului
reprezint alte posibiliti de alimentare alternativ a
motoarelor Diesel cu biocombustibili de prim extracie.
Aceste conduite sunt prezentate sintetic n figura 2.

Fig. 2 - Alte posibiliti de alimentare alternativ a motoarelor Diesel cu biocombustibili de prim extracie/
Other possibilities of alternative feeding of diesel engines using only the first extraction biofuels

The descriptions above show that any possibility of
alternative power Diesel engines require that between
first production of alternative biofuel and its combustion
in the engine cylinders to intervene, either through
processing of biofuel (biodiesel case), or by modifying
the engine.

4. Possible "shortcuts" in the practice of feeding Diesel
engines with biofuels
Exposure above shows the current practice in power
Diesel engines with biofuels and technical reasons which
preclude the spread of this practice under the
policarburation regime. Of course, finding solutions to
simplify the way of first extraction biofuels in the
cylinders in a combustion engine is an interesting
challenge. But this raises the question: is this possible?
Advance here is a possible yes, launching the concept of
pre-feeding conditioning of the fuel used for Diesel
engines. Schematically, this practice is shown in Figure 3.
Descrierile de mai sus arat c orice variant de
alimentare alternativ a motoarelor Diesel impune ca
ntre prima extracie a biocombustibilului alternativ i
arderea acestuia n cilindrii motoarelor s se intervin
tehnic, fie prin prelucrarea biocombustibilului (cazul
biodieselului), fie prin modificarea motorului.

4. Posibile scurtturi n practica alimentrii
motoarelor Diesel cu biocombustibili
Expunerea de mai sus prezint stadiul actual n practica
alimentrii motoarelor Diesel cu biocarburani i motivele
tehnice care se opun rspndirii acestei practici n regim de
policarburare. Firete, gsirea unor soluii de simplificare a
drumului biocombustibililor de la prima extracie la arderea n
cilindrii unui motor constituie o provocare interesant. Se pune
ns ntrebarea: este acest lucru posibil? Avansm aici un
posibil rspuns afirmativ, lansnd conceptul de condiionare
antealimentare a combustibilului folosit pentru motoarele Diesel.
Schematic, aceast practic este prezentat n figura 3.

Fig. 3 - Condiionarea antealimentare ca variant pentru alimentarea alternativ a motoarelor diesel cu biocombustibili de prim extracie /
Pre-feeding conditioning technology as version for alternative feeding of diesel engines using first extraction biofuels

62

Technical intervention alleged that the concept would
address oil mixtures - oil, vegetable oils or forced
mixtures of bioethanol - diesel and should spend in a
conditioning device added by the interface between the
supply of engine and the injection installation. This
placement offers the advantage of lack of an intervention
on the engine itself and the possibility of convenient
returning to alternative power, so the policarburation, by
providing an alternative route to bypass the device.
Generic, conditioning the fuel will have to adjust the
parameters of their status so that the behavior of the fuel
to the engine cylinders to be as close to that of diesel.

5. Conclusions
Issues presented wish to draw attention to the
concept of pre-feeding conditioning of fuel in the context
of concerns for promoting biofuels as an alternative to
power diesel engines. The paper wants an invitation to
researchers attracted by the policarburation of Diesel
engines with biofuels, and in equal measure, potential
beneficiaries who believe in the future of these practices and
wish to participate in development and their implementation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1966
2. Nicolescu, M. A. - Incisivitate i precauie n
promovarea de combustibili alternativi pentru motoarele
cu ardere intern. Sesiunea INMATEH 2006 II,
Bucureti, mai 2006
3. Nicolescu, M. A. - Biocombustibili pentru alimentarea
motoarelor diesel: clasificare, vocabular, probleme n
utilizare. Sesiunea INMATEH 2007 II, Bucureti,
septembrie 2007
4. Roberts, P. Sfritul petrolului. Editura Litera
Internaional, Bucureti 2008.
Intervenia tehnic presupus de acest concept ar urma s
se adreseze mixturilor ulei vegetal motorin, uleiurilor vegetale
sau unor mixturi forate bioetanol motorin i ar trebui s
se petreac ntr-un dispozitiv de condiionare adugat prin
nseriere la interfaa dintre instalaia de alimentare a motorului
i instalaia de injecie a acestuia. Aceast amplasare ofer
avantajul lipsei unei intervenii pe motorul propriuzis i
posibilitatea revenirii comode de la alimentarea alternativ,
deci a policarburrii, prin prevederea unui traseu alternativ de
ocolire a dispozitivului. Generic, condiionarea combustibilului
va trebui s modifice parametrii de stare ai acestuia astfel
nct comportarea acestuia dup dispozitiv, pn n cilindrii
motorului, s fie ct mai apropiat de aceea a motorinei.

5. Concluzii
Aspectele prezentate doresc s atrag atenia asupra conceptului
de condiionare antealimentare a combustibilului, n contextul
preocuprilor pentru promovarea biocombustibililor ca soluie
de alimentare alternativ a motoarelor Diesel. Lucrarea se
dorete o invitaie adresat cercettorilor atrai de problemele
policarburrii motoarelor Diesel cu biocarburani i, n egal
msur, potenialilor beneficiari care cred n viitorul acestor practici
i doresc s participe la dezvoltarea i implementarea lor.

BIBLIOGRAFIE
1966
2. Nicolescu, M. A. - Incisivitate i precauie n
promovarea de combustibili alternativi pentru motoarele
cu ardere intern. Sesiunea INMATEH 2006 II,
Bucureti, mai 2006
3. Nicolescu, M. A. - Biocombustibili pentru alimentarea
motoarelor diesel: clasificare, vocabular, probleme n
utilizare. Sesiunea INMATEH 2007 II, Bucureti,
septembrie 2007
4. Roberts, P. Sfritul petrolului. Editura Litera
Internaional, Bucureti 2008


63

INSTALLATION FOR SOLAR DRYING OF SEWAGE SLUDGE
/
INSTALAIE PENTRU USCAREA SOLAR A NMOLULUI DE EPURARE

Dr.Eng. Markus BUX Hohenheim University,Stuttgart, Germany
Prof.Dr.Eng. Adrian MITROI, drd.ing. Liliana CRLAN - USAMV Bucharest
Dr.Eng. Tilo CONRAD, Dr.Eng. Steffen RITTERBUSCH - Thermo-System Industrie&Trocknungstechnik, Germany

Abstract. The research goal is related to solar drying of
sewage sludge. Using solar energy allows to reduce
energy consumption from other sources, that represents
a main ecological advantage. The drying potential
depends on solar direct and diffuse radiation, natural
drying air potential, exothermal process of sludge
decomposition, additional heat from outside. In order to
provide optimal drying performance, the unit components
are ordered on account of climate conditions and
moisture content. The parameters values are measured
and studied, in this respect: air temperature, inside and
outside, relative air humidity, inside and outside, solar
radiation and sludge humidity, as well.

Keywords: instalation for solar drying, sewage sludge,
electric mole, ecological advantages

1. INTRODUCTION
Processing of sewage sludge to their neutralization
and bring in a form that can be more easily stored,
handled, used a gain increasing importance. In different
countries on all continents recourse to this process, both
in places with large number of inhabitants, and in places
with low or average number of inhabitants. In May in
many parts of the world this form of processing is
already mandatory environmental considerations.
According to the regulations of EU countries, but also
from other countries, storage of cleaning mud is no longer
permitted.
Using cleaning mud as organic fertilizer in
agriculture is becoming less applicable, inter alia
because mud cleaning substance contains not only
useful but also large amounts of harmful substances
such as heavy metals, residues from drugs, chemicals
with household applications, pathogens, etc.
Burning mud is mechanically separated only with
the support of the burning of another fuel.
Conventional drying of mud cleaning is extremely
expensive, particularly because the cost of other energy
sources. Further reducing the mass of mud cleaning has
positive effect, by lowering transport costs.
There are different types of processing plants for
cleaning mud, with different efficiency and often with
high specific consumption of energy.
The solar drying of mud cleaning, patented by
Thermo-System allows reducing the weight of the sludge
treatment plant and is characterized by reasonable
investment cost, low power consumption and extremely
low cost of operation. The plant can process both the
mud pre-drain and the one nedesecat.
Reducing quantity and improving the pretabilitii
mud dry storage lead to a reduction of transport and thus
reduced emissions, making it an important
environmental advantage. With high energy dry mud can
be saved in fossil fuel plants, and solar energy is directly
used by the installation. Through the thermal solar dried
sludge can contribute to reducing CO2 emissions and
global environment.

Rezumat. Scopul este de cercetare legate de solare de uscare a
nmolului de canalizare. Utilizarea energiei solare pentru a permite
reducerea consumului de energie din alte surse, care reprezinta
un avantaj principal ecologic. De uscare depinde de potenialul
solare directe i difuze de radiaii, potenial natural de uscare a
aerului, exothermal procesul de descompunere a nmolurilor,
suplimentar de energie termic din afara. Pentru a oferi
performane optime de uscare, unitatea de componente sunt
ordonate pe cont de condiiile climatice i de coninutul de
umiditate. Parametri sunt valorile msurate i studiat, n aceast
privin: temperatura aerului, n interiorul i n afara, umiditatea relativ
a aerului, n interiorul i n afara, radiatiei solare i a nmolurilor
de umiditate, de asemenea.

Cuvinte cheie: instalaie pentru uscare solar, nmoluri de
epurare, crti electric, avantajele ecologice

1. INTRODUCERE
Procesarea nmolurilor de epurare n vederea
neutralizrii lor i aducerii ntr-o form n care s poat fi
mai uor depozitate, manevrate, utilizate capt o importan
tot mai mare. In diferite ari de pe toate continentele se recurge
la aceast procesare, att n localiti cu numr foarte mare de
locuitori, ct i n localiti cu numr mediu sau mic de
locuitori. In mai n multe zone de pe glob aceast form de
prelucrare este deja obligatorie, din considerente ecologice.
Potrivit reglementrilor din ri UE, dar i din alte ri,
depozitarea nmolului de epurare nu mai este permis.
Folosirea nmolului de epurare ca ngrmnt
organic n agricultur este din ce n ce mai puin aplicabil,
printre altele deoarece nmolul de epurare conine nu numai
substane utile, ci i cantiti mari de substane nocive, cum
sunt metale grele, reziduuri de la medicamente, substane
chimice cu aplicaii menajere, ageni patogeni .a.
Arderea nmolului separat mecanic este posibil doar cu
susinerea prin arderea unui alt combustibil.
Uscarea convenional a nmolului de epurare este
extrem de costisitoare, n special din cauza costurilor altor
surse de energie. Reducerea ct mai accentuat a masei
nmolului de epurare are efect pozitiv, prin scderea
costului transportului.
Exist diferite tipuri de instalaii de procesare a
nmolului de epurare, cu eficien diferit i de cele mai
multe ori cu consumuri specifice mari de energie.
Procedeul de uscare solar a nmolului de epurare,
brevetat de Thermo-System, permite reducerea masei de
nmol de epurare i se caracterizeaz prin costuri rezonabile
de investiii, consumuri mici de energie i costuri deosebit de
reduse de exploatare. In instalaie este posibil prelucrarea att
a nmolului pre-desecat ct i a celui nedesecat.
Reducerea cantitii ca i mbuntirea pretabilitii la depozitare
a nmolului uscat duc la o diminuare a transportului i prin
aceasta la emisii reduse, aceasta constituind un important
avantaj ecologic. Prin valoarea energetic ridicat a nmolului
uscat poate fi economisit combustibil fosil n centrale, iar
energia solar este direct utilizat de instalaie. Prin valorificarea
termic a nmolurilor uscate solar se poate contribui astfel la
reducerea emisiilor de CO2 i la protecia mediului global.


64
2. MATERIAL AND METHOD
The solar drying of sewage sludge was carried out
by Thermo-System company in collaboration with the
Institute of mechanization of agriculture from the
University of Hohenheim in Stuttgart Germany. Note that
in the same cooperation has been made and are already
operating in several countries, with good results,
installation of solar drying of tobacco plants for solar
drying timber.
The main components of the plant (fig. 1) are as
follows: sera with drying rooms, the ventilation system of
homogenization-aeration of nmolulului, electrical
equipment and automation. Additional equipment ensure
the proper conduct of the process of drying in different
climatic conditions: supplementary heating device, a device
for melting snow on the roof. Building a greenhouse that
is an integral part of the solar drying frames are made of
metal with coating of transparent polyethylene film, UV
resistant, or plates of polycarbonate or glass.
Depending on the capacity of sera may have one or
more drying chambers. Room drying nedirijat not
communicate with the external environment. Front or
side wall is a register of admission of the air, ordered by
the electric device automatically command. On the
opposite wall are one or more fans repression. For
routing and mixing of air from which the drying mud
works suspended ceiling fans.
2. MATERIAL I METOD
Instalaia solar de uscare a nmolurilor de epurare a
fost realizat de firma Thermo-System n colaborare cu
Institutul de mecanizarea agriculturii de la Universitatea
Hohenheim Stuttgart din Germania. De menionat c n
cadrul aceleiai cooperri au fost realizate i sunt deja n
exploatare, n mai multe ri, cu rezultate foarte bune,
instalaii solare de uscare a tutunului, instalaii solare de
uscare pentru cherestea.
Principalele componente ale instalaiei (fig.1) sunt: sera
cu camerele de uscare, sistemul de ventilare, sistemul de
omogenizare-aerare a nmolulului, echipamentele electrice i de
automatizari. Echipamentele suplimentare asigur desfurarea
corect a procesului de uscare n diferite condiii de clim:
dispozitiv de nclzire suplimentar, dispozitiv de topire a
zpezii de pe acoperi. Cldirea de tip ser care face parte
integrant din instalaia solar de uscare este realizat din
cadre metalice, cu nveliul din folie polietilen transparent,
rezistent la UV, sau din plci de policarbonat, sau din sticl.
In funcie de capacitatea de lucru sera poate avea una sau
mai multe camere de uscare. Camera de uscare nu
comunic nedirijat cu mediul exterior. Frontal sau pe peretele
lateral se gsete o clapet de admisie a aerului, comandat
electric prin dispozitivul automat de comand. Pe peretele
opus se gsesc unul sau mai multe ventilatoare de refulare.
Pentru dirijarea i amestecarea aerului care servete la uscarea
nmolului lucreaz ventilatoarele suspendate de plafon.

Fig. 1 - Functional scheme of the solar drying mud cleaning / Schema funcional a instalaiei solare de uscare a nmolului de epurare

Fig. 2 - Mixing machine and return (Patent Thermo-System) / Robotul de amestecare i ntoarcere (Brevet Thermo-System)

The automatically adjusting the interior climate at
all times ensure optimal drying capacity. Drying the
components are ordered according to climatic
conditions, the characteristics of the mud and, where
appropriate, the amount of heat removed. To do this,
depending on the constructive variant, are measured
and interpreted the parameters: air temperature (inside /
outside), air relative humidity (indoor / outdoor), humidity
and solar radiation mud. The adjustable interior climate
control, based on data measured mixing air dryer, air
exchange rate and the frequency mixing robot turns and
return.
To increase capacity of the drying and prevent the
formation of mud smell must be turned regularly. This
task, which would involve high labor and time is taken by
Sistemul automat de reglare a climatului interior
asigur n orice moment capacitatea optim de uscare.
Componentele instalaiei de uscare sunt comandate n
funcie de condiiile climatice, de nsuirile nmolului i, dup
caz, de cantitatea de cldur eliminat. Pentru aceasta, n
funcie de varianta constructiv, sunt msurate i interpretate
valorile parametrilor: temperatura aerului (interior/exterior), umiditatea
relativ a aerului (interior/exterior), radiaia solar i umiditatea
nmolului. Sistemul de reglare a climatului interior
comand, pe baza datelor msurate, amestecarea aerului
n usctor, rata schimbului de aer, precum i frecvena
ntoarcerilor robotului de amestecare i ntoarcere.
Pentru creterea capacitii de lucru la uscare i evitarea
formrii de miros nmolul trebuie s fie ntors regulat. Aceast
sarcin, care ar implica consum mare de munc i de timp, este

65
a fully automated robot with integrated mixing and
return, called the "electric mole". Machine (fig. 2), made
entirely of stainless steel and plastic reinforced with
glass fibers, are oriented hall drying using ultrasonic
sensors. Scheme of the robot and return mixing is
shown in Figure 3. The frequency of complete turns is
adjusted automatically by the command depending on
the climatic conditions and the characteristics of mud
and is optimized with regard to drying, minimizing odors
and consumption.
preluat de un robot complet automatizat cu dispozitiv integrat de
amestecare i ntoarcere, numit Crtia electric. Maina (fig. 2),
fabricat n ntregime din oel inoxidabil i material plastic armat cu
fibre de sticl, se orienteaz n hala de uscare cu ajutorul senzorilor
cu ultrasunete. Schema robotului de amestecare i ntoarcere este
prezentat n figura 3. Frecvena ntoarcerilor este
adaptat complet automat de ctre sistemul de comand
n funcie de condiiile climatice i de nsuirile nmolului i
este optimizat n ceea ce privete capacitatea de uscare,
minimizarea mirosurilor i consumul de energie.

Fig. 3 - Scheme mixing robot and return. The Charter Electric - Thermo-Patent System /
Schema robotului de amestecare i ntoarcere Crtia electric brevet Thermo-System

By choosing the proper transmission and return,
electric mole can be adapted to different types of mud. In
principle can thus be processed in any different sludge
dry weight, and - depending on the characteristics of
processed mud - at a height of filling up to 30 cm.
Devices and equipment of the plant
Optimal functioning of the solar drying is provided
by the automation equipment, consisting of a central
system and several devices with different functions:
- Sensor temperature and humidity. Sensor for
measuring relative humidity of the air consists of
several bands of woven plastic, treated by a
process which acquires special appropriation
higroscopice. A change of length is an effect that
can be measured from the outside. When the fiber
is balanced against air humidity is not taking any
water or disposal. Length achieved in this case
gives a measure of the relative humidity of air.
- Solar sensor. With silicon sensor serves to measure
solar radiation. The sensor transmits a voltage
proportional to the intensity of solar radiation. The
cell is encapsulated in plastic resistant to weather
and UV.
- Wind sensor. Wind sensor used to determine
horizontal wind speed. To exploit the winter all
appliances are equipped with electronically
controlled heating to prevent freezing of rolling
bearings and rotating parts exterior. Principle of
measurement: OptOut-electronic (disk slit).
- Sensor pluvial. The work is based on measuring the
electrolytic voltage alternatives. Surface sensor
reacts to rain or snow. Polarity connection and
sensitivity are adjustable. Prevent additional heating
cover with ice or dew and speeds drying.
- The heat. The device is intended to determine the
quantity of heat is supplied to a consumer through a
heating circuit. The amount of heat flow is
calculated from the measured volume of hot water
and the temperature difference between the tour
and return to the heating circuit. The heat from
Thermo - System consists of the following
components: arithmetic operator, the temperature
sensor capsule Submersible debitmetru volume.
- Axial fans. Axial flow fans have volume of 22,000
Prin alegerea adecvat a organelor de transmisie i de
ntoarcere, crtia electric

poate s fie adaptat la diferite tipuri
de nmol. In principiu prin aceasta pot fi prelucrate diferite nmoluri
cu orice coninut de substan uscat i n funcie de nsuirile
nmolului prelucrat la o nlime de umplere de pn la 30 cm.
Aparate i echipamente ale instalaiei
Funcionarea optim a instalaiei de uscare solar este
asigurat de echipamentele de automatizare, constituite dintr-
un sistem central i mai multe aparate, cu funciuni diferite:
- Senzor de temperatur i umiditate. Senzorul pentru
msurarea umiditii relative a aerului const din mai
multe benzi esute din material plastic, tratate printr-un
procedeu special ele capt nsuiri higroscopice. O
modificare a lungimii este un efect care poate fi
msurat din exterior. Cnd fibra se afl n echilibru
fa de umiditatea aerului nu se produce nici preluare
nici cedare de ap. Lungimea atins n acest caz d o
msur a umiditii relative a aerului.
- Senzor solar. Senzorul cu siliciu servete la
msurarea radiaiei solare. Senzorul transmite o
tensiune proporional cu intensitatea radiaiei solare.
Celula este capsulat n material plastic rezistent la
intemperii i la raze UV.
- Senzor eolian. Senzorul eolian servete la determinarea
vitezei vntului pe orizontal. Pentru exploatarea pe timp
de iarn toate aparatele sunt prevzute cu nclzire
reglat electronic pentru a mpiedica nghearea
rulmenilor i a pieselor exterioare rotative. Principiul de
msurare: opto- electronic (disc cu fant).
- Senzor pluvial. Principiul de lucru se bazeaz pe msurarea
electrolitic a tensiunii alternative. Suprafaa senzorului
reacioneaz la ploaie sau la zpad. Polaritatea la conectare
i sensibilitatea sunt reglabile. Inclzirea suplimentar
mpiedic acoperirea cu ghea sau cu rou i accelereaz uscarea.
- Contor de caldur. Aparatul este destinat determinrii cantitii
de cldur care este furnizat unui consumator printr-
un circuit de nclzire. Cantitatea de cldur se
calculeaz din debitul volumic msurat de ap cald i
din diferena de temperatur dintre tur i retur pe
circuitul de nclzire. Contorul de cldur de la Thermo
System const din urmtoarele componente: operator
aritmetic, senzor de temperatur cu capsul
submers, debitmetru volumic.
- Ventilatoare axiale. Ventilatoarele axiale au debit

66
m
3
/h and three-phase motors driven by ~ 400 V,
with power / 0.94 / 0.59 kW;
- Speed regulator using Thermo - System serves to
regulate the speed of the three phase motor with
voltage regulation and is especially for fans of wall
and ceiling use.
- Touch-display the MP 370 offers the user the
possibility to plot the operating conditions, given the
current process and upset a coupled system of
control and to serve and see the car or comfortable
to be monitored.
Optional Features
Automatic clearing of the snow. The device is
automatically glide layer of snow on the roof. Sensors
installed in the roof and roof deformation measured emit
a signal to the central command if strong snow fall a
certain application of the roof. Central command the
service of aerotermelor special, supplied with gas, the
warm air dryer. The heat rises and accumulates in the
roof area, topind snow on the bottom. This layer of snow
falls and slide, and aerotermele disconnects.
Heating system to the roof gutter. The function is to
protect against freezing of the roof gutter. If during the
day the water condensation, the heating of the roof
troughs ensure the scheme automatically, removing water
condensation. Sensors measure the roof gutter of
temperature and quantity of water from the roof gutter. A
control device interpreting the data from sensors and
connects banda heating when necessary.
Operation function in winter challenge prevents
excessive loss of heat through intense air and thereby
prevent abrupt cooling and freezing mud. For this there
is the possibility of adapting the control of microclimate.
Operation in winter may occur on the parameters:
temperature limit for lappet ceiling; temperature limit
indoor and outdoor temperature limit; ventilrii during the
intermittent regime. By adjusting the duration ventilrii,
operation winter may be better adapted to the climate
differences, for example mild temper and harsh winter,
sunny weather or closed.

Physical processes in drainage and drying
Reducing the water content of sludge is achieved
through the following processes:
- Draining force of gravity on drainage beds, facilities
for the fluid mud with SU 10-14% SU;
- Evaporation of water from the air dryer, where the
potential for drying in the dryer depends on the
following factors: direct solar radiation and diffuse,
the potential for natural air drying (ambient air ability to
retrieve moisture) exothermic decomposition
processes in the mud (aerobic stabilization later)
brought additional heat from the outside (optional, eg.
residual heat from the central compact mixed heating
and electricity production).
The drying process can be divided into different
stages of drying, depending on the moisture content of the
mud. In each stage of drying different transport
mechanisms for extracting water are crucial.
To obtain an optimal drying capacity depending on the
humidity mud, these different stages of drying must be
taken into consideration in the settlement.
To speed drying are 5 main factors responsible,
which has great importance in the light phase of drying:
the temperature of drying air, air relative humidity, air
current speed over the subject product drying, the
characteristics of the product subject to the drying
surface; temperature of the product under drying.
The work consists of 3 parts: the filling, drying,
emptying facility. Filling plant for drying sludge
volumic de 22.000 m
3
/h i sunt acionate de motoare
trifazice ~400 V, cu puterea / 0,94 / 0,59 kW.
- Regulatorul de turaie folosit de Thermo System
servete la reglarea continu a turaiei a motoarelor
trifazice cu reglarea tensiunii i este special pentru
ventilatoarele de perete, respectiv de plafon, utilizate.
- Touch-display-ul MP 370 ofer utilizatorului posibiliti de a
reprezenta grafic stri de funcionare, date actuale de proces i
deranjamentele unei sistem cuplat de control i de a putea
servi i observa confortabil maina sau instalaia care
trebuie supravegheat.
Dotri optionale
Automatul de degajare a zpezii. Dispozitivul automat face
s alunece stratul de zpad de pe acoperi. Senzorii instalai n
acoperi msoar deformarea acoperiului i emit un semnal ctre
sistemul central de comand dac prin cderi puternice de zpad
apare o anumit solicitare a acoperiului. Sistemul central comand
punerea n funciune a aerotermelor speciale, alimentate cu gaz,
care nclzesc aerul din usctor. Cldura se ridic i se acumuleaz n
zona acoperiului, topind zpada n partea inferioar. Prin aceasta
stratul de zpad alunec i cade, iar aerotermele se deconecteaz.
Sistem de nclzire a jgheabului acoperiului. Sistemul are
funciunea de a proteja mpotriva ngherii jgheabul acoperiului.
Dac n cursul zilei apare ap de condensare, sistemul de
nclzire a jgheaburilor acoperiului asigur, n regim de lucru
automat, ndeprtarea apei de condensare. Senzorii din jgheabul
acoperiului msoar temperatura mediului i cantitatea de ap
din jgheabul acoperiului. Un aparat de control interpreteaz datele
de la senzori i conecteaz banda de nclzire atunci cnd este necesar.
Funciunea Exploatarea pe timp de iarn mpiedic provocarea
de pierderi exagerate de cldur prin schimbul intens de aer i
prin aceasta mpiedic rcirea abrupt i nghearea nmolului. Pentru
aceasta exist posibilitatea adaptrii controlului instalaiei asupra
microclimatului.
Pentru exploatarea pe timp de iarn se poate interveni asupra
parametrilor: temperatura limit pentru clapeta de plafon;
temperatura limit n interior i temperatura limit n exterior;
durata ventilrii n regim intermitent. Prin reglarea duratei ventilrii,
exploatarea de iarn poate fi mai bine adaptat difereniat la
condiiile climatice respective, de exemplu iarn blnd sau
aspr, vreme nsorit sau nchis.

Procesele fizice la uscare i drenare
Reducerea coninutului de ap din nmol se
realizeaz prin urmtoarele procese:
- Drenarea prin fora de gravitaie pe paturi de drenare, la
instalaii pentru nmol fluid cu SU 1014% SU;
- Evaporarea apei n aerul din usctor, caz n care
potenialul de uscare n usctor depinde de urmtorii
factori: radiaia solar direct i difuz; potenialul de
uscare natural al aerului (capacitatea aerului ambiant de a
prelua umiditate); procesele exoterme de descompunere
n nmol (stabilizare ulterioar aerob); cldura introdus
suplimentar din afar (opional, de ex. cldur
rezidual de la centrale mixte compacte de nclzire i
producere de energie electric).
Procesul de uscare poate fi mprit n diferite faze de uscare,
n funcie de coninutul de umiditate al nmolului. In fiecare faz
de uscare diferitele mecanisme de transport pentru
extragerea apei sunt decisive.
Pentru a obine o capacitate optim de uscare n funcie de
umiditatea nmolului, aceste faze diferite de uscare trebuie s
fie luate n consideraie la reglarea instalaiei.
Pentru viteza de uscare sunt n principal rspunztori 5
factori, care posed o importan deosebit n funcie de
faza de uscare: temperatura de uscare a aerului; umiditatea
relativ a aerului; viteza curentului de aer de deasupra
produsului supus uscrii; nsuirile suprafeei produsului
supus uscrii; temperatura produsului supus uscrii.
Procesul de lucru se compune din 3 pri: umplerea instalaiei,
uscarea, golirea instalaiei. Umplerea instalaiei de uscare pentru

67
predesecat. At the beginning of a batch of drying mud
predesecat driver is placed in the dryer. Mud should be
free of extraneous matter (stones, etc.) And not contain
water in the form of drops. Entering mud can be done
with charger with cup, with the trailer carrying the knife,
ladle tilting or container. In this case are that the
equipment does not exceed the height of the free drying
room to avoid damage to the building hall.
Empty the drying is done mechanically with a
loader or tractor with the front cup.
Installations of solar drying mud of purification,
which were studied are listed in tab. 1. and tab. 2.
nmol predesecat. La nceputul unei arje de uscare nmolul
predesecat mecanic este introdus n usctor. Nmolul trebuie
s fie liber de corpuri strine (pietre etc.) i s nu mai conin ap
sub form de picturi. Introducerea nmolului se poate face cu:
ncrctor cu cup, remorc cu transportor cu raclei, ben
basculant sau cu container. In acest caz se are n vedere ca
utilajul s nu depeasc nlimea liber din interiorul camerei
de uscare, pentru a evita deteriorarea construciei halei.
Golirea instalaiei de uscare se face mecanic, cu un
ncrctor sau cu tractorul cu cup frontal.
Instalaiile solare de uscare a nmolului de epurare, care au
fost studiate, sunt prezentate n tab. 1 i tab. 2.

Table 1 / Tabelul 1
Installations of solar drying mud cleaning / Instalaii solare de uscare a nmolului de epurare

Palma
de Mallorca *
)

Fssen Ellwangen Essenbach
Content initial SU% / Coninut iniial de SU % 27 28 28 27
Content SU% final / Coninut final de SU % 75 75 (max. 95) 70 70
Number of rooms drying / Numr camere de uscare 12 4 2 2
Surface drying / Suprafaa de uscare [m
2
] 20.000 2.000 2.000 750
Hall coat / Inveli hal
Special glass 4
mm / sticl
special 4 mm
double plate PC /
plci duble de PC
Special glass 4
mm / sticl
special 4 mm
Special glass 4
mm / sticl
special 4 mm
*
)
Currently the largest installation in the world / n prezent cea mai mare instalaie din lume.

Table 2 / Tabelul 2
Installations of solar drying mud cleaning with predesecare /
Instalaii solare de uscare a nmolului de epurare cu predesecare

St. Julien St. Ay
Content initial SU% / Coninut iniial de SU % 15 17
Content SU% final / Coninut final de SU % 75 60
Number of rooms drying / Numr de camere de uscare 2 2
Surface drying m
2
/ Suprafaa de uscare [m
2
] 900 480
Hall coat / Inveli hal
special glass, 4 mm / sticl
special, 4 mm
film on the double /
folie dubl de PE
Pressing Device / Dispozitiv de presare
perforated tape / band
perforat
perforated tape /
band perforat
Entering mud / Introducerea nmolului
automatically by pump /
automat, cu pomp
automatically by pump /
automat, cu pomp

3. RESULTS
In Table 3 are indicated maximum fill heights
depending on the content of SU.
Filling height depending on the season. Winter
recommended a reduction in the height of the silt layer to
accelerate the drying process.
3. REZULTATE
In tabelul 3 sunt indicate nlimile maxime de umplere
n funcie de coninutul de SU.
Inlimile de umplere depind de anotimp. Iarna se
recomand o diminuare a nlimii stratului de nmol,
pentru a accelera procesul de uscare.

Table 3 / Tabelul 3
Height of filling of the solar drying / nalimea de umplere a instalaiei solare de uscare

Maximum height of filling of the solar drying / Inltimea maxim de umplere a instalaiei solare de uscare
Type of sludge / Tip de nmol
Content SU / Coninut
de SU (%)
Maximum height of filling /
Inlimea maxim de umplere (cm)
1015 1520
1520 2025 Mud predesecat / Nmol predesecat
> 20 2030

Table 4 / Tabelul 4
Maximum height of filling with fluid mud solar plant /
Inlimea maxim de umplere cu nmol fluid a instalaiei solare

Maximum height of filling of the solar / Inlimea maxim de umplere a instalaiei solare
Type of sludge / Tip de nmol
Content SU / Coninut
de SU (%)
Maximum height of filling /
Inlimea maxim de umplere (cm)
26
3050
(calculated coresp. 300500 l / m; effective height
of filling max. 30 cm) / (calculat, coresp. 300 -
500 l/m; nlimea efectiv de umplere max. 30 cm)
Fluid mud (only to facilities
with floor drainage) / Nmol
fluid (doar la instalaii cu
podea de drenare)
> 6 2030

68
Solar drying of mud cleaning preseparat, which
initially has a dry weight of 25% reduction in weight is
5070%. Solar drying of mud cleaning fluid, initially with
a dry weight of 3%, reducing the weight is 9097%.
Dried mud is neutral in terms of odors, it is
biologically stable and can be easily stored or
transported.
By providing process heat using solar energy for
drying costs are much lower compared with other drying
mud cleaning.
A prerequisite for application of solar drying is that
a relatively large area for placement of greenhouses. So
far it has not been an obstacle difficult past.
The characteristics of mud cleaning before
processing:
- The drying material fluid (variant with floor drainage)
- dry weight 110%;
- Drying mud preseparat (variant without floor
drainage) - dry weight of 1040%.
The base area of the plant is established according
to local conditions, climate, the content of the final SU
mud of the characteristics of the mud cleaning to be
subjected to drying process. If sun drying only, ie without
any heat source, the performance reported above are:
Qs1 = 6 t/m
2
mud cleaning fluid, the dry weight of
26%;
Qs2 = 0.53 t/m
2
mud cleaning preseparat with dry
weight of 25-30%.
In case of use and an additional source of heat, for
example waste heat from a central facility cogeneration
flow per m
2
base area greatly increases the overall
requirement can be reduced by the surface.
Height of filling mud cleaning:
- installations for the drying mud fluid: HUF = 2030
cm;
- installations for the drying mud predesecat: hup =
515 cm.
Consumption of electricity:
- installations for the drying mud fluid: eff = 10 20
kWh / t water evaporated (extracted);
- installations for the drying mud predesecat: VET =
2030 kWh / t water evaporated (extracted).
Working consumption:
- filling the room drying: Cmu = 12 ore-om/arj;
- emptying chamber drying: CMG = 0.51 ore-om/arj;
- reducing the weight of material subject to drying;
- installations for the drying mud fluid: RMf = 9097%;
- installations for the drying mud predesecat: RMp =
5070%.
Depending on the purpose of the drying process,
the type of sludge and cleaning the season, there is a
stabilization and aerobic ie about 530% of the organic
substance can be decomposed.
Using waste heat. Residual heat is taken up by the
register of hot water - heat exchanger. Received
increased heat inside the room temperature drying, and
thereby increase the potential for air drying, may
increase the drying capacity of the plant during
unfavorable weather conditions. Since the heating in the
dryer and serves as a system of emergency cooling
system for the heating of the facility at a very high
temperature inside the drying room will be ventilated.
This allows a sufficient removal of heat and higher
temperatures outside.
La uscarea solar a nmolului de epurare preseparat,
care are un coninut iniial de substan uscat de 25%
reducerea masei este de 5070%. La uscarea solar a
nmolului de epurare fluid, cu un coninut iniial de
substan uscat de 3%, reducerea masei este de 9097%.
Nmolul uscat este neutru din punct de vedere al
mirosurilor, este stabil biologic i poate fi uor depozitat
sau transportat. Prin asigurarea energiei termice de
proces prin folosirea energiei solare costurile pentru
uscare sunt mult mai reduse n comparaie cu alte
procedee de uscare a nmolului de epurare.
O premis pentru aplicarea uscrii solare o constituie
existena unei suprafee relativ mari pentru amplasarea serei.
Pn n prezent aceasta nu a fost un obstacol greu de trecut.
Insuirile nmolului de epurare nainte de procesare:
- la uscarea materialului fluid (varianta cu podea de
drenare) - coninut de substan uscat 110%
- la uscarea nmolului preseparat (varianta fr podea
de drenare) - coninut de substan uscat de 1040%.
Suprafaa de baz a instalaiei se stabilete n funcie
de condiiile locale, de clim, de coninutul final de SU al
nmolului, de nsuirile principale ale nmolului de epurare
care urmeaz s fie supus procesului de uscare. In cazul uscrii
exclusiv solare, adic fr alt surs termic, performanele
raportate la suprafa sunt:
Qs1 = 6 t/m
2
nmol fluid de epurare, cu coninut de
substan uscat de 26 %;
Qs2 = 0,53 t/m
2
nmol de epurare preseparat, cu
coninut de substan uscat de 2530 %.
In cazul folosirii i a unei surse suplimentare de energie termic,
de exemplu a energiei termice reziduale de la o central mixt
de cogenerare, debitul pe m
2
suprafa de baz crete foarte
mult, respectiv pe ansamblu poate fi redus necesarul de suprafa.
Inlimea de umplere cu nmol de epurare:
- la instalaii pentru uscarea nmolului fluid: huf = 2030 cm
- la instalaii pentru uscarea nmolului predesecat: hup =
515 cm.
Consumul de energie electric:
- la instalaii pentru uscarea nmolului fluid: Eff = 1020
kWh/t ap evaporat (extras);
- la instalaii pentru uscarea nmolului predesecat: Efp =
2030 kWh/t ap evaporat (extras).
Consum de munc:
- umplerea camerei de uscare: Cmu = 12 ore-om/arj;
- golirea camerei de uscare: CMg = 0,51 ore-om/arj;
- reducerea masei materialului supus uscrii;
- la instalaii pentru uscarea nmolului fluid: RMf = 9097 %;
- la instalaii pentru uscarea nmolului predesecat: RMp =
5070 %.
In funcie de scopul principal al uscrii, de tipul de
nmol de epurare i de anotimp, se produce i o
stabilizare aerob i anume circa 530% din substana
organic poate fi descompus.
Utilizarea cldurii reziduale. Cldura rezidual este
preluat prin registrul de ap cald schimbtorul de cldur.
Cldura primit crete temperatura interioar a camerei de
uscare i prin aceasta crete potenialul de uscare al aerului,
respectiv poate crete capacitatea de uscare a instalaiei pe
timpul condiiilor meteo nefavorabile. Deoarece instalaia de
nclzire n usctor servete i ca sistem de rcire de
urgen pentru ntreg sistemul de nclzire al instalaiei, la
o temperatur interioar prea ridicat camera de uscare
va fi ventilat. Aceasta permite o eliminare suficient a
cldurii i la temperaturi exterioare mai ridicate.

4. CONCLUSIONS
Consumption of electricity to facilities for drying
mud fluid is eff = 1020 kWh/t water evaporated
(extracted) and the facilities for drying mud pre water
4. CONCLUZII
Consumul de energie electric la instalaii pentru
uscarea nmolului fluid este Eff = 1020 kWh/t ap
evaporat (extras), iar la instalaii pentru uscarea

69
eliminated is este VET = 2030 kWh/t water evaporated
(extracted).
The work consumption on filling and emptying is
very low, namely 12 ore.om / melt, respectively 0.51
ore.om/arj.
Reducing the weight of material is subjected to
drying RMf = 9097% of installations for drying mud fluid
and RMp = 5070% of installations for drying mud pre
water eliminated.
Ability itself to drying reported water evaporation
does not depend on the height of filling. However a lower
height to a shorter duration of drying and the frequent
changes of arjelor - a height greater filling extended
drying period and reduce the number of cycles of drying.
Drying parameters are decisive for optimizing the
control system installation for each situation and climate
of the different humidity mud. Based on current
measured values outside and inside the program
calculates adjustments for optimum air admitted, and the
air removed, the drying temperature, humidity, air speed
of the product subject to drying and processing intensity
of the surface mud.
By using solar energy, by referencing adjustments
functional components and aggregates using optimized
energy energy needs may only represent a small portion
of the energy consumption of conventional drying
facilities.
nmolului predesecat este Efp = 2030 kWh/t ap
evaporat (extras).
Consumul de munc pentru umplere i pentru golire
este foarte redus, i anume 12 ore.om/arj, respectiv
0,51ore.om/arj.
Reducerea masei materialului supus uscrii este RMf =
9097 % la instalaii pentru uscarea nmolului fluid i RMp=5070%
la instalaii pentru uscarea nmolului predesecat.
Capacitatea propriu-zis de uscare raportat la
evaporarea apei nu depinde de nlimea de umplere. Cu
toate acestea o nlime mai mic conduce la o durat mai mic
de uscare i prin aceasta schimbri frecvente ale arjelor o
nlime mai mare de umplere prelungete durata uscrii i
reduce numrul de cicluri de uscare.
Parametrii decisivi pentru uscare sunt optimizai de ctre
sistemul de control al instalaiei n funcie de fiecare situaie
climatic i de valorile diferite ale umiditii nmolului. Pe baza
valorilor actuale msurate n afara i n interiorul instalaiei
programul calculeaz reglrile optime pentru aerul admis,
respectiv aerul eliminat, temperatura de uscare, umiditatea,
viteza aerului de la suprafaa produsului supus uscrii, precum
i intensitatea prelucrrii la suprafaa nmolului.
Prin folosirea energiei solare, prin corelarea reglrilor
funcionale ale componentelor i prin utilizarea agregatelor
optimizate energetic necesarul de energie poate
reprezenta doar o mic parte din consumul de energie al
instalaiilor convenionale de uscare.

[1]. Bux, M., R. Baumann, 2003 Performance, energy
consumption and energetic efficiency analysis of 25
solar sludge dryers. Proceedings of the WEFTEC (Water
Environment Federation) Congress, Alexandria;
[2]. Mitroi A., 2008 Exemple de utilizare a energiei
solare i a celei eoliene n agricultur. Lucrrile
Simpozionului Energii curate energia verde
alternativ pentru dezvoltarea durabil. Bucureti;
[3]. Bux M., R. Baumann, 2003 Solare
Klrschlammtrocknung Stand der Technik und
Anwendungsbeispiele. In: Mll-Handbuch Band 3,
Kennzahl 3305, Erich Schmidt Verlag Berlin;
[4]. Bux, M., R. Baumann, 2003 Wirtschaftlichkeit und
CO2-Bilanz der solaren Trocknung von mechanisch
entwssertem Klrschlamm. KA Abwasser, Abfall 50, nr. 9.

[5]. Bux, M., R. Baumann, N. Starcevic, 2004 Solare
Konventionstrocknung von Klrschlamm. In:
Abwassertechnik & Gewesserschutz, 13. Aktualisierung. Hrsg.:
Wagner, W., C.F. Mller, Heidelberg;
[6]. Bux, M., R. Baumann, S. Quadt, J. Pinnekamp, W.
Mhlbauer, 2002 Volume reduction and biological
stabilization of sludge in small sewage plants by solar
drying. Drying Technology 20;
[7]. Bux, M., R. Baumann, W. Phillipp, T. Conrad, W.
Mhlbauer, 2000 A new technology for low temperature
drying of sewage sludge with solar energy. Proceedings of
WEFTEC Congress, Water Enviroment Federation,
Anaheim USA.


70
THE INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON THE ORGANIC SUBSTRATUM IN THE
PRODUCTION OF BIOGAS
/
INFLUENA TEMPERATURII I A SUBSTRATULUI ORGANIC N PRODUCIA DE BIOGAZ


Abstract: The work temperature of the fermentation
apparatus influences considerably the production of
biogas Depending on the existing temperature at the level
of the reaction medium some groups of microorganisms
are stimulated and other are inhibited (mesophyllic
bacteria need an optimum temperature of around 35C, and
thermophilic bacteria need an optimum temperature of
around 55C). This determinates different decomposing
degrees for biodegrading organic matter, the maximum
biodegrading being reached around the value of 55C.
The raw material subjected to the anaerobic fermentation
process represents another important factor of biogas
production. The quantitative and qualitative influence on biogas
production is determined by the content of biodegrading
organic matter in the raw material that is being exposed
to the microorganism action, by the C/N ratio, pH, and humidity.

Keywords: biogas; anaerobe; fermentation; thermophil

INTRODUCTION
The biogas represents the gaseous product resulting from
the anaerobic fermentation (in the absence of air) of the
organic matter from different sources.
The anaerobic fermentation allows to obtain energy
from organic matter (most of the times organic waste)
which represents regenerating sources of energy, in
decentralized places. For agriculture, the production
technology of biogas presents a series of advantages:
superior usage of agricultures secondary products, of
zootechnics animal waste, the reduction of odours
generated by the decomposing of animal waste, easier
storage for organic fertilizer, the assurance of a natural
liquid fertilizer pretreated by anaerobic fermentation, the
assurance of cheap electric and thermic energy, the
assurance of additional income, etc.
Biogas (biological gas) is a mixture of gases,
constituted mainly of methan 50-80% and carbon dioxide
28-43%. In the biogas there are other gases, but in
much smaller quantity's: H2S, N, CO2, water vapours,
etc. The calorific power of biogas is determined by the
methan content.
In table 1 there are presented the calorific powers
of biogas for different methan contents at 20
0
C
temperatures and 760 mm Hg atmospheric pressure.
Rezumat: Temperatura de lucru a fermentatorului
influeneaz semnificativ producia de biogaz. n funcie de
temperatura realizat la nivelul mediului de reacie sunt
stimulate unele grupe de microorganisme, iar altele sunt
inhibate (bacteriile mezofile solicit o temperatur optim
situat n jurul valorii de 35C, iar cele termofile solicit o
temperatur optim situat n jurul valorii de 55C)
determinnd grade de descompunere a materiei organice
biodegradabile diferite, maximul de biodegradabilitate fiind
atins n jurul valorii de 55C.
Materia prim supus procesului de fermentare
anaerob reprezint un alt factor important al produciei de
biogaz. Influena cantitativ i calitativ asupra produciei
de biogaz este determinat de coninutul de materie
organic biodegradabil din materialul brut supus aciunii
microorganismelor, de raportul C/N, de pH, de umiditate.

Cuvinte cheie: biogaz; anaerob; fermentare; termofil

INTRODUCERE
Biogazul reprezint produsul gazos rezultat n urma
fermentrii anaerobe (n lipsa oxigenului) a materiei
organice de diferite proveniene.
Fermentarea anaerob permite obinerea de energie
din materii organice (de cele mai multe ori deeuri
organice) care reprezint surse de energii regenerabile, n
locuri descentralizate. Pentru agricultur, tehnologia de
producere a biogazului prezint o serie de avantaje:
utilizarea superioar a produciei secundare din
agricultur, a dejeciilor animale din zootehnie, reducerea
mirosului generat de descompunerea dejeciilor animale,
stocarea mai uoar a ngrmntului organic,
asigurarea unui ngrmnt natural lichid, pretratat prin
fermentare anaerob, asigurarea de energie electric i
termic ieftin, asigurarea de venituri suplimentare, etc.
Biogazul (gazul biologic) este un amestec de gaze,
constituit n principal din metan n proporie de 5080% i
dioxid de carbon n proporie de 2843%. n biogaz sunt
prezente i ale gaze, dar n cantiti mult mai mici: H2S, N,
CO2,, vapori de ap, etc. Puterea calorific a biogazului
este determinat de coninutul n metan.
n tabelul 1 sunt prezentate puterile calorifice ale biogazului
pentru diferite coninuturi de metan la temperatura de 20C
i presiunea de 760 mm Hg (coloan de mercur).

Table 1 / Tabel 1
The calorific powers of biogas for different methan contents /
Puterile calorifice ale biogazului pentru diferite coninuturi de metan

Methan content / Coninut de metan,
[%]
Calorific power at / Puterea calorific la 20 C i 760 mm Hg,
[kcal/mc]
50 3955
52 4145
54 4304
56 4463
58 4623
60 4782
62 4942
64 5101

71
66 5261
68 5420
70 5579
72 5739
74 5898
76 6058
78 6217
80 6376

It is notable that the maximum calorific power of 6376
kcal/mc of biogas is registered for a methan content
of80%. In application there must be found solutions for
maximizing the biogas production and obtaining methan
concentrations as high as possible.
Installation productivity and biogas quality (methan
content) are determined by a series of factors, significant
being the reaction medium temperature and the organic
substrat (raw material) subject to the anaerobic
fermentation process.
Reaction medium temperature strongly influences
the biogas production. From the point of view of the
temperature in which the activity is developed, micro
organism groups that participate at the biogas production
are divided in three big categories:
Criophilic, which develop their activity at
temperatures between 1224C, specific area for
criophilic fermentation;
Mezophillyc, which develop their activity at
temperatures between 2540C, specific area for
mezophyllic fermentation;
Termophilic, which develop their activity at
temperatures between 5060C.
In diagram 1 are presented the thermic characteristic to
the three anaerobic fermentation conditions and biogas
production correlated with the temperature conditions.
Se constat c puterea calorific maxim de 6376
kcal/mc de biogaz se nregistreaz pentru un coninut n
metan de 80%. n practic trebuie cutate soluii pentru
maximizarea produciei de biogaz i obinerea unei
concentraii n metan ct mai ridicat.
Productivitatea instalaiilor i calitatea (coninutul n
metan) biogazului sunt determinate de o serie de factori,
semnificativi fiind temperatura mediului de reacie i
substratul organic (materia prim) supus procesului de
fermentaie anaerob.
Temperatura mediului de reacie influeneaz
puternic producia de biogaz. Din punct de vedere al
temperaturii la care i desfoar activitatea, grupurile de
microorganisme care particip la producerea biogazului se
mpart n trei mari categorii:
Criofile, care i desfoar activitatea la temperaturi
cuprinse ntre 1224C, zon caracteristic fermentrii n
regim criofil;
Mezofile, care i desfoar activitatea la temperaturi
cuprinse ntre 2540C, zon caracteristic fermentrii n
regim mezofil;
Termofile, care i desfoar activitatea la temperaturi
cuprinse ntre 5060C.
n figura 1 se prezint diagrama zonelor termice
caracteristice celor trei regimuri de fermentare anaerob i
producia de biogaz corelat cu regimurile de temperatur.

Figure 1 - The influence of temperature on biogas production / Influena temperaturii asupra produciei de biogaz

For the representation of biogas production it has
been used as comparison unit the biogas production
obtained using criophilic conditions, at 15C, considered
100%. In each thermic zone certain groups of
microorganisms are developed, specific for the
temperature domanin of the thermic area, having different
efficiencies and reaction rates, which determines different
biogas productions. Temperature mainly influences
decomposing rate of the organic matter by various
microorganism groups.
In table 2 are presented in comparison the
decomposing point for organic substance at different
temperatures, for the same period of time. The table
highlights the correlation between the decomposing
point (of consuming) for the organic matter and the
temperature. The higher the decomposing point is, the
higher the biogas production is. From here arises that for
Pentru reprezentarea produciei de biogaz s-a luat ca
unitate de comparaie producia de biogaz obinut n
regim criofil, la 15
0
C, considerat 100%. n cadrul fiecrei
zone termice se dezvolt anumite grupuri de
microorganisme, specifice domeniului de temperatur al
zonei termice, cu randamente i viteze de reacie diferite,
ceea ce determin i producii diferite de biogaz.
Temperatura influeneaz n principal viteza de
descompunere a materiei organice de ctre diversele
grupuri de microorganisme.
n tabelul 2 se prezint comparativ gradul de
descompunere a substanei organice la diferite
temperaturi, pentru aceeai perioad de timp. Tabel
scoate n eviden corelaia dintre gradul de
descompunere (de epuizare) a materiei organice i
temperatur. Cu ct gradul de descompunere este mai
ridicat, cu att producia de biogaz este mai mare. Rezult

72
obtaining the same decomposing point of the organic
matter at different temperatures, the standing time
(retention) of the matter in the fermentation (digestor)
must be different: greater when the anaerobic
fermentation is made in the criophilic zone an smaller for
the termophilic zone, also arising o productivity growth
for fermentations that work in the termophilic zone for a
given period of time. The retention time correlated with
the temperature directly dictates the dimensioning of the
fermentation's volumes . Big volumes with big retention
time require vast land surfaces, large supplementary
expenses that are not to neglect.
c pentru a obine acelai grad de descompunere a
materiei organice la diferite temperaturi, timpul de
staionare (retenie) a materialului n fermentator (digestor)
trebuie s fie diferit: mai mare cnd fermentarea anaerob
se realizeaz n zona criofil i mai mic pentru zona
termofil, de unde rezult i o cretere a productivitii
fermentatoarelor care lucreaz n zona termofil pentru
perioada dat de timp. Timpul de retenie corelat cu
temperatura dicteaz direct dimensionarea volumelor
fermentatoarelor. Volumele mari cu timp de retenie mare
solicit suprafee de teren mari, cheltuieli suplimentare
majore care nu sunt de loc de neglijat.

Table 2 / Tabel 2
Decomposing point of organic matters depending on temperature
Gradul de descompunere a substanelor organice n funcie de temperatur
Nr. crt. Temperature / Temperatura [ C] Decomposing point / Gradul de descompunere [%]
1 15 15
2 20 19
3 25 23
4 30 28
5 35 36
6 40 44
7 45 40
8 50 49
9 55 51
10 60 55

Medium and large capacity biogas installation with
agricultural character regularly run in mezophyllic
conditions. Production expenses for this conditions are
smaller, but also the productivity is smaller. Very large
capacity installations with centralized character run in
termophilic conditions. The anaerobic fermentation
having those conditions require additional expenses with
the meintenance of a high temperature at the digester's
level (55C), but the production of biogas is maximum,
also the biogas quality is superior to the one obtained
using the other thermic conditions and justifies the
additional expenses.
Instalaiile de biogaz de capacitate medie i mare cu
caracter agricol funcioneaz de regul n regim mezofil.
Cheltuielile de producie pentru acest regim sunt mai
reduse dar i productivitatea este ceva mai mic. Instalaiile
de capacitate foarte mare cu caracter centralizat
funcioneaz n regim termofil. Fermentarea anaerob n
acest regim solicit cheltuieli suplimentare cu meninerea
temperaturii ridicate la nivelul digestorului (55
0
C), ns
producia de biogaz este maxim, de asemenea calitatea
biogazului rezultat este superioar celui obinut n cadrul
celorlalte regimuri termice i justific cheltuielile
suplimentare.
The raw matter (organic substrate) constitutes the
determining factor in the biogas production. In the anaerobic
digestion process participate several groups of bacteria.
hydrolytic bacteria, which decompose biodegrading
macromolecules in simpler substances;
acidogenic bacteria, which use as substrate simple
organic compound released by hydrolytic bacteria
and produce organic acids in short chain, which
represent the substrate for the next bacteria groups;
acetogenic bacteria, compelled in producing
hydrogen, wich utilises as substrate products from
acidogenic bacteria giving birth to acetate, hydrogen
and carbonic anhidrides.
omoacetogenic bacteria, which synthesises acetate
from carbonic anhidrides and hydrogen;
methanogenic bacteria, differentiated in two groups: a) the
ones producing methane and carbonic anhidrides from
acetic acid; b) the ones that produce methane from
carbonic anhidrides and hydrogen.
Materia prim (substratul organic) constituie factorul
determinant n producia de biogaz. La procesul de
digestie anaerob particip mai multe grupuri de bacterii:
bacterii hidrolitice, care descompun macromoleculele
biodegradabile n substane mai simple;
bacterii acidogene, care utilizeaz ca substrat compuii
organici simpli eliberai de bacteriile hidrolitice i produc
acizi organici cu lan scurt, care la rndul lor reprezint
substratul pentru grupurile urmtoare de bacterii;
bacterii acetogene, productoare obligate de hidrogen,
care utilizeaz ca substrat produsele de la bacterii
acidogene dnd natere la acetat, hidrogen i
anhidride carbonice;
bacterii omoacetogene care sintetizeaz acetat
plecnd de la anhidride carbonice i hidrogen;
bacterii metanogene, difereniate n dou grupe: a)
cele care produc metan i anhidride carbonice din acid
acetic; b) cele care produc metan plecnd de la
anhidride carbonice i hidrogen.
The organic substrate must assure a favourable
medium for the development of all the bacteria that
participate at the biogas production, and for that it must
satisfy the next conditions:
to contain water in a proportion of 85% or more;
the ph to be neutral to lightly alkaline (ph = 6,87,3);
to contain biodegrading organic matter;
the carbon /nitrogen ratio (C/N) to be situated in the
limits of 1525 for the single stage process; and for
the two stage process: stage I = 1045, stage II = 2030;
Substratul organic trebuie s asigure mediul prielnic
dezvoltrii tuturor bacteriilor care particip la producerea
biogazului, de aceea trebuie s satisfac urmtoarele
condiii:
s conin ap n proporie de peste 85%;
ph-ul s fie neutru spre uor alcalin (ph = 6,87,3);
s conin materie organic biodegradabil;
raportul carbon /azot (C/N) s se situeze ntre limitele
1525 la procesul ntr-o singur etap; iar la procesul n
dou etape: etapa I = 1045, etapa II = 2030;

73
to not contain substances having inhibitor character
for bacteria.
For the organic substrate it can be used organic
matter from very different sources: vegetal waste from
the principal culture, vegetable growing, fruit growing,
sylviculture, domestic waste, residual water, stable waste,
animal and human waste, alimentary industry waste,
energetic cultures, etc. In table 3 are presented biogas
quantities which can be obtained from organic substrates
from different sources.
s nu conin substane cu caracter inhibitor pentru
bacterii.
Ca substrat organic se pot utiliza materii organice de
provenien foarte diferit: resturi vegetale provenite din
cultura mare, legumicultur, pomicultur, silvicultur, resturi
menajere, ape reziduale, gunoi de grajd, dejecii animale
i umane, deeuri din industria alimentar, culturi
energetice, etc. n tabelul 3 sunt prezentate cantitile de
biogaz ce se pot obine din substraturi organice de
proveniene diferite.

Table 3 / Tabel 3
Biogas quantities resulted from different organic matters and methane content
Cantitile de biogaz rezultate din diverse materii organice i coninutul n metan

Organic matter / Materia organic
Resulted biogas /
Biogaz rezultat
[l/kg S.U.]
Methane content /
Coninut de metan
[%]
Wheat straws / Paie de gru 363 78,5
Barley straws / Paie de orz 380 -
Rice straws / Paie de orez 360 -
Rape straws / Paie de rapi 200 -
Lucerne / Lucern 460 77,7
Grass / Iarb 415 84,0
Linseed stalk / Tulpini de in 360 -
Hemp stalk / Tulpini de cnep 360 -
Hemp stalk / Frunze verzi de copac 210 - 294 58,0
Dried tree leaves / Frunze uscate de copac 260 58,0
Corn silage / Siloz de porumb 318 83,0
Corn cob / Coceni porumb 359 83,0
Molasses / Melas 285 -
Beet leaves / Frunze de sfecl 500 84,0
Liquid bird waste / Dejecii lichide de psri 223 69,0
Cow waste / Dejecii de bovine 260 - 310 55,0
Horse waste / Dejecii de cabaline 200 - 300 -
Sheep waste / Dejecii de ovine 90 - 310 65,0
Pig waste / Dejecii de porcine 300 - 550 69,0
Stable waste / Gunoi de grajd 175 - 280 -
City mud / Nmol orenesc 200 - 370 -
Water hyacinth / Zambila de ap 375 -

Figures 2 and 3 graphically presents the quantity of
biogas m
3
/ton expressed in what can be obtained from
various organic substrates. .
n figurile 2 i 3 se prezint grafic cantitatea de biogaz
exprimat n m
3
/ton ce se poate obine din diferite
substraturi organice.

Figure 2 / Figura 2
Biogas production rezulted from verdure and waste /
Producia de biogaz rezultat din verdeuri i dejecii, m
3
/ton

74
It has been found that practically it can be used a
very large scale of organic substrates for obtaining
biogas, only that the production and quality differ from a
category to another. In the same organic substrate, the
biogas quantity is also influenced by the mincing point of
the raw matter. The mincing determines the growth of
the substrate's surface, respectively the surface for
bacteria action and implicitly the growth of productivity
for the biogas producing installation. This is exemplified
by the data from table 4 for wheat straws. .
Se constat c practic se poate folosi o gam foarte
variat de substraturi organice pentru obinerea de biogaz,
numai c producia i calitatea difer de la o categorie la
alta. n cadrul aceluiai substrat organic cantitatea de biogaz
este influenat i de gradul de mrunire a materiei prime.
Mrunirea determin creterea suprafeei substratului,
respectiv suprafaa de aciune a bacteriilor i implicit
productivitatea instalaiei de producere a biogazului. Acest
lucru este exemplificat cu datele din tabelul 4 pentru paiele
de gru.

Figure 3 / Figura 3
Biogas production from din reziduum / Producia de biogaz obinut din reziduuri , m
3
/ton

Table 4 / Tabel 4
Biogas production and quality dependence upon the organic matters mincing point
Dependena produciei i a calitii biogazului de gradul de mrunire a materiei organice

Raw matter / Materia prim
Resulted biogas /
Biogaz rezultat
[l/kg S.U]
Methane content /
Coninut de metan
[%]
Minced wheat straws at 3 cm /
Paie de gru mrunite la 3 cm
363 80,2
Minced wheat straws at 0,2 cm /
Paie de gru mrunite la 0,2 cm
423 81,3

It has been found that for minced straws at 0,2 cm it is
obtained not only the maximum production, but also the
best quality for the resulted biogas.
At the organization of the feeding system for the
biogas installations will be kept in mind the necessity of
respecting the C/N ratio, which must be placed between
the limits of 1525. Bacteria development that have as
principal constituent proteins, is conditioned by the
nitrogen content of the raw matter in the mentioned ratio
compared with the carbon content. In table 5 are
presented some organic substrate and the C/N ratio.
Se constat c pentru paiele mrunite la 0,2 cm se
obine att producia maxim de biogaz ct i calitatea cea
mai bun a biogazului rezultat.
La ntocmirea reetelor de alimentare a instalaiilor de
biogaz se va ine seama de necesitatea respectrii raportului
C/N, care trebuie s se ncadreze n limitele de 1525.
Dezvoltarea bacteriilor care au ca principal constituent
proteinele, este condiionat de coninutul n azot al
materiei prime n proporia menionat fa de coninutul
de carbon. n tabelul 5 sunt prezentate unele substraturi
organice i raportul C/N.

Table 5 / Tabel 5
Carbon and nitrogen content and C/N ratio for some raw matters used for obtaining biogas
Coninutul n carbon i azot i raportul C/N la unele materii prime utilizate pentru obinerea de biogaz

Organic substrat /
Substratul organic
Carbon content /
Coninut de carbon
[%]
Nitrogen content /
Coninut de azot
[%]
C/N ratio /
Raportul C/N
Wheat staws / Paie de gru 46 0,53 87
Barley straws / Paie de ovz 42 0,75 56

75
Rice straws / Paie de orez 42 0,63 67
Diverse herbs / Ierburi diverse 15 0,6 25
Lucerne / Lucern 48 2,6 18
Tree leaves / Frunze de copaci 41 1,0 41
Potatoe stalk / Tulpini de cartofi 40 1,2 22
Soy bean stalk / Tulpini de soia 41 1,3 32
Chiken waste / Dejecii de gin 45 3,0 15
Pig waste / Dejecii de porc 7,8 0,65 13
Horse waste / Dejecii de cal 10 0,42 24
Sheep waste / Dejecii de ovine 16 0,55 29
Cow waste / Dejecii de bovine 7,3 0,29 25

From the table is found that for establishing actual
networks of mixtures to obtain biogas different matters
can be combined, but in very well combined quantities,
assuring an optimum C/N ratio. .
Din tabel rezult c pentru stabilirea reetelor concrete
de amestecuri pentru obinerea de biogaz se pot combina
diferite materii prime, dar n cantiti bine determinate, nct
s se asigure un raport C/N optim.

CONCLUSIONS
1. Anaerobic fermentation is characterized by three
thermic zones:
Criophilic zone extent between 1224C,
characteristic to the criophilic fermentation;
Mezophyllic zone extent between 2540C,
characteristic to the mezophyllic fermentation;
Termophilic zone extent between 506C,
characteristic to the termophilic fermentation.
2. Thermic conditions determine the decomposing point
of the organic matter and implicitly the biogas
installations productivity.
3. For the production of biogas can be used raw matters
very variated from: energetic cultures, secondary
agricultural productions, agricultural sylvicultural,
industrial waste, animal growing waste, used waters, etc.
usually combined in precise recepies.
4. At the forming of the alimentation system for the
biogas installations will be kept in mind the necessity of
respecting the C/N ratio, that has to be placed between
15 25 limits.
5. The mincing point of the raw matter influences directly
the production and quality of biogas.
6. For the development in the best conditions of the
anaerobic fermentation raw matters water content has
to be more than 85%.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Buthe A., Ansorge-Schumacher W., Hartmeier W. 1
st Joint Symposium of the Working Group
Biotransformation of the VAAM and the German
Society for Fat Science. March 2003, Greifswald,
Germany.
2. Dossat V., Comber D., Marty A. Enzyme and
Microb, Tech. 1999.
3. Shimada Z., Watanabe T., Samukawa A., Sugihara A.,
Noda H., Fucuda Z. JAOCS 1999, PG. 76-77.
4. X X X Biogas recovery installations.
5. X X X - Biogas.
6. X X X Biocarburants in Romnia. Bucarest, 2004.
7. X X X Biogas production and usage for obtaining
energy, 2006.
8. X X X Tehnium magazine, ediie special, 1974.

CONCLUZII
1. Fermentaia anaerob este caracterizat de trei zone
termice:
Zona criofil cuprins ntre 1224C, caracteristic
fermentrii n regim criofil;
Zona mezofil cuprins ntre 2540C, caracteristic
fermentrii n regim mezofil;
Zona termofil cuprins ntre 5060C, caracteristic
fermentrii n regim termofil.
2. Regimului termic determin gradul de descompunere a
materiei organice i implicit productivitatea instalaiilor de
biogaz
3. Pentru producerea de biogaz se pot utiliza materii prime
foarte variate din categoria culturilor energetice, producii
agricole secundare, deeuri agricole, silvice, industriale,
dejecii din zootehnie, ape uzate, etc. de regul combinate
sub form de reete concrete.
4. La ntocmirea reetelor de alimentare a instalaiilor de
biogaz se va ine seama de necesitatea respectrii
raportului C/N, care trebuie s se ncadreze n limitele
1525.
5. Gradul de mrunire al materiei prime influeneaz direct
producia i calitatea biogazului.
6. Pentru desfurarea n bune condiii a fermentaiei
anaerobe coninutul de ap al materiei prime trebuie s fie
mai mare de 85%.

BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Buthe A., Ansorge-Schumacher W., Hartmeier W. 1 st
Joint Symposium of the Working Group Biotransformation
of the VAAM and the German Society for Fat Science.
March 2003, Greifswald, Germany.
2. Dossat V., Comber D., Marty A. Enzyme and Microb,
Tech. 1999.
3. Shimada Z., Watanabe T., Samukawa A., Sugihara A.,
Noda H., Fucuda Z. JAOCS 1999, PG. 76-77.
4. X X X Instalaii recuperare biogaz.
5. X X X - Biogazul.
6. X X X Biocarburanii n Romnia. Bucureti, 2004.
7. X X X Producerea i utilizarea biogazului pentru
obinerea de energie, 2006.
8. X X X Revista Tehnium, ediie special, 1974.


76

CONSTRUCTIVE TYPES OF ADAPTORS FOR THE RAW VEGETABLE OIL USED AT DIESEL
MOTORS
/
TIPURI CONSTRUCTIVE DE ADAPTOARE PENTRU UTILIZAREA ULEIULUI VEGETAL CRUD
LA MOTOARELE DIESEL


Abstract: The present work describes the main
constructive types of adaptors which allow Diesel motors
to run with raw vegetable oil as fuel.
The adaptors used at this time use different
methods in what concerns the heating of the vegetable
oil and also the way of commuting from diesel fuel to oil.
- According to the type of heating, the adaptors can be
classified in: adaptors where the oil heating is made by
the thermal agent from the motors cooling system; adaptors
where the heating is made using electrical resistances.
- According to the manner of commuting, the adaptors can
have: manual commuting, and automatic commuting when the
optimum work temperature is reached. Emphasis should be
placed on the fact that the raw vegetable oil constitutes a
renewable fuel, relatively easy to produce in ones own
farm, which also leads to the energetic independence of
the vegetable farms, and implicitly to the possibility of a
vegetable production growth without additional expense, by
doing the mechanical works at the optimum time.

Keywords: adaptor, vegetable oil, commuting, thermal
agent, electrical resistance

Raw vegetable oil constitutes an excellent fuel for
Diesel motors, especially for the ones that equip tractors
and agricultural machines. It is a regenerating fuel,
relatively easy to produce in ones own farm, which leads
to the energetic independency of vegetable farms,
implicitly to bigger possibilities to increase vegetable
production without additional expenses, by accomplishing
mechanical works at an optimum moment, without
delays in realizing the works caused by Diesel oil lack,
respectively by lack of resources for acquiring it. Costs
price for vegetable oil is lower in comparison with the
one of Diesel oil, having the possibility to be substantially
reduced if it is produced in ones own agricultural unit or
by purchasing, with full usage of secondary products
(groats, barms, peels). In the case of using the
vegetable oil as fuel for Diesel motors, pollution rate is a
lot smaller in comparison with classic fuel, practically the
sulphur compound are missing.
Thanks to the presence of oxygen in the vegetable
oils molecule, combustion in the motors cylinders is
realized with black forming in small quantities.
In table 1 are pointed up the principal qualitative
index for Diesel oil and vegetable oils. Analyzing the
data from the table it is stated that the heating power of
the vegetable oil is close to the one of classic fuel,
resulting a fuel consumption/hectare with insignificant
difference between Diesel fuel and raw vegetable oil.
Rezumat Lucrarea i propune cunoaterea principalelor
tipuri constructive de adaptoare care permit funcionarea
motoarelor Diesel cu ulei vegetal crud ca i combustibil.
Adaptoarele folosite n prezent se deosebesc prin
modul de nclzire a uleiului vegetal i prin modul de
comutare de pe motorin pe ulei.
- Dup modul de nclzire se pot clasifica n: adaptoare la
care nclzirea uleiului se realizeaz cu ajutorul agentului
termic din sistemul de rcire al motorului; adaptoare la
care nclzirea se realizeaz cu rezistene electrice.
- Dup modul de comutare adaptoarele pot fi: cu comutare
manual i cu comutare automat la atingerea temperaturii
optime de lucru. Trebuie subliniat c uleiul vegetal brut
constituie un combustibil regenerabil, relativ uor de
produs n ferma proprie, ceea ce conduce i spre
independena energetic a fermelor vegetale, implicit
posibiliti sporite de cretere a produciei vegetale fr
cheltuieli suplimentare, prin realizarea lucrrilor mecanice
la momentul optim.

Cuvinte cheie: adaptor; ulei vegetal; comutare; agent
termic; rezistene electrice

Uleiul vegetal crud constituie un combustibil excelent
pentru motoarele Diesel, n special pentru cele care
echipeaz tractoarele i mainile agricole. Este un combustibil
regenerabil, relativ uor de produs n ferma proprie, ceea ce
conduce spre independena energetic a fermelor vegetale,
implicit posibiliti sporite de cretere a produciei vegetale
fr cheltuieli suplimentare, prin realizarea lucrrilor
mecanice la momentul optim, neexistnd ntrzieri n
executarea lucrrilor din cauza lipsei de motorin, respectiv
a resurselor pentru achiziionarea acesteia. Preul de cost al
uleiului vegetal este mai redus n comparaie cu cel al
motorinei, cu posibiliti de reducere substanial a acestuia
dac se produce n unitatea agricol proprie din producie
proprie sau din achiziii, cu valorificarea integral a produselor
secundare (roturi, drojdii, coji). n cazul utilizrii uleiului vegetal
drept combustibil la motoarele Diesel, gradul de poluare este
mult mai redus comparativ cu utilizarea combustibilului clasic,
practic compuii sulfului lipsesc.
Datorit prezenei oxigenului n molecula de uleiul
vegetal, combustia n cilindrii motorului se realizeaz cu
formare de funingine n cantiti mult diminuate.
n tabelul 1 sunt evideniai principalii indici calitativi ai
motorinei i ai uleiurilor vegetale. Analiznd datele din tabel
se constat c puterea calorific a uleiului vegetal este
apropiat de cea a combustibilului clasic, de unde rezult
un consum de combustibil/ha cu diferene nesemnificative
ntre motorin i uleiul vegetal crud.

Table 1
Main qualitative index forDiesel oil and vegetable oil / Principalii indici calitativi ai motorinei i uleiurilor vegetale

Fuel type /
Tip carburant
Heating power /
Putere calorific
[kJ/kg]
Density at /
Densitate la
15 C
[g/cm
3
[
Viscidity at /
Vscozitate la
40 C
[mm
2
/s]
Cetane
number /
Cifr
cetanic
Inflamability
point / Punct de
inflamabilitate
[ C]

77
Diesel oil / Motorin 42325 0,832 2,00-4,50 49,2 62
Rape oil / Ulei rapi 37700 0,885 46,00 45,3 153
Sunflower oil / Ulei floarea
soarelui
38525 0,910 45,00 40,3 195
Corn oil / Ulei porumb 37800 0,906 41,00 41,0 236
Soy bean oil / Ulei de soia 39252 0,901 40,00 40,8 205

In exchange, the viscidity is bigger to up to 10 times
than the one of Diesel oil, with negative effects regarding
filtration and dispersal of fuel in the cylinders, also the
inflammability point is higher, influencing negatively the
motor starting.
Viscidity correction can be made using a convertor
(adaptor) equipped with a preheater, which rises oils
temperature at 7080C, when the oils parameters are
close to those of Diesel oil and when on the Diesel motors
cylinders must be fed with fuel.
The high inflammability point of vegetable oil imposes
the starting of the motor using Diesel oil, and after heating
the oil at 7080C it is passed on vegetable oil.
Adaptors used practically are distinguished by the
vegetable oil way of heating and by the way of
commutation from diesel oil to vegetable oil.
According to the heating way it can be classified in:
Adaptoars heated using hot water, which use the
thermic energy from the cooling system of the motor
using a heat changer. In diagram 1 is shown the sketch
of a device used for preheating vegetable oil (heat
changer) using hot water.
n schimb vscozitatea uleiului este mai ridicata dect
a motorinei de circa 10 ori, cu efecte negative privind
filtrarea i dispersarea combustibilului n cilindrii, de
asemenea punctul de inflamabilitate este mai ridicat,
influennd negativ pornirea motorului.
Corectarea vscozitii uleiului se poate realiza cu ajutorul
unui convertor (adaptor) prevzut cu prenclzitor, care ridic
temperatura uleiului la 7080C, cnd parametrii uleiului sunt
apropiai de cei ai motorinei i cnd cilindrii motorului Diesel
trebuie alimentai cu combustibil.
Punctul de inflamabilitate ridicat al uleiului vegetal
impune pornirea motorului pe motorin, iar dup nclzirea
uleiului la 7080C se trece pe ulei vegetal.
Adaptoarele utilizate n practic se deosebesc prin
modul de nclzire a uleiului vegetal i prin modul de
comutare de pe motorin pe ulei.
Dup modul de nclzire se pot clasifica n:
Adaptoare nclzite cu ap cald, care utilizeaz
energia termic din sistemul de rcire al motorului prin
intermediul unui schimbtor de cldur. n figura 1 este
redat schema unui dispozitiv de prenclzire a uleiului
vegetal (schimbtor de cldur) cu ap cald.

Figure 1 - Vegetable oil preheater using hot water / Prenclzitor de ulei vegetal cu ap cald

Adaptoars electrically heated, which use the
thermic energy from elements with electric
resistances. In diagram 2 is presented the sketch
of a vegetable oil preheated equipped with
electric elements. Electric oil heating is an
efficient technical solution even at the cold motor
starting and working, with the possibility to
maintain the temperature under control, small
dimensions, simple and easy assembling, low
cost.
Adaptoare nclzite electric, care utilizeaz
energia termic furnizat de elemente cu
rezistene electrice. n figura 2 se prezint
schema unui prenclzitor de ulei prevzut cu
elemente electrice. nclzirea electric a uleiului
este o soluie tehnic eficient chiar i la pornirea
i funcionarea motorului la rece, cu posibilitatea
de meninere sub control a temperaturii, gabaritul
este redus, montare simpl i uoar, pre de cost
redus.

Figure 2 - Vegetable oil preheator equipped with electric elements / Prenclzitor de ulei vegetal cu elemente electrice
1. entrance connector / racord intrare; 2. exit connector / racord ieire; 3. ventilation screw / urub aerisire; B1,B2 - heating electric elements / B1,B2 -
elemente electrice de nclzire; Tm1- comand thermostat / Tm1- termostat de comand; Tm2 protection thermostat / Tm2 termostat de protecie

78
According to the commutation way it can be classified in:
adaptors with manual commutation;
adaptors with automatic commutation.
Dup modul de comutare se pot clasifica n:
adaptoare cu comutare manual;
adaptoare cu comutare automat.
Adaptors with automatic commutation can have:
electronic command (through some electronic components
assembled as a command modulus);
electromagnetic command (through some
electromagnetic relays).
Adaptoarele cu comutare automat la rndul lor pot fi:
cu comand electronic (prin intermediul unor componente
electronice asamblate sub forma unui modul de comand);
cu comand electromagnetic (prin intermediul unor
relee electromagnetice.
1. Adaptors with manual commutation and oil heating
using hot water from the motors cooling system diagram
3. This type of adaptor allows the starting of the Diesel oil
motor and the commutation through a double faucet with
three ways. For the oil heating there is incorporated a heat
switch connected to the motors cooling system. The
cooling liquid and the vegetable oil circulates in counter-
current. The oils optimum work temperature is realized
when the motors cooling liquid temperature reaches a
value of 70-80
0
C. Until it reaches that temperature , the
motor has to work using Diesel oil. Although it is a simple
adaptor, it commutes relatively hard and needs a relatively
big period of time to reach the optimum temperature for
commutation on oil. Also, for its assembling it is necessary
to make modifications both to the motors supplying
system and to the cooling system.
1. Adaptor cu comutare manual i nclzirea uleiului cu apa
cald din sistemul de rcire al motorului figura 3. Acest tip
de adaptor permite pornirea motorului pe motorin i
comutarea pe ulei prin intermediul unui robinet dublu cu trei
ci. Pentru nclzirea uleiului are ncorporat un schimbtor de
cldur racordat la sistemul de rcire al motorului. Lichidul de
rcire i uleiul vegetal circul n contracurent. Temperatura
optim de lucru a uleiului se realizeaz cnd temperatura
lichidului de rcire al motorului ajunge n jurul valorii de 70
80
0
C. Pn se ajunge la aceast temperatur motorul trebuie
s funcioneze pe motorin. Dei este un adaptor simplu,
comutarea este relativ greoaie i necesit o perioad de timp
relativ mare pentru atingerea temperaturii optime de comutare
pe ulei. Totodat pentru instalarea lui sunt necesare modificri
att ale sistemul de alimentare al motorului ct i ale
sistemului de rcire.

Figure 3 - General sketch for manual commutation adaptor and oil heating using hot water /
Schema general a adaptorului cu comutare manual i nclzirea uleiului cu ap cald
RM Diesel oil tank; RU vegetable oil tank; PRU oil preheator; R commutation faucet; PA supplying pump; FG and FF fuel filters;
PI injection pump; I injectors / RM rezervor motorin; RU rezervor ulei vegetal; PRU prenclzitor ulei; R robinet de comutare; PA
pomp alimentare; FG i FF filtre de combustibil; PI pomp injecie; I injectoare

2. Adaptors with manual commutation and electric
oil heating - diagram 4. The commutation is identical
with the first case, but the oil heating is made in a shorter
time and motor cooling system modifications are not
necessary. The electrical heating is a efficient technical
solution both for motors cold starting and working ,
assuring the possibility to maintain temperature under
control, small size, simple and easy assembling, low cost.
2. Adaptor cu comutare manual i nclzirea electric a
uleiului - figura 4. Comutarea este identic cu primul caz, dar
nclzirea uleiului se realizeaz ntr-un timp mult mai scurt i nu
mai sunt necesare modificri ale sistemului de rcire al
motorului. nclzire electric este o soluie tehnic eficient
chiar i la pornirea i funcionarea motorului la rece, asigurnd
posibilitatea de meninere sub control a temperaturii, a unui
gabarit redus, o montare simpl i uoar, un pre de cost redus.

Figure 4 - General sketch for manual commutation adaptor and electric oil heating / Schema general a adaptorului cu comutare
manual i nclzirea electric a uleiului.
RM Diesel oil tank; RU vegetable oil tank; PRU oil preheator; R commutation faucet; PA supplying pump; FG and FF fuel filters;
PI injection pump; I injectors / RM rezervor motorin; RU rezervor ulei vegetal; PRU prenclzitor ulei; R robinet de comutare; PA
pomp alimentare; FG i FF filtre de combustibil; PI pomp injecie; I injectoare

79
3. Adaptors with automatic cummutation and oil
heating using hot water. For this type of adaptors, the
motor commutation from diesel oil is made automaticly,
throuh a thermostat, when the oil reaches a 70-80
0
C
temperature. The oil heating drawbacks are maintained as
in the first case.
4. Adaptors with automatic commutation and electric
oil heating. In diagram 5 is presented the general
hydraulic sketch for the adaptor, and in diagram 6 is
presented the general electric sketch. It is superior to other
types of adaptors, combining automatic commutation
assists by a thermostat, with rapid oil heating using electric
elements. The automatic commutation can be realized
using electronic or electromagnetic components, through
electro valves.
3. Adaptor cu comutare automat i nclzirea uleiului
cu ap cald. La acest adaptor comutarea de pe motorin
pe ulei se realizeaz automat, prin intermediul unui
termostat, cnd uleiul ajunge la temperatura de 70 80
0
C.
Se menin inconvenientele legate de nclzirea uleiului ca i
n primul caz.
4. Adaptor cu comutare automat i nclzirea electric
a uleiului. n figura 5 se prezint schema hidraulic
general a adaptorului, iar n figura 6 se prezint schema
electric general. Este superior celorlalte tipuri de
adaptoare, mbinnd comutarea automat asistat de un
termostat, cu nclzirea rapid a uleiului cu elemente
electrice. Comutarea automat poate s fie realizat cu
componente electronice sau electromagnetice, prin
intermediul electrovalvelor.

Figure 5 - General hydraulic sketch for the adaptor with automatic commutation and electric oil heating /
Schema hidraulic general a adaptorului cu comutare automat i nclzirea electric a uleiului
RM Diesel oil tank; RU oil tank; EVTU and EVRU oil turn-return electrovalves; EVTM and EVRM Diesel oil turn-return electro valves ; I2 manual
commutation; PRU vegetable oil preheator / RM rezervor motorin; RU rezervor ulei; EVTU i EVRU electrovalve tur-retur ulei; EVTM i
EVRM - electrovalve tur-retur motorin; I2 comutator manual; PRU prenclzitor ulei vegetal

Figure 6 - General electric sketch for the electromagnetic adaptor with automatic commutation and electric oil heating /
Schema electric general a adaptorului electromagnetic cu comutare automat i nclzirea electric a uleiului
R1, R2, R3 electromagnetic relays; Tm1 command thermostat ; Tm2 protection thermostat; B1 and B2 electric heating elements; EVTU and EVRU
oil turn-return electrovalves; EVTM i EVRM - Diesel oil turn-return electrovalves; I2 manual commutator on Diesel oil / R1, R2, R3 relee
electromagnetice; Tm1 termostat de comand; Tm2 termostat de protecie; B1 i B2 elemente de nclzire electrice; EVTU i EVRU electrovalve tur-retur ulei;
EVTM i EVRM - electrovalve tur-retur motorin; I2 comutator manual pe motorin

No matter the adaptors type, the motors supplying
installation must have a supplementary tank for vegetable
oil. Usually the motors Diesel oil tank becomes an oil tank,
and the supplementary, of smaller capacity (5-10 liters)
becomes a Diesel oil tank, that being necessary only for
the engine start and its working until the oil is heated, also
for eliminating the oil from the system before the engine
stops.
To reduce thermic losses, the preheator is assembled
as near as possible to the system supplying pump.
All the types of adaptors used so that the Diesel
Indiferent de tipul adaptorului, instalaia de alimentare a
motorului trebuie s fie prevzut cu un rezervor suplimentar
pentru uleiul vegetal. De regul rezervorul de motorin din
dotarea motorului devine rezervor de ulei, iar cel suplimentar,
de capacitate mai mic (510l) devine rezervor de motorin,
aceasta fiind necesar numai la pornirea motorului i
funcionarea acestuia pn se nclzete uleiul, de asemenea
la splarea sistemului de ulei nainte de oprirea motorului.
Pentru reducerea pierderilor termice prenclzitorul se monteaz
ct mai aproape de pompa de alimentare a sistemului.
Toate tipurile de adaptoare utilizate pentru funcionarea

80
motor will work using vegetable oil need oil elimination
before the engine stops for a longer period of time (that
allows the engine to cool). This implies that with 1015
minutes before stopping the engine, the installation has to
be manually passed on diesel oil supplying to permit the
system flush of oil and its charging with Diesel oil to allow
an easy start of the engine.
motorului Diesel cu ulei vegetal necesit splarea de ulei
nainte de oprirea motorului pentru o perioad mai mare de
timp (care permite rcirea motorului). Acest lucru presupune
ca nainte de oprirea motorului cu 1015 min. instalaia s fie
trecut manual pe alimentarea cu motorin pentru a permite
splarea sistemului de ulei i ncrcarea cu motorin pentru a
permite o nou pornire uoar a motorului.

CONCLUSIONS
1. Using raw vegetable oils in 100% ratio as biofuel for
thermic motors with ignition by compression (Diesel) is
possible only if the engine is additionally equipped with an
adaptor which allows the commutation from Diesel oil to
vegetable oil and also to correct the oils viscidity.
2. The correction for the oils viscidity is made by heating it
at 70-80C temperatures.
3. The oil heating can be made electrically or using hot
water from the motors cooling system.
4. Electric oil heating is the recommended technical
solution thanks to its efficiency even at cold motor starting
and working, of maintaining temperature under control, of
low size and easy assembling, low cost.
5. The commutation from diesel oil to vegetable oil can be
made manually, with adequate facets, or automatically,
with electrovalves controlled by electronic or
electromagnetic devices, recommended being the
automatic commutation, which is more comfortable and
easy.
6. For the Diesel engine to work 100% with vegetable oil,
the supplying system must be equiped with an additional
oil tank.
7. The assembling of the preheator and of the
commutation will be made in the proximity of the injection
pump to avoid thermic losses.
8. For a good supplying system functioning and an easy
engine start, it is imposed that the oil system is flushed
before the engine is stopped for a long period of time and
its filling with Diesel oil.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Burnete N. Researches regarding the recicling of used
alimentary by using them as fuel for motors with ingnition
by compresion. Science Politics and Scientometry
Magazine. Special edition , 2005.
2. Dobre P. Adaptor for the functioning of Diesel motors
with raw vegetable oil. Patent demand 2009.
3. Kusdiana D., Saka S.- Fuel 80, 693/2001.
4. Lawton M. D., Ackrell L. F. - Operating internal
Combustion engines with plant oil. Brevet de invenie,
ianuarie 2006. U.S.A.
5. Oren L. K., Talking R. - System and method for fueling
Diesel engines with vegetable oil. Brevet de invenie,
martie 2007. U.S. A.
6. Roca R i colab. The Formulating and testing of an
oxygenated biodiesel fuel for the supply of motors with
ingnition by compresion. Grant 2004
7. X X X - Biocarburanii n Romnia.

CONCLUZII
1. Utilizarea uleiurilor vegetale brute n proporie de 100%
ca biocombustibili la motoarele termice cu aprindere prin
comprimare (Diesel), este posibil numai dac motorul
este dotat suplimentar cu un adaptor care s permit
comutarea de pe motorin pe ulei i totodat s corecteze
vscozitatea uleiului.
2. Corectarea vscozitii uleiului se realizeaz prin
nclzirea acestuia la temperatura de 7080C.
3. nclzirea uleiului se poate face electric sau cu apa cald
provenit din sistemul de rcire al motorului.
4. nclzire electric a uleiului este soluia tehnic recomandat
datorit eficienei la pornirea i funcionarea motorului chiar i
la rece, a meninerii sub control a temperaturii, a gabaritului
redus i a montrii uoare, a preului de cost redus.
5. Comutarea alimentrii de pe motorin pe ulei vegetal se
poate realiza manual, cu robinete adecvate sau automat,
cu electrovalve controlate de dispozitive electronice sau
electromagnetice, recomandat fiind comutarea automat
care este mai comod i mai sigur.
6. Pentru funcionarea cu ulei vegetal 100% a motorului
Diesel, sistemul de alimentare trebuie dotat cu un rezervor
suplimentar de ulei.
7. Montarea prenclzitorului i a comutatorului se va face
n imediata apropiere a pompei de injecie pentru evitarea
pierderilor termice.
8. Pentru buna funcionare a sistemului de alimentare i pornirea
uoar a motorului, se impune splarea sistemului de ulei nainte
de oprirea motorului pentru o perioad mai mare de timp i
ncrcarea lui cu motorin.

BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Burnete N. Cercetri privind reciclarea uleiurilor alimentare
uzate prin utilizarea lor ca i combustibili la motoarele cu
aprindere prin comprimare. Revista de Politica tiinei i
Scientometrie. Numr special, 2005.
2. Dobre P. Adaptor pentru funcionarea motoarelor
Diesel cu ulei vegetal crud. Cerere brevet 2009.
3. Kusdiana D., Saka S.- Fuel 80, 693/2001.
4. Oren L. K., Talking R. - System and method for fueling
Diesel engines with vegetable oil. Brevet de invenie,
martie 2007. U.S. A.
5. Lawton M. D., Ackrell L. F. - Operating internal
Combustion engines with plant oil. Brevet de invenie,
ianuarie 2006. U.S.A.
6. Roca R i colab. Formularea i ncercarea unui
combustibil oxigenat de tip biodiesel pentru alimentarea
motoarelor cu aprindere prin comprimare. Grant 2004;
7. X X X - Biocarburanii n Romnia.


81

EOLIAN POWER GENERATION FOR AGRICULTURAL INSTALLATIONS IN REMOTE AREAS
/
GENERAREA ENERGIEI EOLIENE PENTRU INSTALATII AGRICOLE N ZONE IZOLATE

Eng. Drago TNASE Politehnica University Bucureti (Romnia)
Eng. PhD student Andreea BORITU Politehnica University Bucureti (Romnia)
Eng. PhD student Camelia NICULI Transilvania University Braov (Romnia)
Eng. PhD student Andrei BENCZE Transilvania University Braov (Romnia)
Prof. Dr. Eng. Ioan CANDEA Transilvania University Braov (Romnia)

Abstract: This paper is presenting a new concept of Aeolian
Wind Turbine with one vertical axis and three blades with
continuous variation of the incidence angle. This turbine can be
used to obtain mechanical energy and electric energy in remote
areas or in areas without necessary infrastructure. The
generated energy can be used to power different types of
agricultural installations and for farms electrical supply. The
power generation is completely pollution free. Selection of the
constructive model is based on a comparative analysis of the
actual types (with vertical and horizontal axis). Knowing the
required output, one can make the dimensioning of the turbine,
choose the airfoils for the blades and can calculate the
aerodynamic and mechanic efficiencies. Also, for calculations, is
analyzed theoretically the influence of the winds parameters.

Keywords: Aeolian Wind Turbine, profile, wind, energy,
power, efficiencies

1. INTRODUCTION. BRIEF HISTORIC
The issue of ensuring energy for the human society is
of utmost importance to increase the quality of life. A major
source of potential energy is the Sun, irradiated power on
Earth is at 10
11
million KW, of which about 22% serves to
evaporation of ground water, one part (about 0.2%) is
translated in the form of wind energy, aeolian energy.
It can be said that wind is a source of energy virtually
infinite, non-polluting, available at planetary scale, free
(does not require a process of extraction), but has an
irregular character, low concentration per area unit.
For Romania, specialized studies show a good
potential of aeolian energy.
Wind energy was an energy source that was
permanently used by the human society.
In the interest of this paper, we find historical sources
in the first use of wind turbines with 200 years BC in
Persia, these being used for pumping water or grinding
grains.
In Romania, documentary sources mention the use of
wind energy in Dobrogea in 1585. At the beginning of the
20
th
century, in Tulcea County were working 437 wind
mills, over 900 in Dobrogea and in Moldavia over 300. The
scale of the expansion of these facilities was not too high
because of the use of traditional water mill.

2. WIND. FEATURES AND ENERGY POTENTIAL
As a weather phenomenon, the wind is a
consequence of the relationship between temperature and
pressure. Solar rays cross the atmosphere, heating the land
surface and further the atmospheric air by: radiation,
molecular conductivity, turbulence, convection currents, and
advection. As a result, warm air is found in lower layers of
the troposphere, at contact area with the land surface.
In altitude, the temperature decreases by 0.6 1C
on 100 m. On the land surface, there is an uneven
distribution of solar radiation, which causes an uneven
distribution of heating, leading to an uneven distribution of
atmospheric pressure and thus the emergence of wind.
The rotation movement of Earth is the cause of
inertial forces: centrifugal and Coriolis. Centrifugal forces
Rezumat: Lucrarea prezint un nou concept de turbin
eolian cu ax vertical cu trei pale cu inciden variabil
utilizat pentru obinerea energiei mecanice sau electrice n
zonele izolate unde nu exist infrastructura necesar.
Energia generat poate fi utilizat pentru punerea n
funciune a instalaiilor agricole de diferite tipuri ct i pentru
necesarul electric al fermelor. Producerea energiei este total
nepoluant. Alegerea tipului constructiv se bazeaz pe o
analiz comparat a tipurilor existente (cu ax orizontal i ax
vertical). Cunoscnd puterea necesar se calculeaz
dimensiunile turbinei, se aleg profilele aerodinamice ale
palelor i se calculeaz randamentul aerodinamic i mecanic.
Deasemenea se analizeaz teoretic influena direciei,
intensitatea i profilul vntului, date necesare n calcul.

Cuvinte cheie: turbina eoliana, profil, vnt, energie, putere
necesara, randament.

1. INTRODUCERE. SCURT ISTORIC
Problematica asigurrii resurselor energetice ale societii
omeneti este de maxim importan pentru cresterea calitii
vieii. O surs major de energie potenial este Soarele, puterea
iradiat pe Pmnt fiind de 10
11
milioane KW, din care circa
22% servete la evaporarea apelor terestre, o parte (circa 0.2%)
regsindu-se sub form de energie a vnturilor, energie eolian.
Se poate spune c vntul este o surs practic inepuizabil,
nepoluant, disponibil la scar planetar, gratuit (nu cere
un proces de extracie), dar cu un caracter neregulat,
concentraie mic pe unitatea de suprafa.
Pentru Romania, studiile de specialitate arat un
potenialul energetic eolian bun.
Energia vntului a fost o surs energetic care a fost
permanent utilizat de societatea uman.
n domeniul de interes al prezentei lucrri, gsim n
sursele istorice utilizarea primelor turbine de vnt cu 200
de ani .e.n. n Persia, acestea fiind folosite la pomparea
apei sau la mcinatul grului.
n Romania, surse documentare menioneaz
utilizarea energiei eoliene n Dobrogea la 1585. La
nceputul secolului XX, n judeul Tulcea funcionau 437
mori de vnt, iar n Dobrogea peste 900, n Moldova circa
300. Amploarea extinderii acestor instalaii nu a fost prea
mare din cauza tradiiei n utilizarea morii de ap.

2. VNTUL. CARACTERISTICI I POTENIAL ENERGETIC
Vntul, ca fenomen meteorologic, este o consecina a
relaiei dintre temperatur i presiune. Razele solare
strbat atmosfera, nclzesc suprafaa terestr i de aici
aerul atmosferic prin: radiaie, conductibilitate molecular,
turbulena, cureni de convecie, i advecie. Ca urmare,
aerul cald se gsete n straturile inferioare ale troposferei,
la zona de contact cu suprafa terestr.
n altitudine temperatura scade cu 0,61C la 100
m. Pe suprafaa terestr exist o distribuie inegal a
radiaiei solare, ceea ce determin o nclzire neuniform,
ce duce la o neuniformitate n distribuia presiunii
atmosferice i deci la apariia vntului.
Micarea de rotaie a Pmntului determin apariia
unor fore de inerie: centrifug i Coriolis. Fora centrifug

82
have a negligible effect on air currents, but Coriolis forces
cause significant deviations of wind direction from the
direction determined by the horizontal gradient of
atmospheric pressure.
Interesting features that are related to the wind are:
direction, speed, duration, structure. The structure of wind
refers to the air current character: laminar, turbulent or
gust. The quality of a location depends on the wind
potential [1].
Wind installations are converting only a part of the
wind energy flow. The degree of conversion (efficiency), is
expressed by the power coefficient Cp defined in equation
1.
are un efect neglijabil asupra curentilor de aer, dar fora
Coriolis determin abateri importante ale direciei vntului
de la direcia determinat de gradientul orizontal al
presiunii atmosferice.
Caracteristicile care intereseaz legate de vnt
sunt: direcia, viteza, durata, structura. Structura vntului
se refer la caracterul curentului de aer: laminar, turbulent
sau n rafal. Calitatea unui amplasament depinde de
potenialul su eolian [1].
Instalaiile eoliene nu convertesc dect o parte din
fluxul energetic al vntului. Gradul de conversie
(randamentul), se exprim cu ajutorul coeficientului de
putere Cp definit n relaia 1.
( ) ( )
3
2
1
v A v Cp v P
T
=
(1)
where: A-active transverse area of aeolian installation ;
v
3
/2- total wind energy density flux.
It is necessary to study the persistence of the wind,
the maximum periods of calm, their distribution during the
year correlated with energy consumption, to allow sizing of
energy storage system.
Efficient use of aeolian installations requires that they
should have large dimensions, with powers which often
can climb on the MW order. In areas with good wind
energy potential, the technical potential is in the range 0.5
- 1.5 W/m
2
.

3. AERODYNAMICS NOTIONS
Aerodynamic forces acting on a body placed in a
stream of air speed V upstream the obstacle is equivalent
to an resultant Fa and a moment M. The force Fa can be
decomposed by two directions: one perpendicular to the
current direction (lift force Fz) and one on a direction
parallel with the current (drag Fx) as in figure 1.
unde: A-aria transversal activ a instalaiei eoliene; v
3
/2-
densitatea fluxului de energie a vntului.
Este necesar studierea persistenei vntului, a
duratei maxime a perioadelor de calm, repartiia acestora
pe parcursul anului corelat cu consumul de energie, pentru a
permite dimensionarea sistemelor energetice de stocare.
Utilizarea eficient a instalaiilor eoliene impune ca
acestea s fie de dimensiuni mari cu puteri ce urc adesea
la ordinul MW. Potenialele tehnice pentru zone cu
potenial eolian bun sunt cuprinse n intervalul 0,5 1,5
W/m
2
.

3. NOIUNI DE AERODINAMIC
Forele aerodinamice ce acioneaz asupra unui corp
plasat ntr-un curent de aer de vitez V n amonte de
obstacol sunt echivalente cu o rezultant Fa i un moment
M. Fora Fa se poate descompune dup dou direcii: una
perpendicular pe direcia curentului (portana Fz)si una
paralel cu direcia curentului (rezistena Fx) ca n figura 1.

Fig. 1 - Aerodynamic forces acting on a body / Fore aerodinamice ce acioneaz asupra unui corp

In calculations are used dimensionless coefficients (lift
coefficient, drag coefficient and moment coefficient), as
presented in relation 2:
n calcule se utilizeaz marimile adimensionale
(coeficientul de portan, coeficientul de rezisten i
coeficientul de moment), prezentate n relaia 2:
A V
F
C
z
z
2
2
1

A V
F
C
x
x
2
2
1

Al V
M
C
m
2
2
1
(2)
where A is the maximum projection of a body on a plane
perpendicular to the direction of current, and l is a
characteristic length.
Some airfoils are determined by theoretical means
and others by experimental ways.

4. AEOLIAN INSTALLATIONS. CONSTRUCTIVE AND
TECHNOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The technical level of aeolian machines is given by
their use value that is arising from all the characteristics
and technical performances [3].
The two main qualities that are required of such
installations are simplicity and robustness. Requirement for
simplicity permits obtaining minimum costs of investment
and operating at a high reliability. Robustness of the wind
unde A este suprafaa maxim a proieciei corpului pe un
plan perpendicular pe direcia curentului, iar l este o
lungime caracteristic.
Unele profile aerodinamice se determin pe cale
teoretic, iar altele pe cale experimental.

4. INSTALAII EOLIENE. CONSIDERENTE CONSTRUCTIVE
I TEHNOLOGICE
Nivelul tehnic al eolienelor este dat de valoarea de
ntrebuinare care rezult din ansamblul caracteristicilor i
performaelor tehnice [3].
Principalele dou calitai care se cer unor astfel de
instalaii sunt simplitatea i robusteea. Cerina de
simplitate permite obinerea unor costuri de investiie i
exploatare minime la o fiabilitate ridicat. Robusteea

83
machines is connected to the working conditions, taking
into account that they are subject to all sorts of weather.
Turbines with horizontal shaft have the following advantages:
no need of start devices, high power coefficient, regulating
power and speed is made by modifying the blades step, but
the execution technology of the blades is complicated, the
conversion equipment is placed at the upper end of the tower
and guidance devices are necessary.
Turbines with vertical shaft. The main feature of the
wind machine is a cyclical variation of the angle of
incidence. From current studies emerge the following
advantages: technology for blade execution is relatively
simple, the conversion equipment is placed at ground
level, do not require guidance devices. Disadvantages:
requires starting devices, smaller power coefficient,
dangerous oscillation may appear at blades.
On machines with variable incidence, the rotating
motor moment is produced, generally, under the action of
the tangential aerodynamic forces. This is increasingly
higher as the aerodynamic qualities of the blade are better.
For a wind machine to operate with optimum angle of
incidence, it is necessary that the incidence angle is
always controlled and adjusted to the optimum by
continuous blade orientation.
Aeolian machines with vertical shaft can be: with
controlled incidence, with articulated blades and uncontrolled
incidence, with fixed or mobile blades.
Wind turbines with controlled incidence: the incidence
control is realized by convenient orientation of the blade.
Difficult to realize.
According to resulted movement, the machines with
controlled incidence can be:
a) Aeolians turbines with rotating blades: blades are
rotating continuously in the same sense around their own
axis, around the rotor axis. Roles of leading and trailing edge of
the blade are reversed regularly every half rotation and the
blade airfoil is generally fusiform, pointed at both ends, the axis
of rotation of the blade which coincides with the center of
gravity axis is being located at the middle of the chord.
b) Aeolians turbines with orientable blades: the leading
edge and trailing edge of the airfoil remains the same
regardless of the operation regime. Generally, the
magnitude of angles of rotation of the blade relative to the
supporting arms is limited, some constructive variants this
rotation is not limited, because the blade to be able to sit
on direction regardless of wind direction, when the rotor is
at rest in order reduce aerodynamic drag of the rotor and
the engine rotation moment is equal to 0 (in case of
excessive wind speeds).
Wind turbines with uncontrolled incidence (incidence
angle is not controlled to be maintained in certain optimal
functioning limits). It has fixed blades mounted on the rigid
support.
To further reduce the bending requirements, the
longitudinal section of the blades can be taken curve,
which leads to tension stress only. In this case, the blade
may have a much larger scale; the blade stiffness should
provide only enough support to maintain the shape when
not moving.
masinilor eoliene se leag de condiiile n care lucreaz,
avnd n vedere c sunt supuse la intemperii de tot felul.
Turbinele cu ax orizontal au urmtoarele avantaje: nu
necesit dispozitive de demarare, coeficient de putere
mare, reglarea puterii i a turaiei se face prin modificarea
pasului palelor, dar tehnologia de execuie a palelor este
complicat, echipamentul de conversie este plasat la
captul turnului i sunt necesare dispozitive de orientare.
Turbine cu ax vertical. Caracteristica principal a acestor
maini eoliene este variaia ciclic a unghiului de inciden.
Din studiile realizate apar avantajele urmatoare: tehnologia
de execuie a palelor este relativ simpl, echipamentul de
conversie este plasat la nivelul solului, nu necesit
dispozitive de orientare. Dezavantaje: necesit dispozitive
de demarare, coeficient de putere mai mic, pot s apar
oscilaii periculoase la pale.
La mainile cu incidena variabil momentul motor se
produce, n general, sub aciunea componentei tangeniale
a forelor aerodinamice. Aceasta este cu att mai mare cu
ct calitile aerodinamice ale palei sunt mai bune.
Pentru ca o main eolian s funcioneze cu unghiul
de inciden optim, trebuie ca unghiul de inciden sa fie
controlat i ajustat mereu la valoarea optim prin
orientarea continu a palelor.
Mainile eoliene cu ax vertical pot fi cu incidena
controlat, cu pale pivotante i cu inciden necontrolat,
cu pale fixe sau mobile.
Turbine eoliene cu incidena controlat: controlul incidenei
se face prin orientarea convenabil a palei. Este dificil de
realizat.
Conform micrii rezultate, mainile cu inciden
controlat pot fi :
a) Turbine eoliene cu pale rotative: palele se rotesc
continuu n acelai sens n jurul axei acestora i n jurul
axei rotorului. Rolurile de bord de atac i de fug ale palei
se inverseaz periodic, la fiecare jumatte de rotaie iar
profilul palelor este n general fusiform, ascuit la ambele
capete, axa de rotaie a palei care coincide cu axa
centrului de greutate fiind situat la mijlocul coardei.
b) Turbina eolian cu pale orientabile: rolul bordurilor de
atac i de fug al profilului palei rmane acelai, indiferent
de regimul de funcionare. n general, amplitudinea
unghiurilor de pivotare al palelor fa de bratele de
susinere este limitat; la unele variante constructive
aceast pivotare nu se limiteaz, pentru ca palele s se
poat aeza n drapel indiferent de direcia vntului, cnd
rotorul este n repaus, cu scopul de a reduce rezistena
aerodinamic a rotorului i momentul motor sa fie egal cu
0 (n cazul vitezelor de vnt excesive).
Turbine eoliene cu incidena necontrolat (unghiul de
inciden nu este controlat pentru a fi meninut n anumite
limite optime de funcionare). Are palele fixe, montate rigid
pe suportul de susinere.
Pentru a reduce i mai mult solicitrile de ncovoiere,
se poate adopta n seciunea longitudinal a palelor o
form curb, astfel pala este solicitat numai la ntindere.
n acest caz, pala poate avea o anvergur mult mai mare,
iar rigiditatea palei trebuie s asigure doar pstrarea
formei n repaus.

5. CALCULATION AND DESIGN OF NEW AEOLIAN
INSTALLATIONS WITH VERTICAL SHAFT
The chosen constructive solution: wind turbine with
vertical shaft with 3 straight blades, with orientation
dependent on wind direction (figure 2).
5. CALCULUL I PROIECTAREA UNEI NOI INSTALAII
EOLIENE CU AX VERTICAL
Soluia constructiv aleas: turbina eolian cu ax
vertical cu 3 pale drepte, ce se orienteaz n funcie de
direcia vntului (figura 2).


84

Fig. 2 - Designed aeolian turbine (top view) / Turbina eolian proiectat (vedere de sus)

Calculation of aerodynamic forces
For calculation of aerodynamic lift and drag on the
chosen airfoil is necessary to know the coefficients Cz and
Cx. Experimental data from figure 3 is used.
Calculul fortelor aerodinamice
n calculul portanei i a rezistenei aerodinamice
pe profilul ales este necesar s se cunoasc coeficienii Cz
i Cx. Se folosesc date experimentale din figura 3.

0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
0 15 30 45 60 75 90
(grade)
Cz Cx

Figure 3 - Cz and Cx function of incidence / Cz i Cx funcie de inciden

In formula 4 are introduced the aerodynamic lift and
drag coefficients taken from figure 3:
Coeficienii de portan i de rezisten la naintare din
figura 3 se introduc n formula 4:
S V Cz P
2
2
=

S V Cx R
2
2
=

(4)
Due to the fact that a complete rotation of the wind
turbine, a blade rotate around its axis by only 180
o
, the
leading and trailing edge are reversed periodically. This
implies the need for an elliptical airfoil, with maximum
thickness of 6% of chord.
Datorit faptului c la o rotaie complet a eolienei,
o pal se rotete n jurul propriei axe cu doar 180
o
, bordul
de atac i bordul de fug se inverseaz periodic. Acest
lucru implic necesitatea unui profil eliptic, cu grosimea de
6% din coard.

Fig. 4 Designed aeolian turbine (blades position and isometric view) /
Turbina eolian proiectat (poziia palelor i vedere isometric)

Input data:
r = 3m length of the arm of the blade,
L = 2.5m - length of a blade,
c = 1m - chord blade airfoil.
Output: Average total moment Mm = 309,6 Nm
Date de intrare:
r = 3m lungimea braului unei pale,
L = 2.5m lungimea unei pale,
c = 1m coarda profilului palei.
Date de iesire: Momentul mediu total Mm=309.6 Nm


85

Figure 5 - Moment given by 1st, 2nd and 3rd blade and the resulting Total moment for 1 full rotation/
Momentul dat de pala 1, 2 i 3 i momentul resultant Total pentru o rotaie complet

The power developed at the shaft
For turbines with vertical shaft, the axis of rotation is
perpendicular to wind direction. An estimate of the
coefficient of maximum power can be done using a method
inspired by the global model Betz from horizontal axis
turbines [2].
For the wind turbine with the chosen input data is
obtained a maximum power Pmax = 522,7 W in the
conditions in which the infinite speed is 6 m/s.

Efficiency Calculation
Aerodynamic efficiency of the plant expresses the
quantity of energy taken from the wind. It may be
expressed by the ratio between wind kinetic power and
power taken by the aeolian turbine. For the calculation it
can be summarized as the ratio between upstream air
speed and downstream airspeed.
Mechanical efficiency is calculated as the ratio
between the dynamic power of the aeolian plant and the
used power of the consumer.
When calculating the total efficiency, the
aerodynamic, mechanical, bearings, gears and consumer
efficiencies are taken into account, as in equation 5.
Calculul puterii dezvoltate la ax
Pentru turbinele cu ax vertical, axa de rotaie este
perpendicular pe direcia vntului. O estimare a
coeficientului de putere maxim se poate face utiliznd o
metod global inspirat de modelul Betz de la turbinele
cu ax orizontal [2].
Pentru turbina cu datele de intrare alese s-a
obinut o putere maxim Pmax= 522.7 W, n condiiile n
care viteza vntului este de 6 m/s.

Calculul randamentului
Randamentul aerodinamic al instalaiei eoliene
exprim cantitata de energie preluat de aceasta de la vnt.
Se exprim prin raportul dintre puterea cinetic a vntului
i puterea preluat de eoliana. n calcul se poate rezuma
la raportul dintre viteza curentului de aer, n aval faa de
rotorul eolian, i viteza curentului de aer n amonte de rotor.
Randamentul mecanic se calculeaz ca fiind raportul
dintre puterea dinamic a instalaiei eoliene i puterea
consumat de consumator.
n calculul radamentului total se iau n considerare
randamentul aerodinamic, mecanic, al lagarelor, al
angrenajelor i al consumatorului, ca n relaia 5:
% 35 = =
pompa angrenaje lagare mecanic c aerodinami total
(5)
For chosen dimensions, the total moment at the ax
and the output power of wind installation, are analyzed as
depending on wind speed (figure 6).
Pentru dimensiunile alese se face o analiz a
momentului total la axul instalaiei eoliene i al puterii,
funcie de viteza vntului (figura 6).

0
200
400
600
800
1000
0 2 4 6 8 10
Viteza vantului [m/s]
M
o
m
e
n
t

l
a

a
x

[
N
m
]

0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
0 2 4 6 8 10
Viteza vantului [m/s]
P
u
t
e
r
e

l
a

a
x

[
W
]

Figure 6 - Total Moment and Power vs. wind speed / Momentul i puterea funcie de viteza vntului

6. CONCLUSIONS
Depending on the particular power consumer, wind
turbine has the advantage of start without exterior means
at low wind speeds. It can be observed a total efficiency big
enough, due to the blade orientation after wind direction.
As a final conclusion one can say that this
constructive solution of a wind turbine installation with a
vertical shaft is indicated for areas where wind speed is
low and where is necessary a big force couple, in remote
areas where the required infrastructure is not available.
6. CONCLUZII
n functie de consumatorul de putere ales, eoliana
are avantajul de a porni singur nc de la o vitez a
vntului foarte mic. Se observ i un randament total
relativ mare, datorat orientrii palelor dup direcia vntului.
Drept o concluzie final se poate spune c aceast
solutie constructiv, a unei instalaii eoliene cu ax vertical,
este indicat zonelor unde viteza vntului este mic i unde
este necesar un cuplu de fore mare, n zonele izolate unde nu
exist infrastructur necesar.

[1]. Burton T., Wind Energy Handbook. John Wiley and
Sons Inc., 2001;
[2]. Ilie V. i altii, Utilizarea energiei vntului. Editura
Tehnic, 1987;

[3]. Sorensen B., Renewable energy. Elsevier Academics
Press, 2004.

86

POSSIBILITIES OF USING SOLID BIOMASS, AGRICULTURAL AND FORESTRY FOR
REDUCING POLLUTION SOIL AND WATER
/
POSIBILITI DE UTILIZARE A BIOMASEI SOLIDE, AGRICOLE I FORESTIERE PENTRU
REDUCEREA POLURII SOLULUI I APEI

ing. Danciu Aurel, dr. ing. Vldu Valentin, ing. Voicea Iulian, ing. Postelnicu Elena

Abstract. Following the analysis of potential biomass
(estimated at 15 million tons) of agricultural and solid
forest (equivalent to 6 million tons of oil) could be
concluded that Romania has sufficient biomass to
produce pellets at a industrial raw material being generally
scrap agricultural (ca. 63%) and forestry.
Exploitation and rational use of their energy
production, give the premises needed to cover a
significant part of energy needs necessary domestic and
industrial needs, especially in rural areas.

Keywords: biomass, pellets, energy, potential

1. ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION - LEGISLATION AND
METHOD FOR THEREOF IMPLEMENTING
Pollution is a problem of all time, but especially for
our times as the magnitude and severity of polluting
processes, scientific and technical achievements of
modern man has allowed the development pollution risks
and therefore it is vital to establish very stringent
measures to prevent and combat environmental
degradation with the three components - air, water, soil.
Introduction idea of environmental protection has led to
the emergence restrictive legislation in this regard and to
punish their violation.
By mechanical processing of wood that produces
industrial waste in the form of sawdust, shavings, wood
flour approx. 15% of timber cut. A basic problem now is
organic sawdust storage, recovery, treatment and reuse of
industrial scale.
The degree of recovery of waste in Romania is very
low, around 4%, ie 10 times lower compared to western
European countries.
Wood industry is one of the most polluting, but to
some extent has an impact on environmental factors (air,
water, soil). Recovery of waste results in the production of
wood to rest industries amounts to a percentage of 83.6%,
that percentage drops, unfortunately, by the occurrence of
small producers whose concern for the recovery of waste
is low.
In order to recovery of agricultural and forestry
waste, but especially for depollution areas affected by this
type of residue, which can be achieved through a process
of collection of this product and transform them into fuel
(pellets, agripelei or lighters).
Forestry and agricultural wastes (derived from wood
or harvesting agricultural products) can be transformed by
a technological process (mincing, drying, compaction and
refining (peletizare or briquetting), in pellets, or lighters
agripelei combustible products which may be used for
energy purposes. In this way, is made as a use upper
forest and agricultural waste, nature protection and
pollution of these products.

Rezumat. n urma analizei potenialului de biomas
(apreciat la 15 milioane tone) solid agricol i forestier
(echivalent cu 6 milioane tone de petrol) s-a putut trage
concluzia c Romnia dispune de suficient biomas
pentru obinerea de pelei la un nivel industrial, materia prim
fiind n general resturi agricole (cca. 63%) i forestiere.
Exploatarea i utilizarea raional a acestora n
producerea de energie, confer premizele necesare acoperirii
unei pri semnificative a nevoilor energetice necesare
nevoilor casnice i industriale, n special n zonele rurale.

Cuvinte cheie: biomas, pelei, energie, potenial

1. PROTECIA MEDIULUI - LEGISLAIE I MODUL DE
IMPLEMENTARE AL ACESTEIA
Poluarea este o problem a tuturor timpurilor, dar
mai ales a timpurilor noastre pentru ca amploarea i
gravitatea proceselor poluante, realizrile tiinifice i tehnice
ale omului modern au permis dezvoltarea riscurilor polurii
i n consecin este vital stabilirea unor msuri deosebit
de severe pentru prevenirea i combaterea degradrii
mediului cu cele trei componente aer, ap, sol.
Introducerea ideii de protecie a mediului a condus la
apariia de acte normative restrictive din acest punct de
vedere i totodat la pedepsirea nclcrii acestora.
Prin prelucrarea mecanic a lemnului rezult ca deeu
industrial n form de rumegus, tala, fina de lemn cca. 15 %
din masa lemnoas tiat. O problem de baz actual este
depozitarea ecologic a rumeguului, recuperarea, tratarea
i refolosirea lui pe scar industrial.
Gradul de valorificare a deeurilor n Romnia este
foarte redus, de aproximativ 4%, adic de 10 ori mai mic
comparativ cu rile Europei Occidentale.
Industria lemnului nu este una dintre cele mai poluante, dar
ntr-o oarecare msur are un impact asupra factorilor de mediu
(aer, ap, sol). Valorificarea deeurilor rezultate n procesul de
producie n industria lemnului fa de restul ramurilor
industriale se ridic la un procent de 83,6%, procent care
scade, din pcate, ca urmare a apariiei micilor productori a cror
preocupare pentru valorificarea deeurilor este sczut.
n vederea valorificrii deeurilor agricole i forestiere, dar n
special, pentru depoluarea zonelor afectate de acest tip de
reziduu, care poate fi realizat printr-un proces de colectare a
acestor produi secundari i transformarea lor n combustibil
(pelei, agripelei sau brichete).
Deeurile forestiere i agricole (rezultate din exploatarea
lemnului sau din recoltarea produselor agricole) pot fi transformate,
printr-un proces tehnologic (tocare, uscare, rafinare i
compactare (peletizare sau brichetare), n pelei, agripelei sau
brichete combustibile, produse care pot fi folosite n scopuri
energetice. n acest fel, se realizeaz att o utilizare
superioar a deeurilor forestiere i agricole, ct i
protejarea naturii de poluarea cu aceste produse secundare.


87
2. DETERMINE CHARACTERISTICS TERMO PHYSICO-
CHEMICAL ON TYPE SOLID BIOMASS AGRICULTURE
AND FORESTRY
2.1. Physical and chemical characteristics on types of
biomass solid agricultural and forestry
Biomass expressed total agricultural crop production
that can be converted into different forms of energy.
Agricultural production consists of primary production and
secondary.
Main production plant is converted into energy
bioalimentar and vegetable production is the main
secondary source of biomass that can be converted into
the right heat.
Under EU law, biomass is the biodegradable fraction
of products and waste from agriculture and forestry
industries related, and the biodegradable fraction of
municipal waste and industrial.
Chemical composition of the biomass is:
lignin (C40H44O6) = 1530%;
cellulose (C6H10O5) = 4045%
hemi-cellulose = 2035%.
Limits of variation of the three principal components
are determined by the species. Long cellulose polymers are
used by plants to build the plant fibers that give strength
and build plant fibers that give strength and lignin acts as a
binder which keeps linked cellulose fibers. To manufacture
the pellets of lignin should be higher. For a high calorific
necessary reports O/C and H/C should be as small.
The main agricultural products side can be
transformed into heat is:
- scum of straw and cereal grain (wheat, rye, barley,
orzoic, rice and oats);
- stems and stalk umb;
- strains of sunflower and rapeseed;
- haulm soybeans, peas and beans;
- cords vine;
- branches of fruit trees.
The physical characteristics of solid fuels derived
from biomass are:
- size and shape;
- moisture;
- calorific power;
- bulk density;
- ash content;
- grain;
- abrasion resistance;
- melting temperature of ash.
Chemical characteristics of solid fuels derived from
biomass are:
- contents of C;
- contents of O;
- contents of H;
- contents of N;
- contents of S;
- contents of Cl;
- contents of K;
- contents of Na;
- contents of Mg;
- contents of Ca;
- contents of volatile substance;
- content of heavy metals.
Calorific value of biomass is related to its chemical
composition. Thus calorific value increases with
increasing lignin content. Cellulose has a lower calorific
than because of high lignin oxidation. The hydrocarbons
also increased calorific value of biomass.
Table 1 are presented calorific values for primary
solid biomass fuels:
2. DETERMINAREA CARACTERISTICILOR TERMO-FIZICO-
CHIMICE PE TIPURI DE BIOMAS SOLID AGRICOL I
FORESTIER
2.1. Caracteristici fizice i chimice pe tipuri de
biomas solid agricol i forestier
Biomasa exprim totalitatea produciei agricole vegetale
care poate fi convertit n diferite forme de energie. Producia
agricol este format din producia principal i din producia
secundar.
Producia agricol vegetal principal este transformat n
energie bioalimentar iar producia agricol vegetal
secundar constituie principala surs de biomas care
poate fi transformat de regul n energie termic.
Conform legislaiei UE, biomasa reprezint fracia
biodegradabil a produselor i deeurilor din agricultur, domeniul
forestier i industriile conexe acestora, precum i fracia
biodegradabil din deeurile municipale i cele industriale.
Compoziia chimic principal a biomasei este:
lignin (C40H44O6) = 1530%;
celuloz (C6H10O5) = 4045%;
hemi-celuloz = 2035%.
Limitele de variaie a celor trei componente principale sunt
determinate de specie. Polimerii celulozei lungi sunt folosii de
ctre plante pentru a construi fibrele care confer plantei
soliditate iar lignina acioneaz ca un liant ce ine fibrele de
celuloz legate. Pentru fabricarea peleilor coninutul de lignin
trebuie s fie ct mai mare. Pentru o putere calorific ridicat
este necesar ca rapoartele O/C i H/C s fie ct mai mici.
Principalele produse agricole secundare care pot fi
transformate n energie termic sunt:
- paiele i pleava de cereale pioase (gru, secar, orz,
orzoic, orez i ovz);
- tulpinile i ciocli de porumb;
- tulpinile de floarea soarelui i de rapi;
- vrejii de soia, mazre i fasole;
- corzile de vi de vie;
- crengile de pomi fructiferi.
Caracteristicile fizice ale combustibililor solizi
obinui din biomas sunt urmtoarele:
dimensiunile i forma;
coninutul de umiditate;
puterea calorific;
densitatea n vrac;
coninutul de cenu;
granulaia;
rezistena la abraziune;
temperatura de topire a cenuii.
Caracteristicile chimice ale combustibililor solizi
obinui din biomas sunt urmtoarele:
- coninutul de C;
- coninutul de O;
- coninutul de H;
- coninutul de N;
- coninutul de S;
- coninutul de Cl;
- coninutul de K;
- coninutul de Na;
- coninutul de Mg;
- coninutul de Ca;
- coninutul de substane volatile;
- coninutul de metale grele.
Puterea calorific a biomasei este corelat cu compoziia
chimic a acesteia. Astfel puterea calorific crete odat cu creterea
coninutului de lignin. Celuloza are o putere calorific mai mic
dect lignina datorit gradului mare de oxidare. Coninutul de
hidrocarburi crete de asemenea puterea calorific a biomasei.
n tabelul 1 sunt prezentate valorile puterii calorifice pentru
principali combustibili solizi din biomas.


88
Table 1 - Calorific values of key solid fuels from biomass /
Puterea calorific a principalilor combustibili solizi din biomas

Nr.
crt.
Fuel Type / Tipul de combustibil
Calorific values dry / Puterea
calorific substan uscat
[MJ/kg]
1. Wheat straw / Paie de gru 18,3
2. Barley straw / Paie de orz 18,0
3. Rice straw / Paie de orez 15,2
4. Cob (strains) / Coceni de porumb (tulpini) 16,2
5. Corn-cob / Ciocli 17,4
6. Sunflower stalks (bete) / Tulpini de floarea soarelui (bee) 21,8
7. Peel of sunflower seeds / Coji semine de floarea soarelui 16,2
8. Haulm soybean / Vreji de soia 18,1
9. Shoots of vines (7% moisture) / Coarde de vi de vie (umiditate 7%) 16,5
10. Branches of fruit trees (7% moisture) / Crengi de pomi fructiferi (umidit. 7%) 15,2
11. Strains of alfalfa / Tulpini de lucern 18,4
12. Wood fire / Lemn de foc 15,5
13. Pellets of sawdust or brighete / Pelete sau brighete de rumegu 17,1
14. Charcoal / Mangal 31,8
15. Waste plant (stems, leaves, rinds) / Deseuri vegetale (tulpini, frunze, coji) 12,6

Analyzing the data presented shows that the
calorific value is obtained for large strains of sunflower
(Table 1). Calorific power values of solid fuels from
biomass is much smaller than the classic fuel (calorific
value of diesel fuel averaged 42.34 [MJ / kg].
Moisture content is an important feature influencing
the physical preservation of biomass burning and the
calorific value. In Table 2 are presented humidity at
harvest for major solid fuels derived from biomass.
Din analiza datelor prezentate rezult c puterea calorific
cea mai mare se obine pentru tulpinile de floarea soarelui
(tab. nr.1). Puterea calorific a combustibililor solizi din
biomas este mult mai mic dect a combustibililor clasici
(puterea calorific medie a motorinei 42,34 [MJ / kg].
Coninutul de umiditate este o caracteristic fizic important
care influeneaz pstrarea biomasei, procesul de ardere i
puterea calorific. n tabelul nr.2 sunt prezentate umiditile la
recoltare pentru principali combustibili solizi obinui din biomas.

Table 2 - Moisture at harvest of the main types of biomass / Umiditatea la recoltare a principalilor tipuri de biomas

Nr.
crt.
Fuel Type / Tipul de combustibil
Humidity / Umiditatea
(%)
1. Straw and chaff of cereal grains / Paie i pleav de cereale pioase 1520
2. Sunflower stalks / Tulpini de floarea soarelui 1820
3. Stalks and leaves of maize / Coceni i frunze de porumb 4050
4. Corn cobs / Ciocli de porumb 45
5. Haulm soybean / Vreji de soia 1619
6. Rope vine / Corzi de vi de vie 25
7. Leaves and parcel of sugar beet / Frunze i colete de sfecl de zahr 7080
8. Branches of fruit trees / Crengi de pomi fructiferi 2228

Conversion of biomass into heat by burning impose
fuel moisture values as follows:
- maximum humidity of biomass for combustion in
combustion plants classical: 25%;
- maximum humidity for biomass combustion
installations burning special: 60%;
- optimum moisture biomass for combustion: 710%;
- maximum humidity for biomass gasification: 35%;
- maximum humidity biomass for processing into pellets
or brighete: 10%.
Analyzing data on the moisture that use the
combustion of biomass is necessary to dry it. High
humidity during biomass burning affect adversely the
status of technical combustion plant.
Ocean density for solid fuels from biomass and to
allow automation of the combustion process is currently
used in the conversion of biomass pellets or lighters.
Peleii are obtained by mrunirea sawdust, chip, peel
or branches of the tree and pressing tocturii produced by
a mold. The heat resulting from friction nmoaie lignin that
binds the cooling dust produced from biomass. As there is
no cement used to manufacture pellets, is very important
in lignin content of biomass used. Thus the composition of
the pellets should not miss waste resinous.

Transformarea biomasei n energie termic prin ardere
impune anumite valori ale umiditii combustibilului dup cum urmeaz:
- umiditatea maxim a biomasei pentru ardere n
instalaii de ardere clasice: 25%;
- umiditatea maxim a biomasei pentru ardere n
instalaii de ardere speciale: 60%;
- umiditatea optim a biomasei pentru ardere: 710%;
- umiditatea maxim a biomasei pentru gazeificare: 35%;
- umiditatea maxim a biomasei pentru transformare n
pelei sau brighete: 10%.
Din analiza datelor privind valorile umiditii rezult c
pentru utilizarea prin ardere a biomasei este necesar uscarea
acesteia. Umiditile ridicate ale biomasei din timpul arderii
influeneaz negativ starea tehnic a instalaiei de ardere.
Pentru a mrii densitatea combustibililor solizi din biomas
i pentru a permite automatizarea procesului de ardere n prezent
se folosete transformarea biomasei n pelei sau brichete.
Peleii se obin prin mrunirea rumeguului, achilor, crengilor
sau cojilor de copac i presara tocturii obinute printr-o matri.
Cldura rezultat n urma frecrii nmoaie lignina care prin rcire
leag praful obinut din biomas. Deoarece nu se folosete nici
un liant pentru fabricarea peleilor, foarte important este coninutul
n lignin al biomasei utilizate. Astfel din compoziia
peleilor nu trebuie s lipseasc deeurile de rinoase.


89
2.2. Determination of thermal characteristics - physical
- chemical types of biomass
moisture biomass pellets and agripeleilor, which was
conducted using a drying stove (fig. 1), the thermostat at
a temperature of 105C, weighing the material balance
analysis (fig. 2) with accuracy of 0.1 mg before and after
drying). Humidity average forest biomass analyzed was
approximately 16%, while agricultural biomass has a
moisture content averaged approximately 22%.
2.2. Determinarea caracteristicilor termo fizico
chimice pe tipuri de biomas
umiditatea biomasei, peleilor i agripeleilor, care s-a
efectuat folosind o etuv (fig.1) termostatat, la temperatura
de 105C, cnt rind materialele la balana analitic (fig.
2) avnd precizia de 0,1 mg, nainte i dup uscare).
Umiditatea medie a biomasei forestiere analizate a fost
de aproximativ 16 %, n timp ce biomasa agricol a avut
o umiditate medie de aproximativ 22 %.

Fig.1 Drying stove used to determine moisture materials /
Etuv folosit pentru determinarea umiditii materialelor

a) b) c
Fig. 2 Aspects of time weighing the evidence to determine calorific value and moisture /
Aspecte din timpul cntririi probelor n vederea determinrii puterii calorifice i a umiditii

volatile substance content, which led to pulling out a
certain quantity of a sample from drying stove, which
was introduced in a metallic crucible and weighed and then
placed in burning oven of Figure 2 at a temperature of
600C, leaving it for 30 minutes (or until the release of
the volatile). After completing the process of pyrolysis,
is the crucible removed from the oven with some gloves
and a pair of tongs, cover with lid and weighed again to
determine the quantity of volatile released (by
difference). Volatile content was calculated as follows:
coninutul de substane volatile, care s-a determinat
extrgnd o anumit cantitate dintr-o prob din etuv,
care s-a introdus ntr-un creuzet metalic i s-a cntrit iar
apoi s-a introdus n cuptorul de calcinare fig 2 la temperatura
de 600 C, lsndu-se timp de 30 de minute (sau pn la
degajarea complet a volatilelor). Dup terminarea procesului
de piroliz, creuzetul este scos din cuptor cu ajutorul unor
mnui i a unui clete, se acoper cu capacul i se cntrete
din nou, pentru determinarea cantitii de volatile degajate
(prin diferen). Coninutul de volatile au fost calculate astfel:

[%] 100
initiala Masa
finala Masa - initiala Masa
uscata baza in volatile Continut =
,
Volatile content in dry matter = (Initial mass - final mass) / Initial mass x 100 [%],

where: the initial mass and final mass as the weighed
before and after the pyrolysis
unde: masa iniial i masa final fiind cele cntrite nainte
i dup efectuarea procesului de piroliz;

[%],
100
Umiditatea - 100
uscata baza in volatile Continut umeda baza in volatile Continut =

Volatile content in the wet = Volatile content in the dry x (100 - humidity) [%],

Fig. 3 - Determination of the volatile substance and content of inert / Determinarea coninutului de substane volatile i a coninutului de inerte

90
inert content was determined by pulling a certain amount
of a sample from drying stove, which was introduced in a
metallic crucible was weighed with the analytical balance
and undergo a process of combustion, the temperature
at 1100C during the working time to 60 min. After the
sample burned completely, the crucible was removed
from the oven and weighed;
fixed carbon content, was determined by difference:
Fixed carbon = 100 - (Humidity + Volatile + Incombustible
Volatile matter content of inert under dry and fixed
carbon content in [%], the types of agricultural and forest
biomass determined by difference calculated in question
are presented in Table. 3.
coninutul de inerte s-a determinat extrgnd o anumit
cantitate dintr-o prob din etuv, care s-a introdus ntr-un
creuzet metalic, s-a cntrit cu balana analitic i s-a
supus unui proces de combustie, la temperatura de lucru
la 1100C, timpul de timp de lucru la 60 min. Dup ce
proba a ars complet, creuzetul a fost scos din cuptor i
cntrit;
coninutul de carbon fix, a fost determinat prin diferen:
Carbon fix = 100 (Umiditate + Volatile + Necombustibile;
Coninutul de materii volatile, de inerte n baza
uscat, precum i coninutul de carbon fix n [%], pe tipuri de
biomas agricol i forestier determinate respectiv
calculat prin diferen sunt prezentate n tabelul nr. 3.

Table 3 - Volatile matter content of the inert solids and the fixed carbon / Coninutul de materii volatile, de inerte n baza uscat i de carbon fix

Type of biomass / Tipul
biomasei
Volatile content in the dry /
Coninut volatile n baza
uscat [%]
Inert content in the dry /
Coninut inerte n baza
uscat [%]
The fixed carbon /
Coninutul de carbon fix
[%]
Agricultural / Agricol 73,08 2,7 16,83
Forestry / Forestier 81,18 1,1 14,47

lower calorific value was performed using the bomb
calorimetric Cal k 2 (Figure 4) and consisted of: balance
calibration, weighing empty capsule and material with
analytical balance with accuracy of 0.1 mg of setting
parameters (weight, no. proof) to show results and
cooling bomb.
Calorific value of pellets and the material from which
they were produced (collected in the various stages of
technological flow) had the following:
- for pellets in beech + pine (moisture 4.42%): 17.863
[MJ / kg];
- for pellets of oak + pine (moisture 4.55%): 17.513
[MJ / kg];
- for agripelei (11.87% moisture): 15.809 [MJ / kg];
- for sorted sawdust dry milled (moisture 6.5%): 16.837
[MJ / kg];
- for dry sawdust sorted which wasn't milled (moisture
5.2%): 16.744 [MJ / kg];
- for wet pine sawdust from storage (moisture 37.2%):
12.058 [MJ / kg].
puterea calorific inferioar s-a efectuat folosind bomba
calorimetric Cal 2 k (figura 4) i a constat n: calibrarea
balanei, cntrirea capsulei goale i cu material cu
balana analitic avnd precizia de 0,1 mg, setarea
parametrilor de lucru (mas, nr. probei), afiarea
rezultatelor i rcirea bombei.
Puterea calorific a peleilor i a materialului din care
au fost fabricai acetia (colectat din diferitele faze ale fluxului
tehnologic) a avut urmtoarele valori:
- pentru peleii din brad + fag (umiditate 4,42 %):
17,863 [MJ / kg];
- pentru peleii din stejar + brad (umiditate 4,55%):
17,513 [MJ / kg];
- pentru agripelei (umiditate 11,87%): 15,809 [MJ/kg];
- pentru rumegu uscat sortat mcinat (umiditate 6,5%):
16,837 [MJ / kg];
- pentru rumegu uscat sortat nemcinat (umiditate 5,2%):
16,744 [MJ / kg];
- pentru rumegu umed de brad din depozit (umiditate
37,2%): 12,058 [MJ / kg].

a) b)
Fig. 3 Aspects of the determination of calorific / Aspecte din timpul determinrii puterii calorifice
a) entering parameters / introducerea parametrilor; b) showing results / afiarea rezultatelor

Gaseous products of combustion are: O2, N2, CO2 si
SO2. Experimental results are presented on synthetic
forest biomass types in Table. 4.
Produii gazoi ai arderii sunt: O2, N2, CO2 si SO2.
Rezultatele experimentale sunt prezentate sintetic pe
tipuri de biomas forestier n tabelul nr. 4.

Table 4 - Experimental results on the types of forest biomass / Rezultate experimentale pe tipuri de biomas forestier

Species / Specia C [%] H [%] O [%] N [%]
Oak / Stejar 48,9 5,9 43,1 2,1
Beech / Fag 48,5 6,3 45,3 -
Ash / Frasin 49,4 6,1 44,5 -
Poplar / Plop 49,7 6,3 44,0 -
Tei / Tei 49,4 6.9 43,1 0,6
Fir / Brad 49,9 6,4 43,7 -


91
These elements are part of the main constituents of
wood and namely:
pulp: 5055%;
lignin: 2030%;
hemipulp: 2530%.
and in the secondary such as:
resines: 15%;
mineral substances: 0,21,2%.
tannin, coloring matters, etc.
In addition to the main constituents, listed, which are
organic in nature, enter into the composition of wood and
mineral that forms in the combustion ash.
Mineral substances, which represents 0.21.2% by
weight of dry wood are:
potassium: 1025%;
sodium: 15%;
calcium: 2045%;
magnesium: 315%;
manganese oxide: 18%;
iron oxide: 14%;
silicon dioxide: 13%;
phosphoric acid: 210%.
Different species composition of wood ash is nearly
homogeneous and is characterized on average by the
following dates: 35% CaO, 16% Na2O + K2O, 7% MgO,
5% MnO, 3% Fe2O3, 3% Al2O3, 20% CO2, 5% SO3, 4%
P2O5, 2% SiO2.
Ash wood shows through the harder they fuse, and
that does not melt even in the hot parts of the outbreak.
Quantity ash wood depends on species (table no. 5) but
found that it varies depending on the tree of origin, age,
the local conditions of growth. The largest quantity of the
resulting shell and leaf.
Aceste elemente fac parte att din principalii
constitueni ai lemnului i anume:
celuloz: 5055%;
lignin: 2030%;
hemiceluloz: 2530%.
ct i din cei secundari cum ar fi:
rini: 15%;
substane minerale: 0,21,2%.
tanin, materii colorante, etc.
n afar de constituenii principali, enumerai, ce
sunt de natur organic, n compoziia lemnului intr i
substane minerale care n urma arderii formeaz cenua.
Substanele minerale, care reprezint 0,21,2% din
greutatea lemnului uscat, sunt:
potasiu: 1025%;
sodiu: 15%;
calciu: 2045%;
magneziu: 315%;
oxid de mangan: 18%;
oxid de fier: 14%;
bioxid de siliciu: 13%;
acid fosforic: 210%.
Compoziia cenuii diferitelor specii lemnoase este
aproape omogen i se caracterizeaz n medie prin
datele urmtoare: 35% CaO, 16% Na2O + K2O, 7% MgO,
5% MnO, 3% Fe2O3, 3% Al2O3, 20% CO2, 5% SO3, 4%
P2O5, 2% SiO2.
Cenua lemnului se evideniaz prin caracterul ei greu fuzibil,
i c, nu se topete nici mcar n poriunile cele mai fierbini ale
focarului. Cantitatea de cenu depinde de specia lemnoas
(tabel 5) dar s-a constatat c ea variaz n funcie de partea
arborelui din care provine, de vrsta lui, de condiiile locale
de cretere. Cantitatea cea mai mare rezult din coaj i frunze.

Table 5 - The ash content of wood / Coninutul de cenu a lemnului

Species / Specia Ashes / Cenu [%]
Pin / Pin 0,39
Beech / Fag 0,17
Oak / Stejar 0,51
Birch / Mesteacn 0,39

Calorific values is influenced by rhe wood specie
and humidity (table no. 6).
Puterea calorific este influenat de specia i
umiditatea lemnului (tabelul nr. 6).

Table 6 - Calorific values of wood at humidity of 40% and 10% /
Puterea calorific a lemnului la umiditatea de 40% i 10%

Wood humitidy / Umiditatea lemnului Calorific values / Puterea calorific
40 % 11600 kJ/ kg
10% 16709 kJ/kg

In Table. 7 presents the composition and
physicochemical characteristics of agricultural biomass
samples analyzed.
n tabelul nr. 7 se prezint compoziia i principalele
caracteristici fizico-chimice ale eantioanelor de biomas
agricol analizat.

Table 7 - Physico-chemical characteristics on types of agricultural biomass /
Caracteristici fizico-chimice pe tipuri de biomas agricol

Nr.
crt.
Features / Caracteristici
Straw /
Paie
Corn stalk /
Tulpin de
porumb
Corn cob /
Ciocli de
porumb
Remains of flax and
hemp / Resturi de in i
cnep
C mc 50 50 50 51
H mc 6,2 6,2 6,2 6,1
N mc 0,6 0,6 0,6 0,9
1.
Chemical composition in relation to
fuel mass / Compoziia chimic
raportat la masa [%]
O mc 43,1 43,1 43,1 41,9
2. Ash from the anhydrous / Cenu la starea anhidr 2,7 1,8 2,3 2,1
3. Total sulfur / Sulf total 0,09 0,09 0,09 0,09
4. High calorific / Putere calorific superioar [KJ/kg] 20,036 20,036 20,036 20,444
5. Lower calorific / Putere calorific inferioar / [KJ/kg] 15,932 15,932 15,932 16,434

92
CONCLUSIONS
Following the analysis of potential biomass
(estimated at 15 million tons) solid agricultural and
forestry (equivalent to 6 million tons of oil) could be
concluded that Romania has sufficient biomass to
produce pellets at a industrial raw material being
generally scrap agricultural (ca. 63%) and forestry.
Exploitation and rational use of their energy
production, give the premises needed to cover a
significant energy needs necessary domestic and
industrial needs, especially in rural areas.
Chemical composition of the biomass consists of:
lignin (C40H44O6) in the proportion of 1530%; cellulose
(C6H10O5) in the proportion of 4045%; hemi-cellulose in
the proportion of 2035%. Limits of variation of the three
principal components are determined by the species. To
manufacture pellets lignin content should be higher. For a
high calorific necessary reports O / C and H / C is the
lowest.
Calorific value of pellets and the material from which
they were produced (collected in the various stages of
technological flow) ranged from 12.058 to 17.863 MJ / kg,
the largest recorded at the lower calorific value between
peleii of sawdust and agripelei is only 15 MJ / kg
(compared to 17 MJ / kg as pellets of sawdust are) ie
9.7% lower.
In general, can be used the same equipment
peletizarea straw and sawdust, but should be given to the
following features straw containing less lignin (15% vs.
25% sawdust), resulting in greater force of friction
peletizarea the straw.
Burning agripeleilor is somewhat difficult because
outbreaks zgurificrii blockages sacks and smoke.
Environmental pollution is higher, because the ash
content is 5% (compared to 0.5% if sawdust) and nitrogen
content, sulfur, chlorine and potassium were higher due
to the use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and
herbicides.
CONCLUZII
n urma analizei potenialului de biomas (apreciat
la 15 milioane tone) solid agricol i forestier
(echivalent cu 6 mil. t petrol) s-a putut trage concluzia c
Romnia dispune de suficient biomas pentru obinerea
de pelei la un nivel industrial, materia prim fiind n
general resturi agricole (cca. 63%) i forestiere.
Exploatarea i utilizarea raional a acestora n
producerea de energie, confer premizele necesare acoperirii
unei pri semnificative a nevoilor energetice necesare
nevoilor casnice i industriale, n special n zonele rurale.
Compoziia chimic principal a biomasei este
format din: lignin (C40H44O6) n proporie de 1530%;
celuloz (C6H10O5) n proporie de 4045%; hemi-celuloz n
proporie de 2035%. Limitele de variaie a celor trei
componente principale sunt determinate de specie.
Pentru fabricarea peleilor coninutul de lignin trebuie s
fie ct mai mare. Pentru o putere calorific ridicat este
necesar ca rapoartele O/C i H/C s fie ct mai mici.
Puterea calorific a peleilor i a materialului din care
au fost fabricai acetia (colectat din diferitele faze ale
fluxului tehnologic) a variat ntre 12,058 i 17,863 MJ/kg,
cea mai mare diferen nregistrat la puterea calorific
inferioar ntre peleii din rumegu i agripelei fiind de
numai 15 MJ/kg (fa de 17 MJ/kg ct are pelete din
rumegu) adic cu 9,7% mai mic.
n general, pot fi folosite aceleai utilaje pentru
peletizarea paielor i a rumeguului, dar trebuie acordat
atenie urmtoarelor particulariti: paiele conin mai
puin lignin (15% fa de 25% n rumegu), rezultnd
fore mai mari de frecare la peletizarea paielor.
Arderea agripeleilor este ceva mai dificil din cauza
zgurificrii focarelor i a nfundrii courilor de fum.
Poluarea mediului este mai mare, deoarece coninutul de
cenu este de 5% (fa de 0,5% n cazul rumeguului)
iar coninuturile de azot, sulf, clor i potasiu sunt mai mari
datorit folosirii ngrmintelor chimice, a pesticidelor i
erbicidelor.

[1]. Concluziile Preediniei Germane a Consiliului
European, Bruxelles, 9 martie 2007;
[2]. Foaie de parcurs pentru energia regenerabil
CONSILIUL UNIUNII EUROPENE 16 ianuarie 2007;
[3]. Concluziile Preediniei, Consiliul European 7775/06,
24 martie 2006;
[4]. Conferina naional a energiei 2004;
[5]. Neil Roberts, Schimbarile majore ale mediului, Editura
All, Bucuresti, 2003
[6]. Anca Marcu - Managementul deeurilor i deeurilor
periculoase Ghid practic pentru aplicarea corect a
legislaiei mediului 2008, ISSN 1844 4431;
[7]. Ministerul Economiei si Comertului, Strategia
energetic 2007- 2013;
[8]. European Commission EUR 21350 Biomass
Green energy for Europe, Luxemburg Office for Official
Publications of the European comunitiers, 2005;
[9]. Doucet Gerald, Energia produsa din surse
regenerabile, Mesagerul Energetic, nr.41, martie 2005
[10]. HOTRRE nr. 856 din 16 august 2002 privind
evidena gestiunii deeurilor i pentru aprobarea listei
cuprinznd deeurile, inclusiv deeurile periculoase;

[11]. HOTRRE nr. 349 din 21 aprilie 2005 privind
depozitarea deeurilor;
[12]. Danciu A., .a - Analiza i sinteza potenialului de
resurse de biomas solid agricol i forestier la nivel
naional, regional i zonal Referat INMA Bucureti,
2007;
[13]. Danciu A., .a - Determinarea caracteristicilor termo-
fizico-chimice a tipurilor de biomas solid. Proiectarea
echipamentelor pentru prelucrarea biomasei agricole i
forestiere n vederea obinerii de pelei i agripelei -
Referat INMA Bucureti, 2008;
[14]. Masa Rotunda Sursele regenerabile de energie, intre
Directiva Europeana 77/2001 si realitate, 29 mai 2003,
Camera de Comert si Industrie a Romaniei
http://www.mangus.ro - Politica energetic a Romniei n
perioada 2006-2009. Energie sigur, accesibil i curat
pentru Romnia;
http://www.lusarom.ro - Surse regenerabile de energie;
http://www.greenpeace.ro Energie curat pentru Romnia;
http://www. cceei.energ.pub.ro - Strategia energetic 2007-2020;
http://www.anre.ro - Surse regenerabile de energie;
http://www.cnr-cmr.ro Consiliul mondial al Energiei.


93
CFD STUDY REGARDING THE MAXIMUM TORQUE VARIATION WITH WIND SPEED, ON A
SAVONIUS TYPE TURBINE
/
STUDIU CFD PRIVIND VARIAIA CUPLULUI MAXIM CU VITEZA VNTULUI, LA O
INSTALAIE EOLIAN TIP SAVONIUS

Ph.D.eng. Edmond MAICAN
1
, Ph.D.eng. Sorin-tefan BIRI
1
,
Ph.D.eng. Valentin VLDU
2
,
eng. Bianca DAVID, Ph.D.eng. Mihai BAYER
1
,
1
POLITEHNICAUniversity of Bucharest
2
Institutul Naional de Cercetare-Dezvoltare pentru Maini i Instalaii destinate Agriculturii
i Industriei Alimentare INMA Bucureti

Abstract: Savonius wind turbines can be used as
viable energy sources for relatively small stock farms or
for other consumers, placed in those areas of the
country with small to medium wind speeds. Many
studies have shown that the maximum torque
developed by these type of turbines corresponds with
angles of attack placed between 110
0
and 120
0
,
regardless of the buckets gap spacing or wind speed.
This paper takes advantage of the Ansys CFX
(computational fluid dynamics software), which was
used to find the wind speed-turbines maximum torque
graph. The simulation is based on a pseudo-
bidimensional parametric model, which was developed
in SolidWorks. The paper gives proof of the usefulness
and advantages of the CFD analysis in accurate
predictions of the turbines loading and performance.

Keywords: fluid dynamics, CFD, wind turbine,
Savonius, Ansys CFX.

INTRODUCTION
The permanent scientific concern over global
climate change, as well as the aggressive goals for
renewable power deployment in response to strong
public and political support for clean energy, have
fuelled in the last years a remarkable rapid
development and implementation of green energy
technologies. The aim is to reduce this kind of power
generation cost in order to make it competitive on the
energy market. In this respect, wind power generation
systems prove to be suitable, as wind is one of the
most abundant pollution free sources. One way to cut
costs supposes to permanently improve the existing
designs, by means of modern specialized software,
which has the ability to simulate more realistically then
ever the structure of the turbulent flow. Computational
fluid dynamics (CFD) provides a cost-effective and
accurate alternative to scale testing, offering the
possibility to perform quick variations on the simulation.
Judicious interconnection between the computing
resources and factors with high impact on simulation
process (such as the chosen turbulence model, grid
refinement, type of simulation - 2D or 3D, similitude
criteria used in scaled simulations etc.) can lead to very
reliable and trusty results.

MODEL DESCRIPTION
The physical model
The Savonius rotor prepared for experimentations
by Sandia Laboratories and used in the present
simulation had the following main geometrical
parameters (fig. 1): number of buckets: 2; rotor height
(H): 1 m; bucket diameter (d): 0.5 m; gap spacing (s/d):
0.2.
Rezumat: Instalaiile eoliene tip Savonius pot
reprezenta surse viabile de energie pentru ferme
agrozootehnice de dimensiuni relativ reduse sau pentru
ali consumatori individuali, localizai n zone ale rii n
care vntul atinge intensiti mici i medii. Studiile arat
c aceste turbine dezvolt un cuplu maxim la unghiuri
de atac de 110120, indiferent de gradul de
suprapunere al cupelor sau de viteza vntului.
n aceast lucrare se utilizeaz programul ANSYS
CFX de analiz a dinamicii fluidelor, pentru a determina
curba de variaie a momentului maxim produs de
turbin n raport cu viteza vntului. Simularea are la
baz un model pseudo-2D, realizat cu programul de
modelare parametrizat SolidWorks. Articolul demonstreaz
utilitatea i avantajele analizei CFD n determinarea
comportrii i performanelor instalaiilor eoliene.

Cuvinte cheie: dinamica fluidelor, CFD, turbina
eoliana, Savonius, Ansys CFX.

INTRODUCERE
Semnalele tot mai dese trase de comunitatea
tiinific n privina schimbrilor climatice precum i
susinerea public i politic pentru identificarea unor
surse energetice nepoluante, au contribuit n ultimii ani la
dezvoltarea i implementarea susinut a tehnologiilor de
producere a energiei verzi. Se urmrete permanent
reducerea costurilor care nsoesc aceste tehnologii,
astfel nct ele s devin competitive pe piaa energetic.
ntruct vntul reprezint una dintre cele mai abundente
surse nepoluante de energie, instalaiile eoliene se
ncadreaz pe deplin n limitrile impuse de criteriul
financiar. O metod de a diminua costurile const i n
optimizarea proiectelor existente prin intermediul unor
programe specializate de calcul, care au abilitatea de a
furniza rezultate extrem de veridice n ceea ce privete
structura curgerilor turbulente. Dinamica fluidelor
asistat de calculator (CFD) reprezint o alternativ
avantajoas comparativ cu testarea pe modele
experimentale, oferind posibilitatea de a modifica rapid
condiiile de simulare. Coordonarea resursele de calcul
cu factorii care influeneaz timpul de simulare (modelul
matematic, tipul simulrii - 2D sau 3D, fineea gridului,
criteriile de similitudine etc.) pot conduce la rezultate de
ncredere.

DESCRIEREA MODELULUI
Modelul fizic
Simularea de fa are la baz rotorul Savonius
utilizat n experimentrile efectuate de laboratoarele
Sandia, cu urmtorii parametri constructivi (fig. 1):
numrul de cupe: 2; nlimea rotorului (H): 1 m;
diametrul cupei (d): 0,5 m; suprapunerea cupelor (s/d):
0,2.


94

Figure 1 - Geometrical parameters of the rotor / Parametrii geometrici ai rotorului

This configuration was tested at nominal
freestream velocities of 728 m/s (for a length scale of
1 m, which is nominally the diameter of the turbine).
Experimentations supose to find the static torque
produced when the rotor is locked at 115
0
relative to the
flow (fig. 1). Then, static torque coefficients Cq (eq. 1)
will be calculated and plotted as a function of wind
speed.
S
q
A R q
Q
C

=
(1)

In this equation, the parameters are: Q static torque
(Nm); R rotor radius of rotation (R = 0.4512 m); As
turbine swept area (As=0.9023 m
2
); q freestream
dynamic pressure. This pressure is calculated by
means of the following formula:
2
5 . 0

= v q

(2)
where: - freestream density ( = 1.185 kg/m
3
)
v - freestream velocity.
So, formula (1) becomes:
2
146 . 4
=
v
Q
C
q

(3)

The CFD Model
The CFD model replicate the physical one at a
scale of 1:1. There are also placed walls at the same
distances like the walls of the wind tunnel. However,
related hardware like rotors frame, fixing cables, stand,
was not modeled as there are no data regarding the
exact placement and dimensions of these components.
A commercial CFD software (ANSYS CFX) which
comprises various viscosity turbulence models was
used. In the RANS (Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes)
equations, the Reynolds stress tensor is:
|
|
\
|
=
i
j
i
i
t ij j i
x x
k
v
v
3
2
v v
' '

(4)
In this equation, the prime denotes the variable part
of the speed, and the overline is the averaged value.
The isotropic part of the tensor is 2k/3, where k is the
turbulent kinetic energy. The anisotropic part is a
function of the turbulent kinetic viscosity t and the
mean strain rate tensor.
In the k- model, t depends on the turbulent
energy dissipation and the turbulent kinetic energy k.
Even it is characterized by robustness and reasonable
accuracy, when faced with non-equilibrium boundary
layers this model tends to predict too late the onset of
Aceast configuraie a fost testat la viteze
nominale ale vntului cuprinse ntre 7 i 28 m/s (pentru
o scar de lungime de 1 m). Se urmrete calcularea
momentului static maxim, generat cnd rotorul este
blocat la 115
0
n raport cu direcia vntului (fig.1).
Ulterior, se calculeaz coeficientul momentului static Cq
(ec.1) i se reprezint grafic variaia acestuia cu viteza
vntului.
S
q
A R q
Q
C

=

(1)
Parametrii utilizai n acest ecuaie sunt: Q cuplul
static (Nm); R raza rotorului (R = 0,4512 m); Asaria
mturat de rotor (As=0,9023 m
2
); qpresiunea
dinamic a curentului de aer. Aceasta se calculeaz
conform relaiei urmtoare:
2
5 . 0

= v q

(2)
Unde: - densitatea aerului ( = 1,185 kg/m
3
)
v - viteza vntului.
Aadar, formula (1) devine:
2
146 . 4
=
v
Q
C
q

(3)

Modelul CFD
Modelul CFD reproduce modelul fizic la scara 1:1. De
asemenea modelul include perei plasai la aceeai distan
ca i n cazul tunelului de vnt din experimentrile reale.
Exist ns i elemente care nu au fost incluse n model
(cadrul rotorului, cablurile de fixare), ntruct nu au existat
date suficiente privind dimensiunile i poziia acestora.
Programul comercial utilizat (ANSYS CFX) dispune
de numeroi algoritmi de modelare a curgerii turbulente. n
abordarea RANS (Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes),
tensorul efortului unitar este determinat cu relaia:
|
|
\
|
=
i
j
i
i
t ij j i
x x
k
v
v
3
2
v v
' '

(4)
n aceast ecuaie, apostroful denot componenta
variabil a vitezei, valoarea medie fiind evideniat prin
supraliniere. Termenul izotropic al tensorului este 2k/3,
unde k reprezint energia cinetic turbulent. Termenul
anizotropic depinde inclusiv de viscozitatea cinematic
vt.
n modelul k-, vt depinde de disiparea energiei
turbulente i de energia cinetic turbulent k. Dei
este caracterizat de robustee i de o acuratee
rezonabil, atunci cnd apar probleme de neechilibru n
stratul de separaie acest model tinde s prevad prea

95
separation and to under-predict the amount of
separation. This can result in an optimistic machine
performance prediction.
In the k- model of Wilcox (2002) t is calculated
as a function of the turbulence frequency and
turbulence kinetic energy k. This model is well behaved
in the near-wall regions, where low Reynolds number
corrections are not required. On the other hand, it is
sensitive to the freestream values of .
Being one of the most effective, the Shear Stress
Transport (SST) model of Menter (1994) activates the
k- model in the near-wall region, and the k- model in
the outer wake region and in free shear layers.
Moreover, the definition of eddy viscosity is modified to
account for the transport of the principal turbulent shear stress.
Because of its accurate predictions of the onset
and the amount of flow separation under adverse
pressure gradients, the SST turbulence model was
used for the present computations. The inflation
process is highly recommended in simulations involving
lift, drag or pressure drop in the model. By means of
inflation, finite elements were generated starting from
the blade surface towards the fluid. As a result, the grid
near the turbines walls has a smaller grid length scale
in the direction perpendicular to the wall (fig. 2).
For a good resolution of the solution it is important
to have at least 10 nodes in the boundary layer.
Inflation was applied with the condition to have a y+
number below 2. The dimensionless wall distance y+,
which indicates the fineness of the grid near walls, is
based on the distance y from the wall to the first node
and the shear stress :

y y
y = =
+
v

(5)

trziu i s subevalueze cantitativ fenomenul de
separaie. Se poate ajunge astfel la o evaluare prea
optimist a performanelor instalaiei.
n modelul k- (Wilcox, 2002), t se calculeaz n
funcie de frecvena turbulenelor i de energia
cinetic turbulent k. Modelul este adecvat pentru zonele de
curgere din apropierea pereilor, unde nu sunt necesare
corecii ale valorilor numrului lui Reynolds. Este sensibil
ns la turbulenele din zonele de curgere liber.
Modelul SST (Shear Stress Transport) al lui Menter
(1994) este unul dintre cele mai eficiente, datorit
faptului c activeaz modelul k- n zonele din
apropierea pereilor i k- pentru zonele (turbulente sau
nu) de curgere liber. Mai mult dect att, n definirea
viscozitii turbulente intr i efortul unitar turbulent principal.
n aceast analiz s-a utilizat modelul turbulent
SST datorit acurateii cu care poate anticipa apariia
fenomenului de separare a curgerii si amploarea
acestuia. Ca urmare a faptului c intervin fore portante,
fore rezistente i cderi importante de presiune, n
discretizarea modelului s-a utilizat procedeul de inflaie
(generarea elementelor finite prin expandarea lor
dinspre suprafaele solide ctre fluid), obinndu-se o
scar mic de lungime a gridului pe o direcie
perpendicular pe turbin (fig. 2).
Pentru o rezoluie bun a rezultatului, trebuie ca n
stratul limit s existe minim 10 noduri. De aceea, s-a
impus ca numrul y+ s nu depeasc 2. Distana
adimensional y+, msurat pornind de la perete, este
o msur a fineii gridului n apropierea pereilor i se
determin pe baza distanei y dintre perete i primul
nod i efortul unitar :

y y
y = =
+
v

(5)

a) b)
Figure 2 - (a) 2D grid; (b) detail at the tip of the rotor / (a) Reea 2D; (b) detaliu la vrful rotorului

The size of the energy containing eddies is
specified by means of integral length scale. In the
absence of experimental reports, it is recommended to
use a length scale based on the size of the object over
which flow is moving. Taking into consideration other
estimated values mentioned in similar problems and
examples (Garg, 2002), it was assumed to be 5% of the
swept area diameter, which leads to a rounded value of
4.5 cm.
The residence time for the fluid in the domain was
chosen as the maximum simulation timescale. The CFD
solver will start with a conservative time scale that
gradually increases towards the fluid residence time as
the residuals decrease.

SIMULATION
The simulation was performed on an Intel Core 2
CPU, with 1.66 GHz and 1.0 GB of RAM. In order to
establish a very good degree of convergence of the
Pentru a specifica mrimea vortexurilor purttoare
de energie se utilizeaz scara integral de lungime. n
absena unor rapoarte experimentale, se recomand s
se utilizeze o scar de lungime raportat la mrimea
obiectului peste care are loc curgerea. Lund n
considerare estimri din studii similare (Garg, 2002), s-
a admis o valoare de 5% din diametrul ariei mturate
de rotor, ceea ce se traduce printr-o valoare de
aproximativ 4,5 cm.
Scara maxim de timp a fost asimilat perioadei de
reziden a fluidului n domeniul studiat. Modulul de
rezolvare CFD va ncepe cu o scar de timp conservativ
care va crete gradual pn la valoarea maxim, n timp ce
valorile reziduale semnificnd precizia de calcul descresc.

SIMULAREA
Simularea s-a realizat pe un sistem dotat cu
procesor Intel Core 2 CPU la o frecven de 1,66 MHz
i cu 1.0 GB memorie RAM. Pentru o bun precizie de

96
solution, a tight target Root Mean Square (RMS) of 5e-
6 was established. The CFD software calculates the
RMS residual by taking all of the residuals throughout
the domain, squaring them, taking the mean, and then
taking the square root of the mean.
Even the solver uses a robust formulation that
allows accelerated convergence with relatively large
timesteps, in case of 2 wind speeds (13, respectively 28
m/s), the resulting convergence behavior was bouncy.
Up to 3 simulation for each of them were made, with
higher grid densities (fig. 2a), variations of timescales
and of the RMS residuals (up to 1e-5), until a smooth
numerical stability was obtained. For all of them the
calculation time and number of iterations were
significantly longer than in the other cases. Figure 3
shows velocity gradient around and in close proximity to
the rotors walls, for 7m/s wind speed.
Based on the computed torque, equation 3 was
used to calculate the torque coefficient. Table 1
presents the computed results for each wind speed the
simulation was performed for.
calcul i convergen a soluiei, s-a adoptat o valoare
rezidual medie limit (RMS - Root Mean Square) de
5e-6. Programul calculeaz valoarea RMS ca rdcin
ptrat din media ptratelor valorilor reziduale de pe
ntreg domeniul studiat.
Dei algoritmul programului poate accelera
convergena chiar i prin folosirea unor valori mari ale
pailor de timp, n cazul a dou viteze ale vntului (13
i 28 m/s) convergena a avut un caracter instabil, astfel
nct a fost necesar efectuarea a cte 3 simulri
pentru fiecare caz, cu densiti ale gridului din ce n ce
mai fine (fig. 2a), variaii ale scrii de timp i ale valorii
limit RMS (pn la 1e-5). De fiecare dat timpul de
calcul i numrul de iteraii au fost semnificativ mai mari
dect pentru celelalte viteze. Figura 3 prezint
gradientul vitezelor n jurul i n vecintatea pereilor
rotorului, la o vitez a vntului de 7m/s.
Pe baza cuplului calculat de program, s-a utilizat
ecuaia 3 pentru a determina coeficientul momentului
static. Tabelul 1 prezint aceste rezultate pentru
diverse viteze ale vntului.

Figure 3 - Velocity gradient around the rotor / Gradientul vitezelor n jurul rotorului

Table 1 - Computed Cq vs. wind speed
Nr.
crt.
Wind speed
(m/s)
Torque
(Nm)
Cq
1. 7 1.382 0.1169
2. 10 2.914 0.1208
3. 13 5.011 0.1229
4. 16 7.690 0.1245
5. 19 10.958 0.1259
6. 22 14.816 0.1269
7. 25 19.273 0.1278
8. 28 24.326 0.1286

Figures 4 and 5 show the graphical representations
of data from table 1. As it was expected, static torque
has a permanent ascending trend with wind speed.
However, the static torque coefficient will hit a
maximum and then its value is expected to decrease. .
Tabelul 1 - Valorile Cq n funcie de vitez
Nr.
crt.
Viteza vntului
(m/s)
Moment
(Nm)
Cq
1. 7 1.382 0.1169
2. 10 2.914 0.1208
3. 13 5.011 0.1229
4. 16 7.690 0.1245
5. 19 10.958 0.1259
6. 22 14.816 0.1269
7. 25 19.273 0.1278
8. 28 24.326 0.1286

Dup cum se observ din figurile 4 i 5 (realizate
pe baza valorilor din tabelul 1), momentul static are o
tendin ascendent cu viteza vntului, ceea ce era de
ateptat. Pe de alt parte, coeficientul de moment tinde
s ating un palier, dup care valoarea acestuia va scade.

0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Wind speed (m/s)
Q

(
N
m
)

0.1160
0.1180
0.1200
0.1220
0.1240
0.1260
0.1280
0.1300
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Wind speed (m/s)
C
q

Figure 4 - Static torque at an angle of attack
of 115
0
vs. wind speed / Variaia cuplului static la unghiul de
atac de 115 cu viteza vntului
Figure 5 - Representation of the static torque coefficient vs.
wind speed / Variaia coeficientului momentuluistatic cu viteza
vntului

97
In order to find the trend curves for static torque and
torque coefficient, there were used a power equation,
respectively a 4-th degree polynomial one:
067 . 2
0249 . 0

= v Q (6)

097 . 0 10 457 . 4 10 93 . 2
10 41 . 9 10 45 . 11
3 2 4
3 6 4 8
+ +
+ =
v v
v v Cq

(7)
The tare torque in Sandia experimentations was of
the order of 0.68 Nm. Supposing that the turbine stays
at an angle of attack of 115
0
, it is now possible to
predict the starting wind speed under no load regime.
Equation 6 becomes:
0 68 . 0 0249 . 0
067 . 2
=

v (8)
After solving it, it is found that the starting wind speed is
v=4.95 m/s, which is extremely close to the effective
values.
The derivative of equation 7 is:
3 4
2 6 3 7 '
10 457 . 4 10 85 . 5
10 23 . 28 10 58 . 4
+
+ =
v
v v C
q
(9)
The solution of this equation for 0
'
=
q
C is
v=29.4 m/s, which represents the wind speed
corresponding to the maximum static torque coefficient,
for an angle of attack of 115
0
. It is however obvious that
this value is far away from normal wind speeds and
feasible turbine designs.

CONCLUSIONS
The Savonius type wind turbines are drag-based
devices, which mean they rotate due to the difference
between the velocity of the air impinging on the blade
and the velocity immediately downwind of the blade.
The air-flow around the blades is turbulent, so inflation
is necessary during the meshing process for boundary
layer resolution.
With a tare torque of 0.68 Nm, the calculated
starting wind speed is v=4.95 m/s, which is extremely
close to the effective values.
Computed static torque has a permanent ascending
trend with wind speed, while the static torque coefficient
will hit a maximum when wind speed will reach 29.4
m/s, and then its value is expected to decrease.

REFERENCES
[1]. Blackwell, B.F., R.E. Sheldahl, L.V., Feltz, 1977.
Wind Tunnel Performance Data for Two- and Three-
Bucket Savonius Rotors. Sandia Laboratories,
Albuquerque, New Mexico, 87115.
[2]. Ferreira, C.S., G., Bussel, G., Kuik, 2007. 2D CFD
simulation of dynamic stall on a vertical axis wind
turbine: verification and validation with PIV
measurements. In: 45
th
AIAA Aerospace Sciences
Meeting and Exhibit. Reno, Nevada, 8-11 January
2007.
[3]. Garg, V.K., 2002. Low-Pressure Turbine Separation
Control Comparison with Experimental Data.
NASA/CR-2002-211689.
[4]. Johnson, G.L., 2001. Wind Energy Systems
(Electronic Edition). Manhattan KS.
[5]. Menter, F.R., 1994. Two-Equation Eddy-Viscosity
Turbulence models for Engineering Applications. AIAA
J., 26: 1299-1310.
[6]. Wilcox, D.C., 2002. Turbulence Modeling for CFD.
DCW Industries, 2nd Edn. ISBN-10: 192872910X.
ISBN-13: 9781928729105.
Pentru a trasa curbele de regresie pentru cuplul
static i coeficientul de moment static, s-au determinat dou
ecuaii: o ecuaie putere, respectiv o polinomial de gradul 4:
067 . 2
0249 . 0

= v Q (6)

097 . 0 10 457 . 4 10 93 . 2
10 41 . 9 10 45 . 11
3 2 4
3 6 4 8
+ +
+ =
v v
v v Cq

(7)
Momentul rezistent datorat frecrilor din lagre a
fost, n cazul experimentrilor Sandia, de 0,68 Nm.
Presupunnd c unghiul de atac al rotorului este de
115
0
, se poate calcula viteza de pornire n absena
ncrcrii. Ecuaia 6 devine:
0 68 . 0 0249 . 0
067 . 2
=

v (8)
de unde rezult c viteza de autopornire este v=4.95
m/s, valoare foarte apropiat de cele tipice, determinate
pentru acest tip de turbine.
Derivata ecuaiei 7 este:
3 4
2 6 3 7 '
10 457 . 4 10 85 . 5
10 23 . 28 10 58 . 4
+
+ =
v
v v C
q
(9)
Soluia acesteia pentru 0
'
=
q
C este v=29,4 m/s i
reprezint acea vitez a vntului pentru care
coeficientul momentului static la un unghi de 115
0
este
maxim. Este ns evident faptul c aceast valoare se
afl mult n afara domeniului vitezelor de exploatare i
proiectare a turbinelor.

CONCLUZII
Momentul de rotaie care pune n micare
instalaiile de tip Savonius apare ca urmare a diferenei
dintre viteza aerului care mpinge asupra unei cupe i
viteza curentului de aer aflat imediat n spatele cupei.
Curgerea din jurul turbinei este turbulent, astfel nct
se impune generarea elementelor finite n stratul limit
de separaie prin utilizarea inflaiei.
Considernd un moment rezistent n lagre de 0,68 Nm,
s-a calculat viteza de autopornire v=4,95 m/s, foarte
apropiat de cele tipice, corespunztoare acest tip de turbin.
Momentul static are o tendin ascendent cu
viteza vntului, n timp ce coeficientul Cq va atinge un
palier pentru o vitez a vntului de 29,4 m/s, dup care
valoarea acestuia se va reduce.

BIBLIOGRAFIE
[7]. Blackwell, B.F., R.E. Sheldahl, L.V., Feltz, 1977.
Wind Tunnel Performance Data for Two- and Three-
Bucket Savonius Rotors. Sandia Laboratories,
Albuquerque, New Mexico, 87115.
[8]. Ferreira, C.S., G., Bussel, G., Kuik, 2007. 2D CFD
simulation of dynamic stall on a vertical axis wind
turbine: verification and validation with PIV
measurements. In: 45
th
AIAA Aerospace Sciences
Meeting and Exhibit. Reno, Nevada, 8-11 January
2007.
[9]. Garg, V.K., 2002. Low-Pressure Turbine Separation
Control Comparison with Experimental Data.
NASA/CR-2002-211689.
[10]. Johnson, G.L., 2001. Wind Energy Systems
(Electronic Edition). Manhattan KS.
[11]. Menter, F.R., 1994. Two-Equation Eddy-Viscosity
Turbulence models for Engineering Applications. AIAA
J., 26: 1299-1310.
[12]. Wilcox, D.C., 2002. Turbulence Modeling for CFD.
DCW Industries, 2nd Edn. ISBN-10: 192872910X.
ISBN-13: 9781928729105.


98
SOILS MAPPING INFORMATION SYSTEM
/
SISTEM INFORMAIONAL PENTRU CARTAREA SOLURILOR

Dr. eng. V. Muraru, dr. eng. I. Pirn, math. P. Crdei, dr. eng. C. Ionel-Muraru, student T. Ticu

Abstract. In the present paper there is presented a
modern method of mapping the properties of agricultural
soils using mobile sensor platform and NIR
spectrophotometer, the latest generation of technology,
provided by Veris. Making maps of soil properties is
carried out based on data collected in real time from
ground, based on spectrophotometry and geo-spatial
coordinates, provided by the Global Positioning System
(GPS). The soil properties accurately mapped within a
field is a challenge for scientists in the field, and for
farmers using precision agriculture, also. Using active
sensors for soil variability in order to define its variability,
together with laboratory calibrations lead to improved
accuracy of the maps of soil constituents. On-the-go soil
technology can be categorized as: electrical /
electromagnetic, optical / radiometric, electro-chemical,
mechanical, acoustic and pneumatic. Currently, worldwide
there are public policy action that involves measurements
of the soil. One of them refers to the identification
accuracy isolating carbon levels in soil and hence the
need to reduce atmospheric carbon by increasing the
amount of carbon stored in soil. This would entail working
with farmers to determine the amount of carbon in their
soils, requiring accurate measurements to verify the
amount of carbon stored. Measurements made to
determine changes in levels of carbon from soil is
difficult, because increasing the amount of carbon
probable (expected) is small relative to the amount of
carbon variability within many fields. While farmers may
be anxious to collect payments for sequestering C,
nitrous oxide emissions from excess nitrogen applied in
crop production make agriculture a significant contributor
of greenhouse gas emissions.

Key words: mapping, soil, spectrophotometer, GPS, soil
properties maps

INTRODUCTION
Mapping represents action tracking on field and
transposition through conventional signs and colors, on
topographic maps of the spread and characteristics of
various elements in nature (rocks, geological formations,
water, soils, etc.).
The soil properties accurately mapped within a field
is a challenge for scientists in the field, and for farmers
using precision agriculture, also.
Using active sensors for soil variability in order to
define its variability, together with laboratory calibrations
lead to improve accuracy of the maps of soil constituents.
The active mapping technology of soil can be
classified as: electrical / electromagnetic, optical / radiometric,
electro-chemical, mechanical, acoustic and pneumatic.
Scientific studies developed in country and abroad
have relieved the fundamental role of the soil functions in
modification of biodiversity, climate change, environmental
protection, promotion and development of agriculture as
a conservative form of sustainable agriculture, economic
development and prosperity of society.
Soil function of environmental protection is very
complex, depending on stability, quality and nature of the
macro and microporous soil system.
The porous system of the soil is controlling transport
Rezumat. n prezenta lucrare este prezentat o metod
modern de cartare a proprietilor solurilor agricole cu
ajutorul platformei mobile cu senzori i a spectrofotometrului NIR,
tehnologie de ultim generaie furnizat de Veris. Realizarea
hrilor cu proprietile solului se realizeaz pe baza datelor
colectate n timp real din sol, pe baz de spectrofotometrie i
a coordonatelor geospaiale furnizate de Sistemul de
Poziionare Global (GPS). Proprietile solului cartate cu
precizie n interiorul unui cmp constituie o provocare att
pentru oamenii de tiin din domeniu, ct i pentru fermierii
care utilizeaz agricultura de precizie. Utilizarea senzorilor
activi pentru sol n scopul conturrii variabilitii acestuia,
mpreun cu calibrrile de laborator conduc la mbuntirea
preciziei hrilor constituenilor solului. Tehnologia activ de
cartare a solului poate fi clasificat ca: electric / electromagnetic,
optic / radiometric, electro-chimic, mecanic, acustic i
pneumatic. n prezent, pe plan mondial exista politici
publice de aciune care implic msurtori ale solului. Una
dintre acestea se refer la precizia identificrii nivelurilor
izolrilor de carbon n sol i de aici necesitatea reducerii
carbonului atmosferic prin creterea cantitii de carbon
stocat n sol. Acest lucru ar presupune colaborarea cu
fermierii pentru determinarea cantitii de carbon din solurile
lor, necesitnd msurtori precise pentru verificarea cantitii
de carbon stocate. Msurtorile realizate pentru determinarea
modificrilor la nivelurile de carbon din sol sunt dificile,
deoarece, creterea cantitii de carbon probabil (presupus)
este mic relativ la cantitatea de variabilitate a carbonului din
interiorul multor cmpuri. n timp ce fermierii sunt ngrijorai n
privina costurilor pentru izolarea carbonului i a emisiilor de
oxid de azot provenite din fertilizrile excesive cu azot ale
culturilor, agricultura devine un important furnizor de emisii de
gaze cu efect de ser.

Cuvinte cheie: cartare, sol, spectrofotometru, GPS, harta
proprietilor solului

INTRODUCERE
Cartarea reprezint aciunea de urmrire pe teren i
transpunere prin semne i culori convenionale, pe hri
topografice a rspndirii i a caracterelor diferitelor
elemente din natur (roci, formaiuni geologice, ape,
soluri, etc.).
Proprietile solului cartate cu precizie n interiorul unui cmp
constituie o provocare att pentru oamenii de tiin din domeniu,
ct i pentru fermierii care utilizeaz agricultura de precizie.
Utilizarea senzorilor activi pentru sol n scopul conturrii
variabilitii acestuia, mpreun cu calibrrile de laborator
conduc la mbuntirea preciziei hrilor constituenilor solului.
Tehnologia activ de cartare a solului poate fi
clasificat ca: electric/electromagnetic, optic / radiometric,
electro-chimic, mecanic, acustic i pneumatic.
Cercetrile tiinifice elaborate att n ar ct i n
strintate au reliefat rolul fundamental al solului prin
funciile acestuia n: modificarea biodiversitii, schimbrile
climatice, protecia mediului nconjurtor, promovarea i
dezvoltarea agriculturii conservative ca forma a agriculturii
durabile, dezvoltarea economica i prosperitatea societii.
Funcia solului de protecie a mediului nconjurtor este
deosebit de complex, depinznd de stabilitatea, calitatea i
natura sistemului macro i microporos al solului.
Sistemul poros al solului este cel care controleaz

99
processes of solutions to the plant, through reticular
mass to groundwater, or surface waters, and which
absorbed toxic chemical components, makes this act as
a buffer and filtering.
Therefore, permanent monitoring of the soil quality
state at farm level, adjustment of chemical fertilizers and
correct application of all technological components of
farming systems for growing plants are absolutely
necessary.
To obtain high yields and good quality, a great
importance have chemical fertilizers, which complete the
supply of soil nutrients, necessary substances for normal
growth and development of plants.
In order to rational application of fertilizer, agricultural
chemistry consider that one of its important tasks consist
in determination of soil nutrients, soil analysis and
especially determining their needs.
Supply of available nutrients from the soil is not
represents a stable size, it depends on numerous factors
such as soil type, geological origin, soil texture and
structure, the biological, climate, etc.
Therefore, accurate determination of the need of
chemical fertilizers is done, taking into account all these
factors.
Efficiency of using chemical fertilizer depends not
only on soil composition, and the particularities of culture
nutrition, also.
Between the chemical composition of soil and
chemical composition of plants there is a close
relationship and this reflects one of the basic principles of
biology, that of unity between body and environment in
which he lives. Methods used until now have managed to
accentuate in plants almost all of the chemical elements
of Mendeleevs table.
Assessment of productive capacity, choosing the
most appropriate way to use the land, and cultivation
technology based on scientific bases and in relation to
the degree of accessibility, contribute to the conservation
and sustainable productivity, and thus to increase the
resilience capacity the most sensitive and fragile soils, so
that improved technological systems have positive
synergistic effect.

INFORMATION SYSTEM AND MEASUREMENT THROUGH
SATELLITE FOR AGRICULTURAL SOILS MAPPING
Spectrophotometry
Spectrophotometry is an optical method of analysis
used in qualitative analysis and quantitative material
known or unknown, pure or impure state, falling into the
category of methods for mapping the agricultural soils of
last generation. Using measurements taken can
determine the presence or absence of various elements
or functional groups, and the quantity in which they are
subject to material analysis.
Data derived through the spectroscopic measurement is
in the form of a graphical representation of energy absorbed
or emitted, depending on the position of the electromagnetic
spectrum. This chart is called the spectrum.
Spectrometers are being used in commercial
agriculture today in milling, forage, meat processing and
more. But using them to measure soil properties is
relatively new.
Researchers in laboratory settings have found
visible and near-infrared reflectance (VIS-NIR) measurements
of soil samples correlate to important soil properties such
as carbon and nitrogen.
Spectrophotometers move these measurements out to
the field, providing a platform for research into soil
properties as they vary within a field.
Someday, technology like this may be used to
procesele de transport al soluiilor spre plant prin masa
radicular, spre freatic, sau spre apele de suprafa, i
care, absorbind componenii chimici toxici, face ca acest
mediu s acioneze ca un sistem tampon i de filtrare.
De aceea, monitorizarea permanent a strii de calitate a
solului, la nivelul fermei, regularizarea consumului de
ngrminte chimice i aplicarea corecta a tuturor
componentelor tehnologice ale sistemelor agricole de
cultivare a plantelor sunt absolut necesare.
Pentru obinerea recoltelor mari i de bun calitate, o
importan deosebit au ngrmintele chimice care
completeaz rezerva de substane nutritive ale solului, substane
necesare pentru creterea i dezvoltarea normal a plantelor.
n vederea aplicrii raionale a ngrmintelor,
agrochimia consider c una din sarcinile ei importante
const n determinarea substanele nutritive din sol, analiza
solurilor i mai ales stabilirea necesarului acestora.
Rezerva de substane nutritive accesibile din sol nu
reprezint o mrime stabil, aceasta depinznd de numeroi
factori, ca de exemplu: tipul de sol, originea geologic,
textura i structura solului, aciunea biologic, clima, etc.
Ca urmare, stabilirea corect a necesarului de
ngrminte chimice se face innd seama de toi aceti
factori.
Eficiena folosirii ngrmintelor chimice depinde nu
numai de compoziia solului, dar i de particularitile de
nutriie ale culturii.
ntre compoziia chimic a solului i compoziia
chimic a plantelor exist o legtur strns i acest
lucru reflect unul dintre principiile de baz ale biologiei,
acela al unitii dintre organism i mediul n care triete.
Metodele de analiz utilizate pn in prezent au reuit s
pun n eviden n plante aproape toate elementele
chimice ale tabelului lui Mendeleev.
Evaluarea capacitii productive, alegerea celui mai
potrivit mod de folosin a terenului, ca i a tehnologiilor
de cultivare fundamentate pe baze tiinifice i n raport
cu gradul de pretabilitate sau favorabilitate, contribuie la
creterea i conservarea durabil a productivitii, i
astfel la sporirea capacitii de rezilien a celor mai
sensibile i fragile soluri, aa nct, sistemele tehnologice
mbuntite au efect sinergic pozitiv.

SISTEM INFORMAIONAL I DE MSURARE PRIN
SATELIT PENTRU CARTAREA SOLURILOR AGRICOLE
Spectrofotometria
Spectrofotometria este o metod optic de analiz
utilizat att n analize calitative, ct i cantitative a
materialelor cunoscute sau necunoscute, n stare pur sau
impur, ncadrndu-se n categoria metodelor de cartare
a solurilor agricole de ultim generaie. Prin msurtorile
efectuate se poate stabili prezena sau absena diferitelor
elemente sau grupri funcionale, precum i cantitatea n
care acestea se gsesc n materialul supus analizei.
Datele rezultate prin msurare spectroscopic sunt
sub forma unei reprezentri grafice a energiei absorbite sau
emise, n funcie de poziia din spectrul electromagnetic.
Aceast diagram poart numele de spectru.
Spectrofotometrele sunt utilizate astzi n
agricultura comercial: n morrit, furaje, procesarea
crnii, etc., dar utilizarea acestora pentru msurarea
proprietilor solului este relativ nou.
Cercettorii au gsit n urma analizelor de laborator msurtori
ale reflexiei luminii n spectrul vizibil i n infrarou apropiat
(VIS-NIR) ale eantioanelor de sol, care au fost puse n corelaie
cu importante proprieti ale solului, precum carbonul i azotul.
Spectrofotometrele efectueaz aceste msurtori n
cmp, oferind o platform de cercetare pentru proprietile
solului, aa cum variaz acestea n interiorul unui cmp.
Spectrofotometria poate fi utilizat pentru a completa sau

100
augment or replace traditional lab analyses for other soil
constituents. All these possibilities require soil research -
made possible with tools like the Veris VIS-NIR
Spectrophotometer.
When light hits soil, molecules react - they vibrate.
This vibration absorbs some of the light -how much light
is either absorbed or reflected depends on whats in the
soil. Soil with strong C-H, N-H, and O-H bonds absorb
more light, which is why wet soil or soil with high organic
matter looks darker, even to the naked eye.
Spectral data, especially in the near-infrared, is
even more powerful. The reflectance signature of a
spectrum can be used to measure carbon, nitrogen and
water content of soil, and relate to some soil chemical
properties as well.
Precision measurement of the quantity of carbon
may be an additional source of income for farmers.

Architecture of information system and measurement
through satellite
During soil properties mapping can be used an
information system which consists mainly of:
- Geostationary satellites
- Global Positioning System - GPS or Differential
Global Positioning System - DGPS (correct
inaccuracies induced by the GPS system);
- Laptop for recording and processing data collected
from the field and for maps of soil properties;
- Mobile Sensor Platform and NIR Spectrophotometru:
Temperature sensor
Optical sensor
Coulters electrodes for electrical conductivity.
- Software for processing data collected from field;
- Geographical Information System - GIS (AutoCAD
Civil 3D, ArcGIS, Google Earth);
- Software for modeling and simulation of nutrient
requirements (virtual maps with nutrients).
Figure 1 shows the architecture of information
system for soils properties mapping.
nlocui analizele de laborator tradiionale i pentru ali
constitueni ai solului, toate acestea necesitnd cercetri
de sol, posibile cu instrumente performante, precum
spectrofotometrul VIS-NIR.
Cnd lumina lovete moleculele de sol acestea reacioneaz
prin vibraii, absorbind o parte din lumina. Cantitatea de lumin
absorbit sau reflectat depinde de ce se afl n sol. Solurile cu
legturi puternice de C-H, N-H i O-H absorb mai multa lumina,
motiv pentru care solurile umede sau cele cu un grad ridicat
de materie organic arat mai ntunecat, chiar i privite cu ochiul liber.
Datele spectrale, n special cele in infrarou apropiat sunt
chiar mai puternice. Indicarea semnelor de transpunere a reflexiei
unui spectru poate fi folosit pentru msurarea cantitii de
carbon, azot i a coninutului de ap din sol, ct i a unor
proprieti chimice ale solului.
Msurarea cu precizie a cantitii de carbon poate
constitui o surs suplimentar de venituri pentru fermieri.

Arhitectura sistemului informaional i de msurare
prin satelit
n procesul cartrii proprietilor solului poate fi utilizat
un sistem informaional care este alctuit in principal din:
- Satelii geostaionari;
- Sistem de Poziionare Global - GPS sau Sistem de
Poziionare Global Diferenial - DGPS (corecteaz
inexactitile induse de sistemul GPS);
- Laptop pentru inregistrarea i procesarea datelor colectate
din cmp i pentru realizarea hrilor cu proprietile solului;
- Platform mobil pentru senzori i spectrofomometru NIR:
Senzor de temperatur;
Senzor optic;
Cuite pentru conductivitate electrica.
- Soft pentru procesarea datelor colectate din cmp;
- Sistem pentru Informatii Geografice GIS (AutoCAD
Civil 3D, ArcGIS, Google Earth);
- Software de modelare si simulare a necesarului de
nutrieni (hri virtuale cu nutrieni).
n figura 1 se prezint arhitectura sistemului
informaional pentru cartarea proprietilor solului.

Fig. 1 - Architecture of information system and measuring through satellite /
Arhitectura sistemului informaional i de msurare prin satelit

Agricultural soils mapping technology - Veris
Veris Technologies Inc., USA have been developed
a spectrophotometer for measurements in the soil. An on-
the-go shank collects VIS-NIR measurements at a discrete
depth as it traverses across a field. The on-the-go shank
collects VIS-NIR measurements (4502200 mm) through a
sapphire window pressed directly against the soil, at a rate of
20 spectra per second with a an eight nm resolution.
The shank is equipped with six coulter electrodes,
which measure soil EC at 030 cm and 090 cm arrays.
Tehnologia de cartare a solurilor agricole Veris
Veris Technologies, Inc., USA a dezvoltat un
spectrofotometru pentru msurtori n sol. Cu brzdarul
activ se colecteaz msurtori la adncime mic, n
mod continuu. Brzdarul colecteaz msurtori VIS-NIR
(4502200 mm) printr-o fereastr cu safire eantionate
direct de pe sol, la o rat de 20 de spectre /secund cu
o rezoluie de 8 nm.
Echipamentul efectueaz i msurtori ale conductivitii
electrice a solului (CE), dispunnd de 6 electrozi de cuit
care msoar CE a solului n serii de 030 cm i 090 cm.

101

Fig. 2. Senzor optic / Optical sensor

At the heart of the VIS-NIR system is the optical
shoe - the soil-engaging part of the shank.
On the bottom of the shoe is a nitrite-hardened wear
plate containing a sapphire window. Inside the intricately
machined housing is a tungsten halogen bulb that
illuminates the soil through the window, and an optic that
directs reflected light into a fiber-optic cable for
transmission to the spectrometer.
In front there is a fluted coulter which slices through
field residue and cuts a slit in the soil, followed by the
shoe with optical sensor.
In partea centrala a sistemului VIS-NIR se afl
sabotul optic, pies ce face legtura dintre sol i brzdar
In partea de jos a sabotului se afl o talp rigid ce
conine o fereastr cu safire. n interior se afla un tub
halogen wolfram care lumineaz solul printr-o fereastr
i un ochi (optic) - receptor care direcioneaz lumina
reflectat spre un cablu cu fibre optice pentru transmisie
ctre spectrometru.
n fa se afl un cuit care taie resturile vegetale,
realiznd o brazd, fiind urmat de sabotul cu senzorul
optic.

Fig. 3 - Echipamentul VIS-NIR n timpul lucrului / Fig. 4 - Detaliu brzdar cu senzor optic /
VIS-NIR shank during work Detail shank with optical sensor

Veris spectrophotometer collecting VIS-NIR
measurements at a discrete depth as it traverses across
a field. Also, the device can be set as stationary mode in
the laboratory for measurements of samples of absorbers
(the samples).
Method of determining the properties of soil
components using NIRS spectrophotometric method
based on infrared spectroscopy.

Spectrofotometrul Veris realizeaz msurtori de
absorban ale solului n timp ce este tractat pe cmp.
De asemenea, aparatul poate fi setat n modul staionar n
laborator pentru realizarea msurrilor de absorban
ale eantioanelor (mostrelor).
Metoda determinrii proprietilor componentelor
solului cu ajutorul spectrofotometrului NIRS are la baz
metoda spectroscopiei n infrarou.

Fig. 5 - System diagram / Diagrama sistemului

102
The Veris NIR spectrophotometer is controlled by a
PC-based operating system, which ensure instrument
control, data-recording, and data standardization
functions.
The principal date registered:
- Soil reflectance measurements in a wide
range;
- Content carbon measurements by
spectral interpretation.
The auxiliary data recorded:
- Electrical Conductivity Shallow (EC_SH);
- Electrical Conductivity Deep (EC_DP);
- Soil Temperature.
Spectrofotometrul Veris NIR este controlat de un
sistem de operare pe baz de PC, care asigur controlul
instrumentului, nregistrarea datelor i funciile de baza
pentru procesarea datelor.
Date principale nregistrate:
- Msurtori are reflectantei solului intr-un spectru
larg;
- Coninut de carbon prin interpretare msurtori
spectrale.
Datele auxiliare nregistrate:
- Conductivitatea Electric Superficial;
- Conductivitate Electric de Adncime;
- Temperatura solului.

Fig. 6 - Soil electrical conductivity (EC) coulter- electrod / Cuite pentru msurarea conductivitii electrice a solului

Fig. 7 - Soil maps - soil carbon content / Hri de sol - coninutul de carbon din sol

CONCLUSIONS
- Precision agriculture gives place to a new
methodology (which is targeted by a new agricultural
system) may be one of the keys to sustainable agriculture;
- Favorable development opportunities for precision
agriculture:
ability to understand the complexity of
farming systems - a systemic and holistic
approach, through precision measurements
of soil composition;
ability to monitoring the phenomena and
systems - computer - controlled data acquisition;
achievements in IT filed: hardware, software and
databases allow this approach;
improvements of interpretations and methods of
calculation: statistical modeling, simulation;
through soil mapping is opening the way of
decision support systems for agriculture,
based on data collected from the field;
modern measurements based on
spectrophotometry make their appearance
in agriculture;
analysis of soil properties and the role of
the nutrients elements for crop growth and
agricultural development, are key factors in
developing a sustainable agriculture;
CONCLUZII
- Agricultura de precizie face loc unei noi metodologii
(aceasta intete ctre un nou sistem agricol) care
poate fi una din cheile agriculturii durabile;
- Oportunitile favorabile dezvoltrii agriculturii de
precizie:
capacitatea de a nelege complexitatea
sistemelor agricole o abordare sistemic i
holistic prin msurtori de precizie a
compoziiei solului;
capacitatea de a monitoriza fenomenele i sistemele
- calculator achiziionarea controlat a datelor;
realizrile in domeniul tehnicii de calcul: hardware,
software i baze de date permit aceast abordare;
mbuntiri ale interpretrilor i metodelor de
calcul: statistic, modelare, simulare;
prin cartarea solului se deschide calea sistemelor
suport de decizie pentru agricultur bazate pe
date culese din teren;
msurtorile moderne bazate pe
spectrofotometrie i fac apariia i n
agricultur;
analiza proprietilor solului i rolul elementelor
nutritive pentru creterea i dezvoltarea
culturilor agricole sunt factori determinani n
dezvoltarea unei agriculturi durabile;

103
analysis of fertilizers for agriculture and their
regulate administration will be the basic
element in the development of precision
agriculture methods in the mapping and
distribution of soil nutrients needed;
the information system for agricultural soils
mapping open the way to researches, as
base of soil absorbance measurements can
determinate other elements of interest in
soil composition;
through mapping, the system may contribute to
reduce the emission of greenhouse gases.
analiza ngrmintelor pentru agricultur i
cadrul reglementat al administrrii lor va fi
elementul de baz n elaborarea metodelor
agriculturii de precizie in cartarea si distribuirea
nutrienilor necesari solului;
sistemul informaional de cartare a solului
deschide calea cercetrilor, ca pe baza
msurtorilor de absorban a solului s se
poat determina alte elemente de interes in
compoziia solului;
prin cartare, sistemul poate contribui la
reducerea emisiei de gaze cu efect de sera.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1]. E.D. Lund, G. Kweon, C. R. Maxton, P. E.
Drummond, Soil carbon and nitrogen mapping: How
these relate to new markets and public policy
[2]. http://www.veristech.com
BIBLIOGRAFIE
[1]. E.D. Lund, G. Kweon, C. R. Maxton, P. E. Drummond,
Soil carbon and nitrogen mapping: How these relate to
new markets and public policy
[2]. http://www.veristech.com


104

SOME INVESTIGATION OF EFFICIENT FIELD WORK FOR TRACTOR GUIDANCE SYSTEM
AND SEEDER USING GPS NAVIGATION
/
INVESTIGAII PRIVIND CMPUL DE LUCRU EFICIENT PENTRU SISTEMUL DE GHIDARE A
UNUI TRACTOR I SEMNTOARE FOLOSIND NAVIGAIA GPS

Atanas Atanasov*, Keiichi Inoue**, Valentin Vldut***
*University of Rousse, 8 Studentska Str., 7017 Rousse, Bulgaria
**National Agricultural Research Center for Hokkaido Region
Lowland Crop Rotation Research Team, Hitsujigaoka 1 Toyohira-ku, 062-8555 Sapporo, Japan
***National Research - Development Institute for Machines and Installations Designed
to Agriculture and Food Industry

Abstract: Some problems of investigation of tractor
guidance system and seeder of precision farming using
GPS are discussed. A tractor guidance system is
developed to support the operator to control the tractor
trucking the target line in the field for plowing, fertilizing,
pesticide spraying, sowing, harvesting, manuring ,etc. In
the system, an alternative integration solution basing on
standard 2
nd
Kalman Filter (KF) [1] algorism was
developed. The system not only estimate more accurate
real-time data, but also strengthens the state predicting
function, considering the delay of the driving operation.
The experimental investigations were carried out in
experimental fields of National Agriculture Research
Center for Hokkaido Region in Japan. A semi-crawler
tractor KUBOTA.M90-PC FQ1BMAL, 90PS (66kW) by
seeder with work width 2,56 m was used. The method of
field experiment includes the next basic steps:
measurement the point coordinate of 4 corners of the
field, introduction work width of the work machine,
distance between the GPS - work machine, outline of the
field, a work course. In consequence of the field
experiment is competed and evaluated offset error of the
design trace line for RTK and DGPS.
Rezumat: In lucrare se prezint cteva probleme de
investigare a sistemului de conducere a tractorului i de
semnat n sistemul agriculturii de precizie folosind GPS. Se
dezvolt sistemul de ghidare pentru a sprijinii operatorul s
controleze tractorul n efectuarea operaiilor de arat, fertilizat,
stropit cu pesticide, semnat, recoltat, aplicat ngrminte,
etc. n cadrul sistemului s-a dezvoltat o soluie de integrare
alternativ pe baza celui de al doilea standard - Filtrul Kalman
(KF). Sistemul estimeaz nu numai datele timpului real cu
mult acuratee, dar ntrete i funcia de predicie, lund n
considerare ntrzierea operaiei de condus. Au fost efectuate
investigaii suplimentare n domeniile experimentale ale
Centrului Naional de Cercetare Agricol pentru Regiunea
Hokkaido, Japonia. S-a folosit un tractor cu semi-enile
KUBOTA M 90 - PC FQ1BMAL, 90 PS (66KW) cu aparat de
semnat la o adncime de lucru de 2,50 m. Metoda
experimentului n cmp include urmtoarele etape de baz:
msurarea coordonatei de poziie n cele 4 coluri ale
terenului, introducerea adncimii de lucru a mainii, distana
dintre GPS main, conturarea terenului, desfurarea
lucrului. n consecin, dup experiment se calculeaz i se
evalueaz o eroare de deviaie a liniei traseului proiectat
pentru RTK i DGPS.

Keywords: GPS, Guidance, Navigation, Filtering, Tractor,
Seeder, Kalman filter
Cuvintele cheie: GPS, ghidare, navigare, filtrare, tractor,
semntoare, filtru Kalman.

INTRODUCTION
Adaptation and integration to the open and dynamic
European market is one of the greatest challenges for
Bulgaria as new member of the European Union.
A long-year experiment in the agricultural
production, favorable nature factors, rich relief, climate
diversity, the lack of serious pollutants are preconditions
for successful development of agriculture in the country.
Notwithstanding the good preconditions, during the last
years there have been observed also some disturbing
tendencies.
The continuous depopulating in the rural regions and
olden population in these places, the lack of necessary
enough specialists leads to curtly increasing of the need of
laboring workers for an unit cultivated area, which turns out
to make a substantial influence on the quality of the
executed agricultural operations.
The problems of similar kind there can be observed
on the Japanese island Hokkaido. The execution of the
agricultural operations for a short time interval in an
appropriate moment it is difficult due to the changing
meteorological conditions on the island. Thus leading to
that reason many farmers are obliged to work for a
longer time in the proper moment.
The high grade of the mechanized processes of the
large scale areas, the lack of enough specialists are
INTRODUCERE
Adaptarea i integrarea ntr-o pia european dinamic
i deschis este una dintre cele mai mari provocri
pentru Bulgaria ca non-membru al Uniunii Europene.
Un experiment de un an n producia apicol factori
climatici favorabili, un relief bogat, diversitatea climatului,
lipsa poluanilor severi sunt pre-condiii pentru o
dezvoltare cu succes a agriculturii n ar.
Chiar dac nu negm pre-condiiile favorabile, n
ultimii ani au fost totui observate unele tendine
stnjenitoare.
Depopularea continu din regiunile rurale i vrsta
naintat a populaiei din aceste zone, lipsa de specialiti
a dus la creterea acut a necesitii de muncitori
agricoli pentru o zon unitar cultivat care are o
influen substanial asupra calitii operaiilor agricole
executate.
Probleme de acelai gen pot fi observate i n
insula Japonez Hohhaido. Executarea operaiilor
agricole pentru un interval scurt de timp intr-un moment
corespunztor este dificil datorit condiiilor meteoorologice
schimbtoarede pe insul. De aceea, muli fermieri sunt
obligai s lucreze pentru o perioad mai lung de timp
ntr-un moment potrivit.
Gradul nalt al proceselor mecanizate la scar
mare, lipsa specialitilor sunt probleme care duc la

105
problems, leading to the search of new decisions, such as
the developments and application of IT technologies for
precision execution and management of the mechanized
processes, such as the development of simulation models,
web-based products and etc.
In accordance to the needs of the farmers, during
the recent years an object of investigation of the
precision agriculture in Japan is the application and the
implementation of GPS guidance systems in the
agricultural machines. By the implementation of these
systems, the conduction of processes such as, tillage,
fertilizing, sowing, and harvesting which have been
worked out precisely and effectively [2]. The working
data can also be collected more simply and precisely for
post economic or other useful analysis. A leading role in
the investigation of these systems as integrating DGPS
and 3D Gyro sensor in tractor guidance system for
precision farming [3] has the department of Agricultural
Machinery from the National Agricultural Research
Center Region Hokkaido with a leader Ph.D. Keiichi
Inoue. Under his leadership we made mutual
experimental investigations with GPS guidance systems
and seeder on the territory of the Institute. This paper
was focus on the performance evaluation of tractor
guidance system by integrating DGPS and Gyro sensor
in farm working and evaluated accuracy by comparing
with RTK positioning results.
cutarea unor noi decizii, cum ar fi dezvoltarea i
aplicarea de tehnologii IT pentru execuia de precizie i
managementul proceselor mecanizate, cum ar fi
dezvoltarea modelelor de simulare, a produselor pe baz
web, etc.
n conformitate cu cerinele fermierilor, n timpul
ultimilor ani, un obiect de investigare a agriculturii de
precizie n Japonia este reprezentat de aplicarea i
implementarea sistemelor de ghidare GPS pentru
mainile agricole. Prin implementare acestor sisteme,
procese ca lucratul pmntului, fertilizarea, semnatul i
recoltarea sunt efectuate cu precizie [2] i eficient. De
asemenea, datele de lucru pot fi strnse mai uor i mai
precis prin analiza post-economic sau o alt analiz
util. Un rol cheie n investigarea acestor sisteme ca
DGPS de integrare i senzor Gyro 3D n sistemul de
ghidare a tractorului pentru agricultura de precizie [3] l
are departamentul de maini Agricole de la Centrul
Naional de Cercetare-Regiunea Hokkaido - cu
conductorul su - Dr. ing. Keichi Inone. Sub conducerea
acestuia, noi am fcut investigaii experimentale comune
cu sistemele de ghidare GPS i semntoarea pe
teritoriul institutului. Aceast lucrare a fost focalizat pe
evaluarea performanei sistemului de ghidare prin
integrarea DGPS i a senzorului Gyro n muncile agricole
i acurateea evaluat prin compararea cu rezultate de
poziionare RTK.

MATERIAL AND METHOD
Analysis of the problem is based on investigation of
tractor guidance system of precision farming using
GPS.
The experimental investigations were carried out in
2 experimental fields of National Agriculture Research
Center for Hokkaido Region. A semi-crawler tractor
KUBOTA.M90-PC FQ1BMAL, 90PS (60kW) by seeder
with work width 2,56 m was used Fig.1.
The tractor equipment includes: hardware
configuration - highly precise GPS (RTK-GPS, SR530
made in Leica Company, precision 2cm), DG14 receiver
of THALES Corporation and 3 axis Gyros (VSAS-2GM)
of Tokimec Corporation Fig.3., GPS antennas, notebook
computers; software configuration system software
GEOSURF SIZE1000 Fig.2. System software
(GEOSURF SIZE 1000) was installed in the notebook
computer. There are three parts in the software: data
recording, data estimation and graphic user interface
(GUI).
Figure 4 shows the flow-chat of the software. The
method of field experiment includes the next basic steps:
data recording as measurement the point coordinate of 4
corners of the field, introduction work width of the work
machine, distance between the GPS - work machine,
work form of the field, a work course. Data estimation
was to complete data integrating and filtering, various
data calculation, such as KF solution, position
estimation, navigation data estimation, and farm data
designing was also included. The coordination system is
used Universal Transverse Mercator system (UTM)
coordination or Japan coordination. Figure 5 shows the
method of pass planning on the field using system
software GEOSURF SIZE1000.
Kalman Filter (KF) solution is the core and basic
part in the system. High accuracy real-time vehicle
position, velocity, heading angle are necessary to
accomplish the purpose of the system. There are three
steps in KF solution: 1) Initial alignment, 2) KF Processing,
3) Results Judgment [3]. EXCEL and UTM for data
analysis were used.
MATERIAL I METOD
Analiza problemei se bazeaz pe investigarea
sistemului de ghidare a tractorului pentru agricultura de
precizie folosind GPS.
Au fost efectuate investigaii suplimentare n dou cmpuri
experimentale ale Centrului Naional de Cercetare pentru
Regiunea Hokkaido. Un tractor cu semi-enile RUBOTA M
90 -PC FQ1B MAL, 90 PS (60KW) a fost folosit mpreun cu
semntoarea lucrnd la o adncime de lucru de 2,56m (Fig.1).
Echipamentul tractorului include: configuraia hardware
- GPS de mare precizie (RTK-GPS SR 530, fcut de
Leica Company, de 2 cm de precizie) dispozitiv de
recepie DG 14 - Corporaia THALES i senzorul Gyro pe
3 axe (VSAS-2GM) al Corporaiei Tokimec, Fig.2, antene
GPS, computere notebook; configuraie software -sistem
software GEOSURF MRIMEA 1000 Fig. 3. Sistemul
Software (GEOSURF MRIMEA 1000) a fost instalat n
calculatorul notebook. Exist trei pri ale software-ului:
nregistrarea datelor, estimarea datelor i interfa
grafic a utilizatorului (GUI).
Figura 4 arat schema procesului tehnologic a software-
ului. Metoda experimentrilot n cmp include urmtorii pai
de baz: nregistrarea datelor ca i msurarea coordonatei de
poziie a celor 4 coluri ale terenului, introducerea adncimii
de lucru a mainii, distana dintre GPS -maina lucrat, forma
terenului, cursul lucrrilor. Estimarea datelor a constat n
integrarea i filtrarea datelor complete, calcularea
diferitelor date, cum ar fi soluia KF, estimarea poziiei,
estimarea datelor de navigare i a fost inclus i
proiectarea datelor agricole. Sistemul de coordonare este
utilizat n coordonarea sistemului Universal Transverse
Mercator (UTM) sau n coordonarea Japoniei. Fig. 5
arat metoda de planificare a trecerilor pe teren folosind
sistemul software GEOSURF SIZE 1000.
Soluia Kalman Filter (KF) este partea central i de
baz a sistemului. Pentru a ndeplini scopul sistemului
sunt necesare a mare acuratee a poziiei vehiculului n
timp real ca i viteza i unghiul de naintare a acestuia. n
soluia KF exist 3 pai: 1) Alinierea iniial; 2) Procesarea
KF; 3) Judecarea rezultatelor [3]. Au fost utilizate:
programele EXCEL i UTM pentru analizarea datelor.

106

Figure 1 - Tractor KUBOTA.M90-PC FQ1BMAL, 90PS (66kW) /
Tractor KUBOTA M 90 - PC FQ1 MAL, 90 CP (66KW)

Offset second after
Offset present time
Direction bar
Guidance line
Attitude Velocity
Pitch Roll angle

Figure 2 - GUI of software of guidance system / GUI al software-ului sistemului de ghidare

Figure 3 - Standard guidance system hardware construction /
Construcia hardware a sistemul de ghidare standard

107

Fig. 4 - Flow-chat of the software of guidance system / Diagrama software-ului sistemului de ghidare

Figure 5 - Charts of the field using system software GEOSURF SIZE1000 /
Grafice ale cmpului utiliznd sistemul software GEOSURF SIZE1000 /

108
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
An important index for effectiveness in using GPS
tractor guidance system is the determination offset error
between tractor track and designed line in the farm.
Some results from the done experimental work are
shown on Fig.6, Fig.7, Fig.8, and Fig.9.
Analysing according to the shown on Fig.6 and Fig.7, so this
has been ascertained that the average values of the estimated
errors at RTK and DG14-GSP are between -0, 5119 m and 1,
99307 m, as in the less small values can be surveyed at RTK.
The difference in the achieved errors is comperative in the
two cases, as the big declinations in the beginning of the turnings
probably are deserved to the inadvertence of the operator while
doing the navigation on the designed line in the farm.
For a difference from the results, obtained in field
13, not alike in field 16 the average values of the
estimated errors are of less values, as at RTK is
0,277701 m, the while at DG14-GPS is -0,1658 m, with
high accuracy for the last. From the results of the
experiment, it was shown that combining more accurate
real-time positioning data and prediction information, the
system could be more reliable and efficient.
REZULTATE I DISCUII
Un indicator important pentru eficiena utilizrii sistemului
de ghidare a tractorului prin GPS este determinarea erorii de
deviere dintre traseul tractorului i linia proiectat n ferm.
Unele rezultate sunt artate n fig. 6 i fig. 7, fig. 8 i
fig. 9.
Analiznd n conformitate cu cele artate n Fig. 6 i
Fig. 7 s-a dovedit c valorile medii ale erorilor estimate la
RTK i DG 14 -GPS sunt cuprinse ntre 0,5119 i
1,99307m, avnd n vedere c RTK poate supraveghea
valorile mai mici. Diferena dintre erorile respective este
comparativ n cele dou cazuri pentru c abaterile mari
se datoreaz probabil inadvertenelor svrite de
operator.
Ca o diferen fa de rezultatele obinute n cmpul
13, valorile medii din cmpul 16, ale erorilor estimate
sunt mai mici, pentru c RTK este 0.277701m,n timp ce
la DG 14-GPS este de 0.1658m, cu mare acuratee
pentru cel din urm. Din rezultatele experimentului s-a
artat c, combinnd datele de poziionare mai precise
n timp real i informaia de predicie, sistemul ar putea fi
mai fiabil i mai eficient.

-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Longitude(m)
L
a
t
i
t
u
d
e
(
m
)

Figure 6 -The track of the tractor on the field 13 and design line of driving / Urma tractorului pe terenul 13 i linia de conducere proiectat

RTK
-2
-1,5
-1
-0,5
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
RTK Y (m)
O
f
f
s
e
t

e
r
r
o
r
(
m
)

DG
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
RTK Y (m)
O
f
f
s
e
t

e
r
r
o
r
(
m
)

Figure 7 -Offset error for RTK and DGPS on the field 13 / Eroare de deviere pentru RTK i DGPS pe terenul 13

RTK
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
-35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0
Longitude (m)
L
a
t
i
t
u
d
e

(
m
)

DG
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
-35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0
Longitude (m)

L
a
t
i
t
u
d
e

(
m
)

Figure 8 - The track of the tractor on the field 16 and design line of driving / Urma tractorului pe terenul 16 i linia proiectat pentru condus

109
RTK
-2
-1,5
-1
-0,5
0
0,5
1
1,5
0 20 40 60 80 100
RTK Y(m)
O
f
f
s
e
t

e
r
r
o
r
(
m
)

DG
-2,5
-2
-1,5
-1
-0,5
0
0,5
1
0 20 40 60 80 100
RTK Y(m)
O
f
f
s
e
t

e
r
r
o
r
(
m
)

Figure 9 - Offset error for RTK and DGPS on the field 16 / Eroarea de deviere pentru RTK i DGPS pe terenul 16

CONCLUSIONS
The field experiment results demonstrate that by
using KF the GPS system DG14 3D Gyro sensor (3DM-
GX1) could provide more precise continuous position
data and high accuracy between tractor track and
designed line in the farm.
CONCLUZII
Rezultatele experimentelor de cmp demonstreaz
c prin folosirea sistemelor GPS i KF senzorul Gyro 3D
DG 14 ar pute furniza date de poziie continue mai precise
i de mare acuratee ntre calea tractorului i linia
proiectat n form.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Author Atanas Atanasov would acknowledge Dr.
Keiichi Inoue for discussing and help on the GPS
guidance systems questions.
Author Atanas Atanasov would also like to
acknowledge JSPS for postdoctoral fellowship and
support for specialization in National Agricultural
Research Center Region Hokkaido
RECUNOATERI
Autorul Atanas Atanasov ar dori s recunoasc
ajutorul oferit de Dr. Keiichi Inoue n problema sistemelor
de ghidare GPS.
Autorul Atanas Atanasov ar dori s recunoasc
JSPS pentru bursa postdoctoral i sprijinul pentru
specializarea n Centrul Naional de Cercetare Agricol-
Regiunea Hokkaido.

REFERENCE
[1.] Kalman, R, E. (1960): A New Approach to Linear
and Predication Problems. Transaction of the ASME-
Journal of Basic Engineering, pp33-45, March, 1960.
[2.] Shibusawa, S. (2002): Precision farming approaches
to small-farm agriculture. Agro-Chemicals Report Vol. II,
No. 4, Japan, October - December 2002.
[3.] Yun Zhang, Kazuhiro Nii, Masayuki Uchiyama, Keiich
Inoue, Integrating DGPS and 3D Gyro sensor in Tractor
Guidance System for Precision Farming.
REFERINE
[1] Kalman, R, E. (1960): "O nou abordare pentru
problemele liniare i de anticipare" Transaction of the ASME
- Journal of Basic Engineering, pag. 33-45, Martie 1960.
[2] Shibusawa, S. (2002): "Abordri ale agriculturii de precizie
pentru agricultura din fermele mici" Agro-Chemicals
Report Vol. II, Nr. 4, Japonia, Octombrie-Decembrie 2002.
[3] Yun Zhang, Kazuhiro Nii, Masayuki Uchiyama, Keiich
Inoue, Integrarea DGPS i a senzorului giroscopic 3D n sistemul
de Ghidare a Tractorului pentru Agricultura de Precizie".


110

INFLUENCE OF AUTOMATION OF THE CONDITIONED EQUIPMENTS OVER THE WHEAT
MILLING PROCESS
/
INFLUENA AUTOMATIZRII ECHIPAMENTELOR DE CONDIIONAT ASUPRA PROCESULUI
DE MCINAT GRUL

Dr.Eng. Professor, Gheorghe Brtucu

Abstract: In the paper is emphasized the importance of the
hydro - thermal conditioning accuracy of the wheat before
milling about the ultimate result of this process. From the
results comparing obtained with a partial mechanized
installation and another completely automated, whereat the
wheat humidity is can be regulated and maintained to
optimum values, demonstrate as the efficaciousness of wheat
flower extraction increases with almost 2%, especially on the
expense of the superior flower types, simultaneously with a
energy saving at the milling process with 1,52,0%. If the
results are expanded to national level these economies
become considerable.

Keywords: cereals, conditioning, humectation, milling

1. INTRODUCTION
Wheat is considered as one of the oldest cultivated
plant, its grains or wheatear being found in the pharaohs tombs
or graved on the coins that were used in antic Dobrogea.
From the grinding of the wheat grains results through
sieving, wheat flour and bran. The flour is used as prime
matter for the preparation of breads and other products, and the
bran represents concentrated forage of the best quality used in
animal nutrition. Altered wheat grains, which are not used for
the manufacture of bread, are used as prime matter for the
production of starch, glucose, beer and medicinal alcohol.
The global spreading of wheat has been as result of the chemical
composition of the wheat grains in which are found sugars,
proteins, fats, mineral substances, vitamins, enzymes, water etc.
In the Figure 1 is presented a section through the corny
bean, where it can be remarked the next components: 1 - the pericarp
(the cover of the bean); 2 - the aleuronic layer; 3 - the embryo;
4 the little chin; 5 the endosperm (the farinaceous layer).
At his torn the pericarp its formed from three overlap
layers, named epicarp, mezocarp and endocarp.
The endosperm contains the biggest part of bean, presenting
the principal source of nutritious matters for the
development of the embryo. In the middle of the endosperm
are founded big granules of starch which through milling and
separating will form the flour.
Depending on the mixing degree of starch from
endosperm with the cover cells and with the embryo result
the quality of the flour, obtained at the end of the milling
process.
The humidity content of wheat is a very important
factor that has a great influence upon the storage
conditions in the warehouses. At the normal temperature
wheat can be kept in good conditions if its humidity is
under 13% (1111.5%). If the wheat humidity exceeds
14% it starts to develop a series of biochemical processes,
that accelerates the wheats breathing with production of
heat and water, followed by complex fermentation
processes that leads to the degradation of the product [1].
Rezumat: n lucrare se evideniaz importana preciziei
condiionrii hidro-termice a grului nainte de mcinare
asupra rezultatului final al acestui proces. Din
compararea rezultatelor obinute cu o instalaie parial
mecanizat i alta complet automatizat, la care
umiditatea grului se poate regla i menine la valori
optime, se demonstreaz c randamentul extraciei
finii din gru se mbuntete cu circa 2%, n special
pe seama sorturilor superioare, simultan cu o economie
de energie la mcinare de 1,52,0%. Dac rezultatele
se extind la nivel naional aceste economii devin
considerabile.

Cuvinte cheie: cereale, condiionare, umectare, mcinare

1. INTRODUCERE
Grul este considerat una dintre cele mai vechi
plante cultivate, aceast cereal fiin descoperit n
mormintele faraonilor i n cetile antice din Dobrogea.
Prin mcinarea grului rezult fin i tre. Fina
se ntrebuineaz ca materie prim la prepararea pinii i
altor produse, iar trele reprezint un furaj concentrat
de bun calitate folosit n hrana animalelor. n afara
utilizrii la fabricarea pinii, grul este o materie prim
cu largi utilizri la producerea amidonului, glucozei, berii
i alcoolului medicinal.
Rspndirea global a grului este rezultatul
compoziiei sale chimice bogat n zahr, proteine,
grsimi, substane minerale, vitamine, enzime ap etc.
n figura 1 se prezint o seciune printr-un bob de
gru unde se pot remarca urmtoarele componente: 1
pericarpul (nveliul bobului); 2 stratul aleuronic; 3
embrionul; 4 periorii; 5 endospermul (stratul finos).
La rndul su pericarpul este format din trei straturi
distincte numite epicarp, mezocarp i endocarp.
Endospermul formeaz cea mai mare parte a
bobului, reprezentnd sursa principal de materii
nutritive pentru dezvoltarea embrionului. n mijlocul
endospermului se gsesc cranule mici de amidon care
prin mcinare i cernere formeaz fina.
n funcie de gradul de amestec al amidonului din
endosperm cu pri din nveli i embrion rezult
calitatea finii obinut n final n urma procesului de
mcinare.
Umiditatea coninut n boabele de gru este un
factor foarte important cu influen asupra condiiilor de
pstrare n depozite. La temperatura normal grul
poate fi pstrat n bune condiii dac umiditatea nu
depete 13% (1111,5%). Dac umiditatea grului
depete 14% n interiorul acestuia se declaneaz o
serie de procese biochimice, care accelereaz ncolirea
germenilor, urmat de fermentare i degradarea
produsului [1].

111

Figure 1 - Section through the wheat bean / Seciune prin bobul de gru

Table 1 - The main chemical components in the structure of the wheat grain /
Principalele componente chimice din structura boabelor de gru

Grains parts /
Componentele bobului
Starch /
Amidon
[%]
Proteins /
Proteine
[%]
Fats /
Grsimi
[%]
Sugars /
Zaharuri
[%]
Cellulose /
Celuloz
[%]
Pentozan /
Pentozan
[%]
Ash /
Cenu
[%]
Endosperm / Endosperm 100 65 25 65 5 28 20
Cover with aleuronic layer /
nveliul cu stratul aleuronic
- 27 55 15 90 68 70
Embryos / Embrion - 8 20 20 5 4 10
Total / Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

The chemical components of wheat grains are uneven
spread in its anatomic parts that depending on the wheat
kind have the following proportion in their structure:
endosperm: 1214%;
the cover with the aleuronic layer: 1214%;
embryo: 1.42.8%.
The main chemical components are spread on the
structural anatomic elements as seen in Table 1. This
repartition depends on its turn by a series of factors such
as: wheat kind; degree of maturity of the grains, soil
composition in which the wheat grew climate etc.
An important characteristic of the wheat grains bulk
represents the hygroscopicity of these, respectively their
capacity of absorption of water vapors. According with the
relative humidity of air it tends to stabilize an equilibrium
humidity of the wheat grains (between 7.124%).
Depending on the chemical composition, humidity,
foreign bodies, degraded grains etc., the wheat destined
for breading industry is divided in four quality categories:
very good, good, satisfying, unsatisfying. Since in one unit
is processed wheat with quality pointers that varies in very
large limits to assure through milling finite product with
even quality it is imposed the necessity of homogenization
of the products mass. The homogenization consists in
blending in well established proportions of two or more wheat
lots with different quality pointers. The wheat mass obtained
after the homogenization operation is called grist load.

The technological processing of the wheat grains with
the purpose of obtaining of the wheat flour is based on mechanical
separation of the cover layers from the endosperm, through
taking in consideration of the physical mechanical
differences of the anatomic components of the grains. For
enlarging of these differences and weakening of the cohesion
of the cover layers from the core, it is called especially the
hydric processing of the grains at determined temperatures.
Through hydro-thermal conditioning of the wheat
grains mass it is aimed to grow the total flour extraction,
improving of the ash content, lowering of the energetic
Componentele chimice ale boabelor de gru sunt
rspndite diferit n prile anatomice ale acestora, n
funcie de soiul grului, dup cum urmeaz:
endosperm: 1214%;
nveliul cu stratul aleuronic: 1214%;
embrion: 1,42,8%.
Coninutul n elemente chimice ale diferitelor pri
ale structurii anatomice a boabelor de gru se
precizeaz n tabelul 1. Aceast repartiie depinde de o
serie de factori precum: soiul, gradul de maturitate al
boabelor, compoziia solului, clima etc.
O caracteristic important a straturilor formate din
boabe de gru o reprezint higroscopicitatea acestora, respectiv
capacitatea lor de a absorbi vapori de ap. n funcie de
umiditatea relativ a aerului se manifest o tendin de
echilibru a umiditii boabelor de gru (ntre 7,124%).
n funcie de compoziia chimic, umiditate,
impuriti, boabe degradate etc., grul destinat pentru
panificaie se mparte n patru categorii calitative: foarte
bun, bun, satisfctor i nesatisfctor. Deoarece ntr-o
unitate se proceseaz gru cu caracteristici calitative
care variaz n limite largi pentru a asigura prin mcinare
un produs finit de calitate asemntoare se impune
necesitatea omogenizrii masei de produs. Omogenizarea
const n amestecarea n proporii bine stabilite a dou
sau mai multe loturi de gru cu caliti diferite. Masa de
gru obinut dup omogenizare se numete sarcin.

2. MATERIAL I METOD
Procesarea tehnologic a grului cu scopul obinerii
finii se bazeaz pe separarea mecanic a nveliului
fa de endosperm, prin luarea n considerare a
diferenelor fizico-mecanice ale componentelor anatomice
ale boabelor de gru. Pentru valorificarea acestor
diferene i slbirea coeziunii dintre straturile de nveli i
miez, se recomand o condiionare special hidric, la o
temperatur a boabelor bine determinat.
Prin condiionarea hidro-termic a masei boabelor
de gru se mbuntete procentul total de fin
extras se reduce coninutul de cenu, simultan cu un

112
consumption for grinding etc. [2].
If it is considered the reference humidity for the storage
of wheat of 12% it was determined that the cohesion
mechanical work between the pericarpical layer and the
seminal one of the grain is reduced a lot more when the
humidification is made with 34% over the standard value.
In relation with the length of the humidification
process (resting) it is known that in the first part takes
place a drop of the pericarp cohesion compared with the
seminal layer after which through redistribution and water
penetration in endosperm, cohesion of the pericarp
towards the seminal layer is reestablished.
Minimal cohesion of the hypodermic layer of the
pericarp cover is observed to be after a certain time that
can be estimated by the relation:
consum energetic mai redus pentru mcinare.[2]
Dac se consider umiditatea de referin pentru
depozitarea grului de 12% s-a constatat c lucrul mecanic
de nlturare a coeziunii dintre pericarp i miezul bobului
de gru se reduce mult prin dac umiditatea crete cu
34% fa de valoarea standard specificat.
n legtura cu durata procesului de umidificare
(odihn) se tie c n prima parte are loc o scdere a
coeziunii pericarpului fa de stratul seminal dup care
se redistribuie penetraia apei n endosperm, iar
coeziunea dintre pericarp i stratul seminal se
restabilete.
Coeziunea minim a stratului hipodermic al
nveliului pericarpic se obin dup un timp care poate fi
estimat cu relaia:
U C t =
min
[min], (1)
in which: U is the humidification degree, respectively U
= Uf Ui (Uf final humidity and Ui initial humidity); C
complex experimental coefficient, that characterize the
penetration time of humidity in the wheat grain.

The appropriation process or giving up of water it can
be run in two situations:
when the product is place in contact with the humid environment;
when the product is placed in direct contact with the water.
In the first case the absorption desorption of water is
produced as result of hydroscopicity of grains until it
reaches the hydric equilibrium with the surrounding
environment, and in the second case a strong
humidification until a certain level of saturation achived
that is dependent of the surrounding environment
parameters and is called maximum humidification. The
capacity of the material to acquire the maximum humidity
is called soaking or moisture capacity.
This process can be performed in the presence of the
liquid water or with the over saturated vapors. In general
the contact between the liquid water and the material is
made through sprinkling or direct immersion.
The wheat grains, as biological systems, do not
absorb water in a simplest way. During the sorption and
desorption processes in the grain takes place a cycle of
bio-physical processes enzymatic adjusted. It is normal
that the speed of the sorption process and the conditions
in which takes place to be other than in the case of
desorption (Figure 2).
n care: U este gradul de umidificare, respectiv U = Uf
Ui (Uf umiditatea final i Ui umiditatea iniial); C
coeficient experimental complex, ce caracterizeaz
timpul de penetrare a umiditii n bobul de gru.
Procesul intim de ptrundere a apei n bobul de gru
se poate realiza n dou moduri:
cnd produsul este pus n contact cu un mediu umed;
cnd produsul este pus n contact direct cu apa.
n primul caz absorbia - desorbia apei se produce ca
rezultat al higroscopicitii boabelor pn se ajunge la
echilibrul hidric cu mediul nconjurtor, iar n al doilea
caz se face o umidificare puternic pn se atinge un
anumit nivel de saturaie, care este dependent de
parametrii mediului nconjurtor i se numete
umidificare maxim. Capacitatea materialului de a atinge
umiditatea maxim se numete capacitate de nmuiere
sau de mbibare.
Acest proces poate fi realizat prin utilizarea apei sau
cu ajutorul vaporilor saturai de ap. n general contactul
ntre apa lichid i material se poate face prin stropire
sau prin imersie direct.
Boabele de gru, ca sisteme biologice, nu absorb
apa ntr-un mod simplist. Pe durata proceselor de
absorbie i desorbie n bobul de gru un proces ciclic
biofizic care se regleaz cu ajutorul enzimelor. Este
normal ca viteza procesului de absorbie i condiiile n
care acesta se desfoar s fie diferit de cazul
procesului de desorbie (figura 2).

Figure 2 - The hysterezis of the isotherm of sorption desorption processes /
Histerezisul procesului izoterm de absorbie desorbie

Desorption isotherm is always greater than sorption
isotherm, meaning that desorption speed remains behind
the sorption speed (sorption hysterezis).
Knowing of these isotherms is necessary for right
driving of the humidification process of the wheat grains in
order to realize the purpose aimed through grinding of
these. Under the theoretical aspect it is used for
equilibrium humidification the following relations:
Langmuir relation (monomolecular adsorption):
Desorbia izoterm este n toate cazurile mai mare
dect absorbia izoterm, ceea ce nseamn c viteza de
desorbie este mai mic dect cea de absorbie (histerezis).
Cunoaterea acestor izoterme este necesar
pentru dirijarea corect a procesului de umidificare a
boabelor de gru n scopul realizrii condiiilor de
mcinare a acestora. Sub aspect teoretic se utilizeaz
pentru echilibrul umectrii urmtoarele relaii;
relaia lui Langmuir (absorbiei monomoleculare):

113
=
k
w , (2)
in which: w is the free superficial energy from the grain
surface; k equilibrium constant; - relative humidity of air;
- constant that indicates the maximum water content, in
the case of all the groups that bind water in a
monomolecular layer;
Thomson relation (sorption of water in capillary condensation):
n care: w este energia liber superficial de pe
suprafaa bobului; k constant de echilibru; -
umiditatea relativ a aerului; - constant care indic
coninutul maxim de ap, n cazul tuturor componentelor care
se leag cu apa la nivel molecular;
relaia lui Tomson (absorbia apei in vasele capilare):
T R r
V
p
p

=
2
ln
0
, (3)
in which: p is the saturated vapors pressure from the free
water; p0 water vapor pressure at the same temperatures
at the surface of the hydrated material; - water superficial
tension; r the radius of the capillary from the grain; V
molar volume of the liquid; T temperature at which is
realized humidification; R normal gases constant [3].
Practical solving of the wheat grains conditioning
trough humidification in the purpose of grinding is a
complex action that supposes an activity ensemble
rigorously related, as is:
collecting of information regarding the characteristics of the
grains mass, through installing of proper transducers on
the flow;
processing in real time of the data transmitted from the
transducers and sending them back to the humidification
installation;
precise dosing of the water quantity for humidification;
assurance of the uniform and continuum blending of
wheat and water using technical equipments with adjusting
possibilities in large limits of the working regimes;
correlation of resting times with the technological necessities;
leading of the entire process through computers.
In all cases it must be taken in account the economical
factor, respectively the quality-cost aspect, including the
aspect of total energy consumptions from the processing
flow.
Simultaneously with the maximum extraction of
endosperm trough hydrothermal treatment of the wheat
grains there is tendency to modification of the structural-
mechanical properties of these with the purpose of
decreasing the endosperm resistance and decreasing the
energy consumption at grinding, respectively growing the
resistance of the covers in order to resist at smashing.
It has to be noted also the fact that the hydrothermal
treatment of wheat increases the volume of the grains and
modifies in an uneven way the different parts. For example,
the most modification is the thickness of the aleuronic layer
and the grain volume in ensemble. The thickness of the
pericarpic layer and of the seminal one is modified in a smaller
measure. These phenomena lead to growing of the humidity
gradient and at creation of some great tensions inside the
grain. When these tensions go beyond the endosperm
resistance micro fissures are formed through which the water
enters inside the grain. Also, water enters in endosperm not
only through cover but also through embryo.
From the structural mechanical aspect presents an
importance in the grinding process the smashing
resistance, hardness of grains and reological properties [4].
At humidity of up to 12.512.8% the grain with the
dried cover it presented as a breakable elastic body that at
dynamic load breaks with small energy consumption and in
a significant measure are grinded the frail covers. At humidity
enclosed between 1718% the grain acts as an elastic body
and thats why the grinding energy increases and the
degree of grinding, especially on the peripheral parts of the
grains. In the process of preparation for grinding it is the
tendency to assure such humidity of grains that the
endosperm will be break up especially at grinding and the
n care: p este presiunea vaporilor saturai din apa liber; p0
presiunea vaporilor saturai la aceeai temperatur ca cea
a suprafeei materialului hidratat; - tensiunea superficial a
apei; r raza tuburilor capilare ale boabelor; V volumul
molar al lichidului; T temperatura la care se realizeaz
umidificarea; R constanta normal a gazelor [3].
Soluionarea practic a condiionrii boabelor de
gru prin umidificare n vederea mcinrii este o aciune
complex care include un ansamblu de activiti
riguroase, precum:
colectarea de informaii referitoare la caracteristicile
masei de boabe, prin utilizarea de traductoare potrivite
n masa de boabe;
procesarea n timp real a datelor transmise de
traductoare i retransmiterea acestora napoi ctre
instalaia de umectare;
dozarea precis a cantitii de ap pentru umectare;
asigurarea uniformitii i continuitii amestecrii ntre
gru i ap prin utilizarea echipamentelor tehnice cu
posibiliti de reglare n limite largi a regimului de lucru;
corelarea timpului de odihn cu necesitile tehnologice;
conducerea ntregului proces cu ajutorul calculatoarelor.
n toate cazurile trebuie s se in cont de factorul
economic, respectiv de aspectul calitate-cost, inclusiv de
aspectele legate de consumul total de energie n
desfurarea procesului.
Simultan cu extracia maxim a endospermului prin
tratamentul hidro-termic al boabelor de gru exist i
tendina de modificare a proprietilor structural
mecanice cu scopul micorrii rezistenei endospermului
i a energiei consumate la mcinare, respectiv creterea
rezistenei nveliurilor comparativ cu rezistena
miezurilor la strivire.
Trebuie notat, de asemenea, faptul c tratamentul
hidro-termic al grului mrete volumul boabelor pe care
l modific in mod diferit la componentele acestuia. De
exemplu, cea mai mare modificare se manifest la
grosimea stratului aleuronic i a volumului bobului n
ansamblu. Grosimea straturilor pericarpic i seminal se
modific n mai mic msur. Acest fenomen conduce la
creterea gradientului de umiditate i la crearea unei
tensiuni interne mari n bob. Cnd aceste tensiuni
depesc rezistena endospermului se formeaz micro-
fisuri prin care apa ptrunde n bob. De asemenea, apa
intr n endosperm nu doar prin nveli ci i prin embrion.
Sub aspect structural mecanic prezint importan
pentru procesul de mcinare rezistena la strivire,
duritatea grului i proprietile reologice [4].
La umiditi cuprinse ntre 12,512,8% boabele cu
nveli uscat prezint o caracteristic elastic redus la
solicitri dinamice i se sfrm cu consumuri reduse de
energie i intr-o msur important favorizeaz mcinarea.
La umiditi cuprinse ntre 1718% boabele se comport
ca i corpurile elastice i de aceea energia necesar
mcinrii i gradul de mcinare cresc, n special n
prile periferice ale bobului. n procesul de pregtire
pentru mcinare apare tendina de asigurare a umectrii
boabelor n aa fel nct endospermul s se sfrme

114
covers at plastic deformations.
The resistance at compression of the layers at a
humidity of the grains of 18% varies between 94315 Pa,
according to the kind, area of crops etc., while the
endosperm resistance at compression is of 1737.1 Pa.
Along with the growing of the cover resistance grows the
energy consumption at grinding but this doesnt degrades
the extraction of intermediary products and the quality of
the flour. From this reason, before the first passage of
grouts is recommended a humidification of the grains on
the surface with 0.30.5%, with a short duration of rest that
does not exceeds 30 minutes, so that the water will not
have time to penetrate inside the endosperm. Through this
humidity of the cover the endosperm humidity is exceeded
by 1.51.8 times becoming more elastic but also more
resistant at breaking.
On the other hand at processing with water are
modified the humidity, the temperature and the volume of
the different parts of the grain, which provokes at first a
growth of the resistance of these after which appears a
relaxation in regard of passing to an equilibrium state. In
this purpose it is necessary the rest of the grains time in
which take place the passing of some particles from the
state of elastic deformation in the plastic one.

3. Results and Discussions
At cold conditioning the structural transformations from the
grain takes place in the first 6 hours of rest; in the period
enclosed between 612 hours are appearing a lot of cracks
in the grain, it increases the braking up degree and then is
stabilized, for increasing of the humidity until 18% the rest
period has to reach 2436 hours.
By growing of the temperature at which takes place
humidification these processes are intensified and the
initial barking favorites the reduction of the stationing time
at humidification, as results from Table 2.
uor la mcinare iar nveliul s se deformeze plastic.
Rezistena la compresiune a straturilor umidificate la
18% variaz ntre 94315 Pa n funcie de soi, suprafaa
bobului etc., n timp ce rezistena la compresiune a
endospermului este ntre 1737,1 Pa. n acelai timp cu
creterea rezistenei nveliurilor crete i consumul de
energie la mcinare dar aceasta nu influeneaz
extracia produselor intermediare i calitatea finii. Din
acest motiv, nainte de prima aciune se recomand o
umidificare a boabelor la suprafaa acestora cu
0,30,5%, cu o durat scurt care nu trebuie s
depeasc 30 minute, n aa fel nct apa s nu aib
timp s penetreze endospermul. Prin aceast umectare
a nveliului umiditatea endospermului crete de 1,51,8
ori devenind mai elastic dar i mai rezistent la
sfrmare.
Pe de alt parte la procesarea cu ap se modific
umiditatea, temperatura i volumul diferitelor pri ale
bobului care provoac la nceput o rezistenei acestora,
dup care apare o relaxare n vederea trecerii ntr-o
stare de echilibru. n acest scop este necesar s se
asigure un timp de odihn n care are loc trecerea
particulelor din starea de deformare elastic n stare de
deformare plastic.

3. Rezultate i discuii
La condiionarea al rece transformrile structurale
din boabe au loc n primele 6 ore de odihn; n perioada
cuprins ntre 612 ore apar multe fisuri n boabele de
gru, crete gradul de sfrmare i apoi se stabilizeaz,
pentru creterea umiditii pn la 18% perioada de
odihn trebuie s creasc pn la 2436 ore.
Prin creterea temperaturii la care are loc
umectarea aceste procese se intensific n straturile
superioare i favorizeaz reducerea timpului de
staionare la umectare, dup cum rezult din tabelul 2.

Table 2 - The influence of temperature upon the extraction of intermediary products /
Influena temperaturii asupra extraciei produselor intermediare

Extraction in % at grouts IIII /
Extracia n % la grupele IIII
Dimensions / Dimensiuni
Conditioning /
Condiionare
Temperature of
the grains /
Temperatura
boabelor Large / Mari Middle / Medii Small / Mici
Dunsts / Dunsturi
Total of intermediary
products / Totalul
produselor intermediare
[%]
Cold / Rece 2025 35,0 - 25,2 12,9 73,25
35 33,6 17,2 7,7 12,9 71,58
40 32,0 18,4 8,0 12,8 71,31
45 30,6 18,9 8,6 12,5 70,78
Warm / Cald
50 30,0 16,6 8,8 11,0 69,52

It is noted that the intermediary products are almost
equal, but the differences of percentage on different levels
of processing mean at the end different energy
consumptions for grinding.
Based on these elements it can be seen that the
humidification process is dependent on a large number of
factors and that an empirical humidification can not lead to
optimum results from the point of view of the quality of the
grinded products and the energy consumption.
Modern humidification installations are completely
automated such that the water dosing, blending of the
grains and penetration of water in the grains is perfectly
controlled, according with the characteristics of the prime
matter and the quality imposed of the products. Such
installation (Agromatic) is presented in Figure 3,
comprising an electronic control unit, an electronic weight
scale, a dosing unit for water, a measuring panel,
temperature sensor, hectoliter scale, capacitive humidity
sensor, helicoidally feeder blender and a water feeding pipe.
Se observ c produsele intermediare sunt
aproximativ egale dar diferenele dintre procente ale
diferitelor niveluri de procesare nseamn pn la urm
diferene ntre energia consumat pentru mcinare.
Pe baza acestor elemente se poate observa c
procesul de umectare depinde de un numr mare de
factori i c o umectare empiric nu poate asigura
rezultate optime pentru randamentul i calitate
produselor mcinate i a consumului energetic.
Instalaiile moderne de umectare sunt complet
automatizate sub aspectul dozrii apei amestecrii
boabelor i penetrrii apei n boabe, care sunt controlate
perfect n concordan cu caracteristicile materiei prime
i calitii impuse mcinrii. O asemenea instalaie
(Agromatic) se prezint n figura 3 i cuprinde o unitate
de control, un cntar electronic, o unitate de dozare a
apei, un panou de msurare, senzori de temperatur,
scal hectolitric, senzori capacitivi de umiditate,
transportor elicoidal i o conduct de alimentare cu ap.


115

Figure 3 - Automated humidification installation for cereals /
Instalaie automat pentru umectarea cerealelor

The wheat reaches the electronic weight scale, were it
is batched a certain size out of which is collected the data
concerning the humidity and temperature. Carrying on the
signal are processed and is established the water necessary
in order to reach the target humidity. The water dosing unit is
commanded the necessary quantity, such that through a
rigorous blending to assure a final constant humidification,
regardless of the variations from the wheat grains mass.
All the phases of the humidification process are
controlled by a computer that interferes in real time in the
adjusting of the installation, which can not be done in the
installation commanded manually.
In Table 3 it is presented the effects of the automation
of the humidification conditioning system of wheat upon the
quality of the final product.
Grul ajunge pe cntarul electronic ntr-o cantitate
din care se extrag date referitoare la umiditatea i
temperatura sa. Semnalul este transmis i procesat i
se stabilete astfel necesarul de ap pentru a atinge
umiditatea optim. Unitatea de dozare a apei comand
cantitatea necesar dup care se face o amestecare
riguroas pentru a se asigura n final o umectare
constant, indiferent de cantitatea de gru procesat.
Toate fazele procesului de umectare sunt controlate
de un computer care comand n timp real reglajele din
instalaie, ceea ce nu se poate face ntr-o instalaie
comandat manual.
n tabelul 3 se prezint efectul automatizrii asupra
sistemului de condiionare prin umectare a grului i
calitii produsului final.

Table 3 - The effects of the automation of the humidification conditioning system of wheat upon the quality of the final
product / Efectul automatizrii asupra sistemului de condiionare prin umectare a grului i calitii produsului final

Total flour /
Total fin
Flour / Fin 480 Flour / Fin 650 Flour / Fin 1350
Humidification system /
Sistemul de umectare
%
Ash /
Cenu
[%]
%
Ash /
Cenu
[%]
%
Ash /
Cenu
[%]
%
Ash /
Cenu
[%]
Manual / Manual 74,6 0,69 8,49 0,40 58,8 0,65 7,28 1,35
Automated / Automat 76,6 0,65 8,50 0,38 63,0 0,62 5,23 1,30

Besides the general growth of the flour extraction, with
approximately 2% (which is very important) it is determined
of an improvement in the flour composition, especially at
the 650 category and a decrease of the ash content on
each category.
To work at the optimum parameters of all the installation
requires to know the principles of operation, the theoretical bases
of operation, the building and the adjustments etc. The most
complex part of the conditioning is the humidification process,
which his performances, depend also on the quality of the
previously conditioning and especially of the peeling process.
The rest duration after first humidification is connected
directly of the wheat type and this quality, but the must of
making of the recopies of grind compel it the specialists to
use the average values of respective working duration.
The process of humidification it ken be checked up
properly in the case of simple building installation. So the
modern equipments assure the exact dosage of the
addition water and the mixing efficiency with the beans,
with positive consequences as much for the minimization
of the resting time as for the rest of the qualitative
appearances of the milling process.
The effect of humidification in the case of the hydro-
n afar de creterea general a extraciei de fin cu
aproximativ 2% (ceea ce este foarte important) este
determinant i mbuntirea compoziiei acesteia, n
special la categoriile 650 i mai mari, la care coninutul
de cenu se reduce.
Pentru a lucra la parametrii optimi ai instalaiei este
necesar s se cunoasc bazele teoretice ale
funcionrii, construciei i reglajelor etc. Cea mai
complex parte a condiionrii este procesul de umectare
ale crui performane depind de asemenea de calitatea
condiionrii primare i n special de procesul de sortare.
Durata de odihn dup prima umidificare este n
direct legtur cu tipul i calitatea grului, dar formarea
reetelor de mcinare impune specialitilor s utilizeze
valori aleatorii ale acesteia.
Procesul de umidificare nu poate fi controlat
corespunztor in cazul unor instalaii simple sub aspect
constructiv. Astfel instalaiile moderne asigur dozarea
exact a suplimentului de ap i o amestecare eficient
cu boabele, cu consecine pozitive asupra minimizrii
duratei de odihn i pentru aspectele calitative ale
procesului de mcinare.
Efectul umectrii n cazul tratamentului hidro-termic

116
thermal treatment of wheat beans, which enforces a
complex check of the conditioning process, with the taking
in to consideration of vast theoretical and experimental
researches.
Because in the milling units are processed cereals with
diverse physical-chemical and technological proprieties, for
the of a assurance of the qualities of finite product (the
flour), its needed for the conditioning trough humectation
process to by realized in well determinate conditions,
assuring a rigorous check of all the parameters.
To the hydro-thermal processing of wheat beans in
the milling units is tended to modified the structurally-
mechanics proprieties of the anatomic parts of the wheat
beans, for a much better separation of this in the milling
process, in the aim of: maxims extraction of endosperm,
resistance reduction of the endosperm for the decrease of
the consumption of energy at the grinding process and
increasing the cover resistance, the biochemical
characteristics modification of the beans in the aim of
increasing the flour quality.
al boabelor de gru impune un control complex al
procesului de condiionare, cu luarea n considerare a
unor cercetri teoretice i experimentale vaste.
Din cauz c n unitatea de mcinare se
proceseaz cereale cu proprieti fizico-chimice i
tehnologice diverse, pentru asigurarea unei caliti
impuse a produsului finit (finii), este necesar pentru
condiionarea prin umectare s se realizeze condiii bine
determinate i asigurarea uni control riguros al tuturor
parametrilor.
La procesarea hidro-termic a grului n unitile
de mcinare exist tendina s se modifice proprietile
structural mecanice ale prilor anatomice ale boabelor
de gru, pentru o mai bun separare a acestora n
procesul de mcinare, cu scopul extraciei maxime a
endospermului, reducerea rezistenei endospermului
pentru scderea consumului de energie a procesului de
mcinare i creterea rezistenei nveliului, modificarea
caracteristicilor biochimice a boabelor n vederea
creterii calitii finii.

4. CONCLUSIONS
Conditioning of the wheat grains mass includes operations
of elimination of the impurities, uncovering, humidification etc.,
that are reciprocally conditioned when it is wanted the
obtaining of a superior quality of the products.
Wheat conditioning through humidification is a complex
process that provokes in the grain special mechanical
and biological processes that influences both the flour
extraction percent and the general energy consumption
for grinding.
The large number of factors involved in the
humidification process imposes the automation of this
operation and its driving through computer.
By using the automated dosing system of water and the
uniform blending of these in the grains mass was stated a
growth of the extracted flour percent with about 2 %,
simultaneously with the reduction up to 1/3 of the rest time
of the humidification wheat.

4. CONCLUZII
Condiionarea masei de boabe de gru include
operaii de eliminare a impuritilor, decojire, umectare
etc., care se condiioneaz reciproc cnd se dorete
obinerea unei caliti superioare a produselor.
Condiionarea grului prin umectare este un proces
complex ce provoac n boabe modificri mecanice i
biologice ce influeneaz procentul de extracie al
finii i consumul general de energie pentru mcinare.
Numrul mare de factori care intervin n procesul de
umectare impun automatizarea acestei operaii i
conducerea ei cu calculatorul.
Prin utilizarea sistemului de dozare automat cu ap
i amestecrii uniforme a acesteia n masa de boabe
se mrete procentul de extracie a finii cu circa 2%
simultan cu reducerea de pn la 1/3 a timpului de
odihn necesar umectrii.

REFERENCES / BIBLIOGRAFIE
[1]. Banu, C. and coll.: Manualul inginerului din industria
alimentara, vol. II, Technical Publishing Company,
Bucharest, Romania, 1999.
[2]. Brtucu, Gh.: Researces Concerning the Influence of the
Hidrical Conditioning of the Seeds Regarding the
Processes Performances of the Wheat Milling, in Bulletin
INMATEH III 2006, p. 183-190, Bucharest, Romania,
ISSN 1583-1019.

[3]. Brtucu, Gh., Lupea ,D.: Aspecte privind
conditionarea prin umectare a graului in vederea
macinarii, in Bulletin of ISBTeh 2002, p. 174-177,
Bucharest, Romania, ISBN 973-685-410-8.
[4]. Brtucu, Gh., Lupea ,D., Istrate, A.M.: Automatizarea
proceselor de umectare a graului destinat producerii fainii, in
Magazine Mecanizarea Agriculturii, no. 2/2004, p. 28-
31, Bucharest, Romania.

117
RESEARCHES CONCERNING THE SOLAR ENERGY UTILIZATION TO THE CONSERVATION
THROUGH DRYING OF THE FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
/
CERCETRI PRIVIND UTILIZAREA ENERGIEI SOLARE LA CONSERVAREA PRIN USCARE A
LEGUMELOR I FRUCTELOR

Dr. Professor Gheorghe Brtucu
PhD. Student Ionu Cpn

Abstract: In the paper is demonstrated as through the
relative simple and cheap solar installations utilization is
can be preserved through drying in the summer-autumn
periods some types of fruits and vegetables, which can be
used in the cold periods or in different culinary recopies.
The special foils of black color assure the necessary
temperature for products controlled drying and with the
help of photovoltaic panels is assured the motion of the air
in the installation. For automation are necessary
temperature and humidity transcribers, to command the
operation at the necessary regimes of the fans.

Keywords: vegetables and fruits, drying conservation,
solar energy.
Rezumat: n lucrare se demonstreaz c prin utilizarea
unor instalaii relativ simple i ieftine se pot conserva
prin uscare n perioadele de var-toamn unele legume
i fructe, care apoi s fie valorificate n perioadele reci
sau n diferite reete culinare. Foliile speciale de culoare
neagr asigur temperatura necesar uscrii controlate a
produselor, iar cu ajutorul unor panouri fotovoltaice se
asigur antrenarea ventilatoarelor care asigur micarea
aerului n incinta instalaiei. Pentru automatizare sunt necesare
traductoare de temperatur i umiditate care comand
funcionarea la regimurile necesare a ventilatoarelor.

Cuvinte cheie: legume i fructe, conservare prin
uscare, energie solar.

1. INTRODUCTION
The conservation through drying of the vegetables and
fruits it had a big tradition in Romania, the respectively
products constituting an important part from the population
food (mostly the one from rural environment) in the cold
season. The respective drying it was made through
methods and with the help of simple equipments, in which
the solar energy have an important role. In the last half of
century the peoples preferred the fresh vegetables and fruits,
which can be procured, sometimes to bigger prices, on all
the year. The vegetables and fruits continued to be
conserved through dehydration in complex equipments
with bigger energy consumption, a series of vegetables
which enter into the instant soups composition or are
sporadic delivered to the markets for direct consumption [1].
A new situation appeared after 1990 when the
orchards and the vegetables gardening came back in to
the private property of some little farmers. The product
excess from the warm period disadvantages them through
the little prices on the market. For this reason the
conservation of a part from the vegetables and fruits can
be useful for them, but the acquisitioning and the utilization
of classic equipments for conservation (through drying or
through another procedure) is near impossible for the little
farmers. An interesting and accessible view it can be
represented by the utilization of solar energy to the
vegetables and fruits drying, as part of some simple
equipments but designed and build on the strength of solid
knowledge from this area [2].
The essential elements which must be taken in to
consideration in this case are:
the local climatic factor (solar radiation, temperature, air
humidity, dominant wind direction etc.);
the physical-chemical features of the vegetables and
fruits destined to conservation (sizes, form, water
content, aroma, color, enzymes etc.);
the amount of products which must be conserved;
the technology which must be followed to obtain
products of superior quality;
the elaboration of a rigorous mass and energetic balance
for the proper designing of the equipment, with restrictions
regarding the maximum admissible temperature (< 70
o
C
for vitamins preservation) and the process duration
(maximum 3 days to parry the products) [3].
1. INTRODUCERE
Conservarea prin uscare a legumelor si fructelor
a avut o tradiie valoroasa in Romnia, produsele
respective constituind o parte important din hrana
populaiei (mai ales cea din mediul rural) n sezonul
rece. Uscarea respectiv se fcea prin procedee i cu
ajutorul unor instalaii simple, n care energia solar
avea un rol important. n ultima jumtate de secol
populaia a preferat legumele i fructele proaspete, care
se pot procura, uneori la preuri mai mari, pe tot
parcursul anului. Au continuat s fie conservate prin
deshidratare n echipamente complexe mari consumatoare
de energie, o serie de legume care intr n compoziia
supelor instant sau se livreaz sporadic pieei pentru
consum direct [1].
O situaie nou a aprut dup 1990 cnd
pomicultura i legumicultura au revenit n proprietatea
privat a unor mici productori. Excesul de produse din
perioada cald i dezavantajeaz pe acetia prin
preurile mici de pe pia. Din acest motiv conservarea
unei pri din producia respectiv ar fi benefic pentru
acetia, dar procurarea i utilizarea unor echipamente
clasice de conservare (prin uscare sau prin alte
procedee) este aproape imposibil pentru micii
productori. O perspectiv interesant i accesibil ar
putea s o reprezinte utilizarea energiei solare la
uscarea legumelor i fructelor, n cadrul unor instalaii
simple dar proiectate i executate pe baza unor
cunotine temeinice din acest domeniu [2].
Elementele eseniale de care trebuie s se in
seama n caz sunt:
factorul climatic local (radiaia solar, temperatura,
umiditatea aerului, vntul dominant etc.);
caracteristicile fizico-chimice ale legumelor i fructelor
care se conserv (dimensiuni, form, coninutul de
ap, arom, culoare, enzime etc.);
cantitatea de produse care trebuie conservate;
tehnologia care trebuie urmat pentru obinerea unor
produse de cea mai bun calitate;
ntocmirea unui bilan riguros de mas i energie pentru
dimensionarea echipamentului, cu restricii referitoare la
temperatura maxim admisibil (< 70
o
C pentru
pstrarea vitaminelor) i la durata procesului (maximum
3 zile pentru a se evita degradarea produselor).[3]

118
Climatic factor
On a square meter of surface, to the ground level
around the parallel of 45
o
, which passes through Romania,
it can be captured yearly( 500 700) 10
3
kcal, what
represents 75100 kg c.c, equivalent with 4570 kg oil,
5080 m
3
natural gases or 200250 kg lignite.
In the case of conversion in electric energy, from the
average annual energy disposable to the ground surface,
of 8001500 kWh/m
2
year, it can be captured between
30150 kWh/m
2
year depends on the used technically solutions.
In figure 1, the Romanian territory contains 5 zones of
sunlight:
Zone 0 with < 2250 sunny hours/year;
Zone I - with 22502100 sunny hours/year;
Zone II - with 21001900 sunny hours/year;
Zone III - with 19001800 sunny hours/year;
Zone IV - with < 1800 sunny hours/year.
It must be tacked into consideration the situations of
partial sunlight or without sunlight, in which the solar radiation
is substantial, reduced. These elements are useful for the
global and direct solar radiation settlement, on the strength of
which it can be drawn up correct energetically balances.
The values of some climatic parameters as the:
monthly annual averages of the air temperature, of the
solar radiation, of the wind speed and the average number
of hours in which the sun is glowing in a month period has
an influence over the value of the energetically potential of
a region at one time.
2. MATERIAL I METOD
Factorul climatic
Pe un metru ptrat de suprafa, la nivelul solului
n jurul paralelei de 45
o
, care trece prin Romnia, se pot
capta anual (500700)10
3
kcal, ceea ce reprezint
75100 kg c.c, echivalent cu 4570 kg petrol, 5080 m
3

gaze naturale sau 200250 kg lignit.
n cazul conversiei n energie electric, din energia
medie anual disponibil la suprafaa solului, de
8001500 kWh/m
2
an, se pot capta ntre 30150
kWh/m
2
an, n funcie de soluiile tehnice folosite.
Conform figurii 1, teritoriul Romniei cuprinde 5
zone de nsorire:
zona 0 cu > 2250 ore nsorite/an;
zona I cu 22502100 ore nsorite/an;
zona II cu 21001900 ore nsorite/an;
zona III cu 19001800 ore nsorite/an;
zona IV cu < 1800 ore nsorite/an.
n plus trebuie s se in seama i de situaiile de
nsorire parial sau fr soare, n care radiaia solar se
diminueaz substanial. Aceste elemente servesc la
stabilirea radiaiei solare globale i directe, pe baza
crora se pot ntocmi bilanuri energetice corecte.
Valorile unor parametri climaterici precum: mediile
lunare multianuale ale temperaturii aerului, ale radiaiei
solare, vitezei vntului i numrul mediu de ore n care
soarele strlucete n decurs de o lun influeneaz
valoarea potenialului energetic al unei zone la un
moment.

Figure 1 - Energetic solar potential on the Romanian territory /
Potenialul energetic solar pe teritoriul Romniei

For the computation of the solar global daily radiation (Iza)
is used the relation proposed of Duffis and Beckman:
Pentru calcularea radiaiei solare globale zilnice (Iza) se
utilizeaz relaia propus de Duffis i Beckman:
)
`
+
(
\
|
+ =
sin sin
360
2
sin cos cos
265
360
cos 33 . 0 1
24
r
r s za
t
t
n
C I
, (1)
in which: Iza The medium daily radiation out of the
atmosphere, in W/m
2
day; Cs the solar constant: Cs=1353
W/m
2
day; n the considered day of the year (the first day
being 1 January); the place latitude, in degrees; the
place the n day of the year declination, in degree; tr the
hour angle corresponding to the sunrise, in degrees.
For the 45 north latitude which pass trough the
middle of the Romania, trough the utilization of the relation
(1) war obtained the values presented in table 1.
unde: Iza radiaia medie zilnic n afara atmosferei, n
W/m
2
zi; Cs constanta solar: Cs=1353 W/m
2
zi; n
ziua din an considerat (prima zi fiind 1 Ianuarie);
latitudinea locului, n grade; declinaia locului i zilei
n din an, n grade; tr unghiul orar corespunztor
rsritului soarelui, n grade.
Pentru latitudinea de 45 nord care trece prin
mijlocul Romniei, prin folosirea relaiei 1 s-au obinut
valorile prezentate n tabelul 1.


119

Table 1 - Medium daily solar radiation on the Romanian territory /
Radiaia solar zilnic medie pentru teritoriul Romniei

Month / Luna 15.I 15.II 15.III 15.IV 15.V 15.VI
Iza,W/m
2
day 3278 4786 6823 9095 10789 11513
Month / Luna 15.VII 15.VIII 15.IX 15.X 15.XI 15.XII
Iza,W/m
2
day 11167 9799 7693 5443 3653 2883

For the dimensioning calculus are recommended the
average values measured of the global daily solar
radiation on clear skies, on horizontal plans(IGzs) for every
day 15 from each months, in W/m
2
day (table 2).
Pentru calculele de dimensionare se recomand
valorile medii msurate ale radiaiei solare globale
zilnice pe cer senin, pe plan orizontal (IGzs) pentru data
de 15 a fiecrei luni, n W/m
2
zi (tabelul 2).

Table 2 - Average values of the solar radiations in Romania /
Valori medii ale radiaiei solare n Romnia

Measured values /
Valori msurate
Calculated values /
Valori calculate
Final values /
Valori definitive
Month /
Luna
IGzsm % IGzs % IGzs %
I 2330 3.48 2240 3.60 2394 3.67
II 4080 6.10 3170 5.08 3459 5.41
III 6040 9.03 5145 8.27 4986 7.79
IV 7235 10.81 6720 10.79 6711 10.49
V 8100 12.10 7715 12.38 8023 12.54
VI 8480 12.69 8515 13.67 8595 13.44
VII 8085 12.08 8040 12.90 8325 13.01
VIII 7230 10.80 6625 10.63 7254 11.34
IX 6005 8.97 5400 8.66 5628 8.79
X 4220 6.31 3980 6.39 3947 6.17
XI 3040 4.54 2765 4.44 2639 4.11
XII 2070 3.09 1990 3.19 2061 3.22

From the analysis of global daily solar radiation values
measured on clear ski day on horizontal plan (IGzsm), of the
global daily final solar radiation (IGzs) and of the solar
average daily radiation from out of the atmosphere (Iza) is
justified the adoption of the definitive values suggested in
the table 2.
In table 3 are presented the rapports between global
daily solar radiations measured on clear ski day (IGzsm),
respectively global daily final solar radiation (IGzs) and the
daily average solar radiation from out of the atmosphere.
Din analiza valorilor radiaiei solare globale zilnice
msurate pe zi senin pe plan orizontal (IGzsm), ale
radiaiei solare globale zilnice definitive (IGzs) i ale
radiaiei solare medii zilnice din afara atmosferei (Iza) se
justific adoptarea valorilor definitive propuse n tabelul
2.
n tabelul 3 se prezint rapoartele dintre radiaiile
solare globale zilnice msurate pe zi senin (IGzsm),
respectiv radiaia solar global zilnic definitiv (IGzs) i
radiaia solar medie zilnic din afara atmosferei.

Table 3 - Characteristics of the solar radiation / Caracteristici ale radiaiei solare

Day / Data 15.I 15.II 15.III 15.IV 15.V 15.VI
IGzsm, W/m
2
day 2330 4080 6040 7235 8100 8490
IGzs, W/m
2
day 2394 3459 4986 6711 8023 8595
Iza, W/m
2
day 3278 4786 6823 9095 10789 11513
IGzsm / Iza 0.711 0.852 0.885 0.795 0.751 0.737
IGzs / Iza 0.717 0.723 0.731 0.738 0.744 0.746
Day, Data 15.VII 15.VIII 15.IX 15.X 15.XI 15.XII
IGzsm, W/m
2
day 8085 7230 6005 4220 3040 2070
IGzs, W/m
2
day 8325 7254 5628 3947 2629 2061
Iza, W/m
2
day 11167 9799 7692 5443 3653 2883
IGzsm / Iza 0.724 0.730 0.781 0.775 0.832 0.718
IGzs / Iza 0.745 0.740 0.732 0.725 0.720 0.715

For the efficient utilization of solar energy is needed to
known also the diffuse daily radiation of which values
measured on the ground level around the parallel of 45
o

are presented in table 4. .
Pentru utilizarea eficient a energiei solare este
necesar s se cunoasc i radiaia difuz zilnic ale crei
valori msurate la nivelul solului n jurul paralelei de 45
o
sunt prezentate n tabelul 4.


120
Table 4 - Characteristics of diffuse daily solar radiation (Idzs) and measured diffuse solar radiation (Idzsm) /
Caracteristici ale radiaiei solare difuze (Idzs) i radiaiei solare difuze msurate (Idzsm)

Day / Data 15.I 15.II 15.III 15.IV 15.V 15.VI
Idzs, W/m
2
day 564 697 928 1186 1378 1452
IGzs, W/m
2
day 2349 3459 4986 6711 8023 8595
Idzs / IGzs 0.240 0.201 0.185 0.177 0.171 0.169
Idzsm, W/m
2
day 430 735 1015 1065 1160 1426
IGzsm, W/m
2
day 2330 4080 6040 7235 8100 8490
Day, Data 15.VII 15.VIII 15.IX 15.X 15.XI 15.XII
Idzs, W/m
2
day 1410 1251 1035 787 583 515
IGzs, W/m
2
day 8325 7254 5628 3947 2629 2061
Idzs / IGzs 0.167 0.172 0.184 0.199 0.222 0.250
Idzsm, W/m
2
day 1255 1165 965 655 735 500
IGzsm, W/m
2
day 8085 7230 6005 4220 3040 2070

Considering that the direct solar radiation is the difference
between the global daily definitive solar radiation (IGzs) and
the diffuse solar radiation (Idzs) is obtained on the
Romanian territory the values included in table 5, and
graphically presented on the map from figure 1. .
Considernd c radiaia solar direct este
diferena dintre radiaia solar global zilnic definitiv
(IGzs) i radiaia solar difuz (Idzs) se obin pentru
teritoriul Romniei valorile cuprinse n tabelul 5, i
prezentate grafic pe harta din figura 1.

Table 5 - Values of the direct solar radiations on the Romanian territory /
Valorile radiaiei solare directe pe teritoriul Romniei
Month / Luna
I II II IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII
Daily sum / Suma
zilnic [W/m
2
day]
1785 2762 4058 5525 6645 7143 6915 6003 4593 3160 2046 1546

Table 6 - The value of some physical property of principally species of fruits and vegetables /
Valorile unor caracteristici fizice ale principalelor specii de legume i fructe

Vegetable, fruits /
Legume, fructe
Weight / Greutate
[g]
Specific weight / Greutate
specific [kg/m
3
]
Volumetric weight / Greutate
volumetric, [kg/m
3
]
Pieces/kg
Buc/kg
Cherries / Ciree 3 ... 10 1.0060 ... 1.0725 510 ... 620 50 ... 330
Strawberries / Cpuni 5 ... 40 0.8960 ... 0.9825 420 ... 490 25 ... 200
Apricots / Caise 15 ... 60 1.0034 ... 1.0547 490 ... 560 17 ... 66
Peaches / Piersici 40 ... 260 0.9312 ... 1.0394 500 ... 580 4 ... 25
Plums / Prune 10... 65 1.0016 ... 1.0942 500 ... 610 15 ... 100
Apples / Mere 70 ... 350 0.6572 ... 0.9264 400 ... 530 4 ... 14
Pears / Pere 30 ... 500 0.9843 ... 1.0125 450 ... 580 2 ... 33
Potatoes / Cartofi 30 ... 300 - 650 ... 700 3 ... 33
Onion / Ceap 40 ... 500 - 400 ... 600 2 ... 25
Carrots / Morcovi 25 ...200 - 500 ... 650 5 ... 40
Eggplants / Vinete 100 ... 500 - - 2 ...10

The property of the vegetables and fruits
Are adverted to the size, the specific heat, the firmness
of the structure and texture, the color, the aroma, the taste,
water, vitamins and minerals substances contain. Some
properties from this category are specified afterwards [6].
The size is represented by the weight, his size and
the product volume. The weight is expressed in grams and
varies in large limits, depending on species, of variety, of
climatic conditions, of culture etc. (Table 6) [5].
The specific heat is represented by the amount of
heat or cold necessary for the temperature of the fruit of
the vegetable weight to grow or to decrease with 1 K. The
value, in kcal kg
o
C, varies like this: 0.85...0.90 at apricots,
cherries, apples, oranges, pears, peaches, grapes, plums,
potatoes, and pea; 0.90...0.95 at strawberries, lemons,
onion, carrots, tomato, eggplants.
The firmness of the structure and texture expresses
the resistance of the fruits and the vegetables flesh at to
the external pressure and diminish with their roast. This
way, in the ripen period, the value of the texture,
determinate with the penetrometer with the diameter of 11
mm, is of 0.12...0.13 MPa, diminishes to 0.8... 0.9 MPa in
harvesting period and reaches 0.60.7 MPa in the
moment of there consumption after storage.
The color, the aroma and the taste have a special
Proprietile legumelor i fructelor
Se refer la mrime, cldur specific, fermitatea
structurii i texturii, culoare, arom, gust, coninutul de
ap, vitamine i substane minerale. Unele proprieti
din aceste categorii sunt specificate n continuare.[6]
Mrimea este reprezentat de greutate, dimensiuni
sau volumul produsului. Greutatea se exprim n grame
i variaz n limite largi n funcie de specie, soi, condiii
climaterice, cultur etc. (tabelul6) [5]
Cldura specific este reprezentat de cantitatea
de cldur sau de frig necesar pentru ca temperatura
masei fructului sau legumei s creasc sau s se
reduc cu 1 K. Valoarea, n kcal kg
o
C, variaz astfel:
0,850,90 la caise, ciree, mere, portocale, pere,
piersici, struguri, prune, cartofi i mazre; 0,900,95 la
cpuni. lmi, ceap, morcovi, tomate, vinete.
Fermitatea structurii i texturii exprim rezistena
pulpei fructelor i legumelor la presiunea exterioar i
scade pe msura coacerii lor. Astfel, n perioada de
prg valoarea texturii, determinat cu penetrometrul
cu diametrul de 11 mm, este 0,120,13 MPa scade la
0,80,9 MPa n perioada recoltrii i ajunge la
0,60,7 MPa n momentul valorificrii lor dup
depozitare.
Culoarea, aroma i gustul au o importan

121
importance in the establishing of the commercial value of
the fruits and vegetables.
From chemical viewpoint, the fruits and vegetables contain
water and dry substance (organic and mineral substances).
The proportion between different groups of chemical substances
has importance in the definiteness of qualitative value of
the fruits, which modify from a variety to other.
The water in the horticultural products is found out in
free or bonded settlement and his total quantity varies in
large limits. This way, in the case of the strawberries, the
water quantity can reach at 84... 92%, and for another fruits is
much more reduced, arriving at 77... 87% (apples, pears, plums,
grapes). At the dried fruits group, how are the nuts and the
hazels, the value of the water content achieve at 5%.
Another component as the glucoses, the lipids, the
protean substances, the organic acids, the tannins
substances etc., personalizes the different varieties of
vegetables and fruits and must be known more exactly in
the sight of the correct management of the drying process.
The vitamins have the role of catalyst in the metabolic
process.
The minerals substances are represented through
components of main metals (potassium, sodium, calcium,
magnesium, iron, zinc etc.), which are founded in oxides
shapes or salts of carbonic sulphuric chlorine etc. acids.
Sorption isotherms [6]
The water potential to actively participate in the
degradation process can be characterized through the
indicator, the water activity (aw), which is defined, as a
corollaries of Raoult generalized law, as being the ratio
between the pressure water vapors from product, at a
given temperature and the saturation pressure of pure
water vapors, at the same temperature (Wolf et al., 1985).
At the equilibrium, the activity of the water is the ratio to
the value of relative humidity from surrounding
atmosphere (Iglesias and Chirife, 1982).
The importance of the water sorption equations have
been studied by numerous research workers, comprising
the restraint of some nutrients in the dehydration time and
the kipping duration of the product in a certain type of
packing (Labuza et of., 1972). The equations are also
necessary for the determination of the thermodynamic
functions concerning the ad- and the absorption of the
water in food products (Iglesias and Chirife, 1976) for the
computation of drying time (Henderson and Perry, 1976)
and for the simulation of the drying systems (Broker et of., 1974).
The simulation of the drying systems can be used-up
for the computation of drying, time, for the determination
of the effects that certain parameters have on the drying
efficiency, either for the operation costs diminishing.
These are an important a part of the drying theory (King,
1968) and of the measurements concerning the latent
boiling heat (Murata, 1988). Lately, the sorption isotherms
have a much bigger importance because of the bigger
number of recommendations and of legislative normative,
regarding the utilization for there characterization from
qualitative viewpoint of food products and which utilizes
the activity of the water as a basic criterion of evaluation
(Wolf et al., 1985).
For the improvement of the current level of drying technologies
it must be applied a proper management to avoid the product
degradation in the drying and storage time. The dates about
the sorption isotherms are very important from this point of
view, in the sight of choosing the ultimate humidity of the
product which to permit a secure storage and for the
determination of optimum storage conditions. A big humidity of
the product reduces his stability, and the product drying up to a
value more little than one the optimum value leads to the
increase of the drying costs. From the sorption isotherms
viewpoint it can be considered the activity of the water as being
deosebit n stabilirea valorii comerciale a fructelor i
legumelor.
Din punct de vedere chimic, fructele i legumele
conin ap i substan uscat (substane organice i
substane minerale). Proporia ntre diferitele grupe de
substane chimice are importan n definirea valorii
calitative a fructelor, care variaz de la un soi la altul.
Apa n produsele horticole se afl n stare liber
sau legat i coninutul total variaz n limite largi.
Astfel, n cazul cpunilor, coninutul n ap poate
ajunge la 8492 %, iar pentru alte fructe este mult mai
redus, ajungnd la 7787% (mere, pere, prune,
struguri). La grupa fructe uscate, cum sunt nucile,
alunele valoarea coninutului n ap ajunge la 5%.
Alte componente precum glucoza, lipidele, substanele
proteice, acizii organici, substanele taninice etc.,
caracterizeaz diferite varieti de legume i fructe i
trebuie cunoscut cu mult exactitate n vedere unei
conduceri corecte procesului de uscare.
Vitaminele joac rolul de catalizator n procesele
de metabolism.
Substanele minerale sunt reprezwntate prin
compui ai principalelor metale (potasiu, sodiu, calciu,
magneziu, fier, zinc etc.), care se gsesc sub form de
oxizi sau sruri ale acizilor clorhidric, sulfuric, carbonic etc.
Izotermele de sorbiune [6]
Potenialul apei de a participa activ la procesele
de degradare poate fi caracterizat prin indicatorul
activitatea apei (aw), care este definit ca un corolar al
legii lui Raoult generalizat, ca fiind raportul dintre
presiunea vaporilor de ap din produs, la o temperatur
dat i presiunea de saturaie a vaporilor de ap pur la
aceeai temperatur (Wolf i al., 1985). La echilibru,
activitatea apei este raportat la valoarea umiditii
relative a atmosferei nconjurtoare (Iglesias i Chirife,
1982).
Importana ecuaiilor de sorbiune a apei a fost
studiat de numeroi cercettori, incluznd reinerea
unor nutrieni n timpul deshidratrii i a duratei de
pstrare a produsului ntr-un anumit tip de ambalaj
(Labuza et of., 1972). Ecuaiile sunt, de asemenea,
necesare pentru determinarea funciilor termodinamice
privind ad- i absorbia apei n alimente (Iglesias and
Chirife, 1976) pentru calcularea timpului de uscare
(Henderson and Perry, 1976) i pentru simularea
sistemelor de uscare (Broker et of., 1974).
Simularea sistemelor de uscare poate fi utilizat
pentru calcularea timpului de uscare, pentru determinarea
efectelor pe care le au anumii parametri asupra
eficienei uscrii ori pentru minimalizarea costurilor de
operare. Acestea constituie o important parte a teoriei
uscrii (King, 1968) i a msurrilor privind cldura
latent de vaporizare (Murata, 1988). n ultima vreme,
izotermele de sorbiune au o tot mai mare importan
datorit numrului tot mai mare de recomandri i de
norme legislative privind utilizarea acestora pentru
caracterizarea din punct de vedere calitativ a
produselor alimentare i care utilizeaz activitatea apei
ca pe un criteriu de evaluare de baz (Wolf et al., 1985).
Pentru mbuntirea nivelului actual al
tehnologiilor privind uscarea trebuie aplicat un
management adecvat n vederea evitrii degradrii
produsului n timpul uscrii i al depozitrii. Datele
despre izotermele de sorbiune sunt foarte importante
sub acest aspect, n vederea alegerii umiditii finale a
produsului, care s permit o depozitare sigur i
pentru determinarea condiiilor optime de depozitare. O
umiditate mare a produsului reduce stabilitatea
acestuia, iar uscarea produsului pn la o valoare mai
mic dect cea optim duce la creterea costurilor de

122
an important parameter concerning the dry foods.
Because of the chemical complex composition of food
products, the computation from theoretical viewpoint of the
sorption isotherms is impossible, and the experimental
measurements become compulsorily.

Energetic and mass balance
Knowing the features of the vegetables and fruits and
tracing there sorption and desorption isotherms it can be
drawn the energy and mass balance through the utilization
of solar panels as the source of energy for dryers with
enforced production. The calculus algorithm of the energy
and mass balance is presented afterwards.[4]
The necessary amount of heat supplied by the solar
panels.
From the energy preservation law is obtained the
next computing relation:
loses output input
Q Q Q + = . (2)
In these conditions the thermal balance it can be
written below next form:
p ev s
Q Q Q + = , (3)
in which:
s
Q - the heat insured by the solar panels;
ev
Q -
the spent heat for the evaporation of the water from
product;
p
Q - the irretrievable heat.
But:
p
Q =
ev
Q 1 , 0 ;
s
Q =
ev
Q 1 , 1 . (4)
The heat consumption for the evacuation of the
water from product.
The total amount of heat necessary for the
evaporation of the water from product is given by the next
computation relation:
r U Q
ev
= [kcal /kg] , (5)
in which: U the amount of water which must be
eliminated from product in the drying process, kg; r - the
vaporization heat. Is chosen r = 616. 6 kcal / kg, and:
Q =
ev
Q +0,1
ev
Q = =
ev
Q 1 , 1 [kcal/kg], (6)
where Q - becomes from the temperature difference of the
input and output air from the solar dryer.
The average temperature of the drying process:

2
e i
m
t t
t
+
=
[ C
0
] , (7)
in which:
i
t - the input temperature in the solar dryer, C;
e
t - the output temperature from the solar dryer.
The amount of heat entered in the dryer with the air
The amount of heat entered with the air and the
water from air shall be:
' '
1
'
1 1
q q q + = [kcal/kg] , (8)
in which:
'
1
q - the amount of heat entered with the air, kcal
kg;
' ' '
1
q - the amount of heat entered with the water from
air, kcal /kg.
The computing relations for those two amounts of
heat are:
i aer aer
t c m q =
'
1
[kcal/kg] , (9)
in which:
aer
m - air-mass, kg;
aer
c - the specific heat of
the air, kcal kg, and there values
aer
m ,
aer
c , are chosen
so that:
aer
m =
1
1 X ;
aer
c =0.24;
1
X = 00538 . 0 ;
The component
' '
1
q is calculated with the formula:
uscare.
Datorit compoziiei chimice complexe a produselor
alimentare, calcularea din punct de vedere teoretic a
izotermelor de sorbiune nu este posibil, iar
msurtorile experimentale devin obligatorii.

Bilanul de energie i mas
Cunoscnd caracteristicile legumelor i fructelor i
evoluia curbelor de sorbiune i desorbiune ale
acestora se poate ntocmi bilanul de energie i mas
dac se utilizeaz panourile solare ca surs de energie
pentru uscarea acestora cu o capacitate impus. Calculul
bilanului de energie i mas se desfoar dup
algoritmul prezentat n continuare [4].
Necesarul de cldur furnizat de panourile solare.
Din legea conservrii energiei se obine
urmtoarea relaie de calcul:
pierdut it ie rat
Q Q Q + =
; int
. (2)
n aceste condiii bilanul termic se poate scrie sub
urmtoarea form:
p ev s
Q Q Q + = , (3)
n care:
s
Q - Cldura asigurat de panourile solare;
ev
Q - cldura consumat pentru evaporarea apei din
material;
p
Q - cldura pierdut.
Dar:
p
Q =
ev
Q 1 , 0 ;
s
Q =
ev
Q 1 , 1 . (4)
Consumul de cldur pentru evacuarea apei din
produs.
Cantitatea total de cldur necesar pentru
evaporarea apei din material este dat de relaia:
r U Q
ev
= [kcal /kg] , (5)
n care: U cantitatea de ap care trebuie eliminat din
produs n procesul de uscare, n kg; r cldura de
vaporizare. Se alege r = 616. 6 kcal / kg iar:
Q =
ev
Q +0,1
ev
Q = =
ev
Q 1 , 1 [kcal/kg], (6)
unde Q provine din diferena de temperatur a aerului care
intr i a celui care iese din usctorul solar.
Temperatura medie de uscare:
2
e i
m
t t
t
+
= [ C
0
] , (7)
n care:
i
t - temperature de intrare n usctorul solar, C;
e
t - temperatura de ieire din usctor
Cantitatea de cldur intrat n usctor cu aerul
Cantitatea de cldur intrat cu aerul i apa din
aer va fi:
' '
1
'
1 1
q q q + = [kcal/kg] , (8)
n care:
'
1
q - cantitatea de cldur intrat cu aerul, kcal
kg;
' ' '
1
q - cantitatea de cldur intrat cu apa din aer,
kcal /kg.
Relaiile de calcul pentru cele dou cantiti de
cldur sunt:
i aer aer
t c m q =
'
1
[kcal/kg] , (9)
n care:
aer
m - masa aerului, kg;
aer
c - cldura specific
a aerului, kcal kg, i valorile pentru
aer
m ,
aer
c ,sunt alese
astfel:
aer
m =
1
1 X ;
aer
c =0.24;
1
X = 00538 . 0 ;
Componenta
' '
1
q se calculeaz cu relaia:

123
i ap ap
t c m q =
' '
1
[kcal/kg] , (10)
in which:
ap
m - the water amount contained in the air,
kg;
ap
c - the specific heat of the water, kcal/ kg.
The values of
ap
m ,
ap
c , are chosen so that:
ap
m
=
1
X ;
ap
c = 0.447;
The amount of heat which comes out from the dryer
with the air
The amount of heat contained of the evacuated air
and of the water vapors from the air is:
' '
2
'
2 2
q q q + = [kcal/kg] . (11)
in which:
'
2
q - the amount of heat come out with the air,
kcal/ kg;
' '
2
q - the amount of heat come out with the water
vapors from the air, kcal/ kg.
But:
e aer aer
t c m q =
'
2
[kcal/kg] ; (12)
if:
aer
m =
2
1 X
i :
e ap ap
t c m q =
' '
2
[kcal/kg] ; (13)
where :
ap
m =X .
The heat contribution of 1 kilogram of dry air:
2 1
q q q = [kcal/kg] . (14)
The necessary of dry air is:
q / Q L
s t
= [kg] . (15)

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
For the conversion of the solar energy in Romanian
conditions is recommended as the banking angle of the solar
receptors against the horizontal line to be of 45
o
, which
permits the appreciable decrease of the loads provoked by
the wind action and the decrease of the distances among the
solar receptors. The average number of sunny days on the
warm season is determined through multiplication of average
hour duration of sun glowing with the number of days from
the warm period of the year (1.041.11), respectively 156
days. The average day used for solar installations
dimensioning is considered in the warm season to have 9
hours and an intensity of solar radiation I = 580 W / m
2

If is known the capacity enforced for the dryer, on the
strength of the requirements specified in the paper it can
be correctly sized: the necessary volume of the dryer, the
surface of solar panels and the surface of the photovoltaic
panels which must train the fans in the sight of assuring
the air flow necessary for drying . On the strength of the
sorption and desorption isotherms it can be driven the
drying process in such way that the physical-chemical
properties of the dry products to be much closer to the
ones of fresh products.

4. CONCLUSIONS
The conservation through drying of some vegetables
and fruits present many economic interests, as much for
the agricultural producers, and for the national
economy. These process difficulties are generated by
the big energy costs needed for drying.
The utilization of solar energy for the drying the
vegetables and fruits represent an acceptable
alternative for the energy from unregenerate sources,
with the condition as the technical used-up equipment
to be correct projected and exploited.
An accordingly drying of every vegetables and fruits
presupposes the better preservation of physical-
i ap ap
t c m q =
' '
1
[kcal/kg] , (10)
n care:
ap
m - cantitatea de ap coninut n aer, kg;
ap
c -cldura specific a apei, kcal/ kg.
Valorile pentru
ap
m ,
ap
c , se aleg astfel
nct:
ap
m =
1
X ;
ap
c = 0.447;
Cantitatea de cldur care iese din usctor cu aerul
Cantitatea de cldur coninut n aerul evacuat i
a vaporilor de ap din aer este:
' '
2
'
2 2
q q q + = [kcal/kg] . (11)
n care:
'
2
q - cantitatea de cldur evacuat cu aerul,
kcal/ kg;
' '
2
q - cantitatea de cldur ieit cu vaporii de
ap din aer, kcal/ kg.
Dar:
e aer aer
t c m q =
'
2
[kcal/kg] ; (12)
dac:
aer
m =
2
1 X i :
e ap ap
t c m q =
' '
2
[kcal/kg] (13)
unde:
ap
m =X .
Aportul de cldur al unui kg de aer uscat:
2 1
q q q = [kcal/kg] . (14)
Necesarul de aer uscat este:
q / Q L
s t
= [kg] . (15)

3. REZULTATE I DISCUII
Pentru conversia energiei solare n condiiile
Romniei se recomand ca unghiul de nclinare al
captatorilor fa de orizontal s fie de 45
o
, ceea ce
permite reducerea apreciabil a sarcinilor provocate de
aciunea vntului i micorarea distanei dintre irurile
de captatoare. Numrul mediu de zile nsorite pe
sezonul cald se determin prin nmulire duratei medii
orare de strlucire a soarelui cu numrul de zile din
perioada cald a anului (1.04 1.11), respectiv 156
zile. Ziua medie utilizat pentru dimensionarea
instalaiilor solare se consider n sezonul cald c are 9
ore i o intensitate a radiaiei solare I = 580 W/m
2

Dac se cunoate capacitatea impus usctorului,
pe baza cerinelor specificate n lucrare se pot
dimensiona corect: volumul necesar al usctorului,
suprafaa panourilor solare i a panourilor fotovoltaice
care trebuie sa alimenteze ventilatoarele n vederea
asigurrii curentului de aer necesar n usctor. Pe baza
izotermelor de sorbiune i desorbie se poate modifica
procesul de uscare astfel nct proprietile fizice i
chimice ale produselor s fie ct mai apropiate de cele
ale unor produse proaspete.

4. CONCLUZII
Conservarea prin uscare a unor legume i fructe
prezint un interes economic mare att pentru micii
productori agricoli, ct i pentru economia naional.
Dificultile acestui proces sunt generate de costul
mare al energiei necesare pentru uscare.
Utilizarea energiei solare pentru uscarea legumelor i
fructelor reprezint o alternativ acceptabil pentru
sursele de energie neregenerabile, cu condiia
utilizrii nor echipamente tehnice corect proiectate i
exploatate.
uscare corespunztoare a oricror fructe i legume
presupune o bun conservare a caracteristicilor fizico-

124
chemical features of these, ensured as much trough the
correct sizing of the technical equipment, and trough
the exact management of the drying process.
On the strength of the thermal balance of a dryer it can
be sizing the heat sources and the necessary (the flow)
of air which must be assured by the fans trained with
photovoltaic panels.

REFERENCES
1. Bodria, L.,Riva, G.: Colletori solari semplici e di bassa
costo, Instituto di Ingegneria Agraria, Universita di Milano,
1980.
2. Brtucu, Gh.: Agricultural Technology, Transilvania
University of Braov Publishing House, 1999, Romania.
3. Burtea, O. .a: The Use of Solar Energy at the Fruits
and Vegetables Drying, Bucureti, Ceres Publishing
House, 1981, Romania.
4. Epure, G.: Researches Regarding the Use of Tunnel
Type Solar Equipment for the Vegetables Drying, PhD
Theses, USAMV Bucureti, 2004, Romania.
5. Hauser, M.: Trocknung von Aprikosen mit
Solarenergie, Hohenheim, 1995, Germany.
6. Mitroi, A., Udroiu, A.: The Use in Romania of Tunnel
Type Solar Dryer for Agricultural Products, Bucureti, in
Magazine Mecanizarea Agriculturii, nr. 6/2000, Romania.
chimice ale acestora, asigurate att prin dimensionarea
corect a echipamentului tehnic, ct i prin
conducerea corespunztoare a procesului de uscare.
Pe baza bilanului termic al uni usctor se poate
dimensiona sursa de cldur i necesarul de aer care
trebuie asigurat de ventilatoarele antrenate de
panourile fotovoltaice.

BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Bodria, L.,Riva, G.: Colletori solari semplici e di
bassa costo, Instituto di Ingegneria Agraria, Universita
di Milano, 1980
2. Brtucu, Gh.: Agricultural Technology, Transilvania
University of Braov Publishing House, 1999, Romania.
3. Burtea, O. .a: The Use of Solar Energy at the Fruits
and Vegetables Drying, Bucureti, Ceres Publishing
House, 1981, Romania
4. Epure, G.: Researches Regarding the Use of Tunnel
Type Solar Equipment for the Vegetables Drying, PhD
Theses, USAMV Bucureti, 2004, Romania
5. Hauser, M.: Trocknung von Aprikosen mit Solarenergie,
Hohenheim, 1995, Germany
6. Mitroi, A., Udroiu, A.: The Use in Romania of Tunnel
Type Solar Dryer for Agricultural Products, Bucureti, in
Magazine Mecanizarea Agriculturii, nr. 6/2000, Romania.


125

MEASURES AND MATHEMATICAL MODELS FOR SOIL COMPACTION
/
MASURI I MODELE MATEMATICE PENTRU COMPACTAREA SOLULUI

Math. P. Crdei, dr. eng. V. Muraru,
dr. eng. C. Muraru - Ionel, eng. R. Sfiru

Abstract. This paper presents two important problems of
the soil compaction phenomenon, strongly linked one to
each other. The first problem is the clarification of the
main measure of the soil compaction phenomena, and
the dependence of this measure on the other soil
parameters. This problem is very important because the
final result of any mathematical model of the soil
compaction phenomenon must be expressed in terms of
fundamental measure of compaction. The second problem
is the mathematical model of the soil compaction
phenomenon. We have discussed some aspects of the
mathematical solution method, its advantages and
disadvantages, and at the same time complexity of the
mathematical solution. Finally it is specified the field of
application, especially in the problem of soil compaction
prediction, keep sight of the soil parameters, and the
mechanical pressure characteristics (kinematic and
dynamical aspects).

Keywords: soil, compaction, measures, mathematical model

INTRODUCTION
The soil compaction is a very large interest problem.
The agriculture practitioners are interested as well as the
civil construction, but so, generally the geotechnical
practitioners.
The first category has a point of view different about
the soil compaction problem vis a vis of the second and
third categories. If the civil practitioners aim is to obtain a
big and uniform soil compaction degree first for the
building stability, the agriculture practitioners have a
opponent point of view, a small soil compaction degree,
which permit the vegetation roots development in the soil
depth.

THEORETICAL CONSIDERATION
A good decision about the soil compaction degree, require a
good definition of this term. There are many qualitative
definition for the soil compaction, based on the effect of
this phenomenon.
After [1], soil compaction is the compression of the
soil resulting in: reduced soil pore space (the spaces
between soil particles); decreased movement of water
and air into and within the soil; decreased soil water
storage; and increased surface runoff and erosion. The
use of heavy machinery during forest operations
contributes to soil compaction.
After [2], soil compaction is the changing of the nature
of the soil such that there is a decrease in the volume of
voids between soil particles or aggregates; it is manifest
as an increase in bulk density and a severely compacted
soil can become effectively impermeable. Some soils are
naturally compacted, e.g. very heavy textured soils (fine
textured). Man-made compaction is caused by the passage
of heavy machinery and very intensive soil exploitation.
After [3], the soil compaction is the compression of
soil that eliminates air pockets from the soil structure,
resulting in the suffocation of the plant roots. Soil
compaction may be caused by ongoing pedestrian traffic,
one time or ongoing vehicular traffic, construction
Rezumat. Aceast lucrare prezint dou probleme
importante ale fenomenului de compactare a solului,
puternic legate unele de altele. Prima problem const n
clarificarea principalei msuri ale fenomenului de
compactare a solului i n funcie de aceast msur, se
stabilesc i ali parametri ai solului. Aceast problema
este foarte important, deoarece rezultatul final al
modelului matematic al fenomenului de compactare a
solului trebuie exprimat n termenii msurii fundamentale
a compactrii. A doua problem este modelul matematic
al fenomenului de compactare a solului. Au fost discutate
unele aspecte ale metodei de rezolvare matematic,
avantajele i dezavantajele acesteia, ct i complexitatea
soluiilor matematice. n final, este specificat domeniul de
aplicare, n special problema prediciei compactrii
solului, innd seama de parametrii solului i
caracteristicile presiunii mecanic (aspecte cinematice i
dinamice).

Cuvinte cheie: sol, compactare, msuri, model matematic

INTRODUCERE
Compactarea solului este o problem de mare interes.
De aceast problem sunt interesai specialitii din
agricultur, cei din domeniul construciilor civile, ct i
specialitii cu profil geotehnic.
Prima categorie are un punct de vedere diferit despre
problema compactrii, fa de cei din cea de a doua categorie
a doua sau a treia categorie. Dac scopul specialitilor
civili const n primul rnd n obinerea unui grad de
compactare a solului uniform i nalt, pentru stabilitatea
construciilor, specialitii din agricultur au un punct de
vedere diferit, un grad mic de compactare a solului, care
s permit rdcinilor plantelor s se dezvolte la adncime.

CONSIDERAII TEORETICE
O decizie bun referitoare la gradul de compactare a
solului necesit o bun definire a acestui termen. Exist
multe definiii calitative pentru compactarea solului, ce se
bazeaz pe efectul acestui fenomen.
Dup [1], compactarea solului este compresia solului cu
consecinele: reducerea spaiului dintre porii solului (spaiile
dintre particolele de sol); circulaia redus a apei i aerului
n interiorului solului; scderea cantitii de ap stocate,
cresterea scurgerilor de suprafa i eroziune. Utilizarea
utilajelor grele n timpul operaiunilor de mpdurire
contribuie de asemenea la compactarea solului.
Dup [2], compactarea solului reprezint modificarea
naturii solului, astfel nct exist o scdere a volumului
spaiului dintre particule sau agregate, manifestndu-se
ca o cretere a densitii, solul compactat devinind efectiv
impermeabil. Unele soluri sunt compactate n mod
natural, de exemplu solurile cu textur foarte grea (texturate
uor). Compactarea fcut de om este provocat de trecerea
mainilor grele i de exploatarea intensiv a solului.
Dup [3], compactarea solului este compresia solului
care elimin astfel golurile de materi solida pline cu aer,
rezultnd sufocarea rdcinilor plantelor. Compactarea
solului pot fi cauzat de traficul pietonal i traficul de
vehicule, construcii sau depozitare de echipamente i

126
equipment or storage of materials.
After [4], the soil compaction is an increase in soil
bulk density from an undisturbed state. After [5], soil
compaction occurs when soil particles are pressed
together, reducing pore space between them. After [6],
compaction can be defined as a process of densification
due to the removal of air voids when external stress is
applied to a soil.
All these definition have only qualitative character. A
first quantitative definition is given in [7]: The degree of
compactness has been defined as the dry bulk density of
a soil as a percent of a reference bulk density obtained by
a standardized uniaxial compression test on large
samples at a stress of 200 kPa.
The authors of [7] affirm that the bulk density should
be determined at standardized moisture conditions, to
prevent problems caused by water content variations in
swelling/shrinking soils. In plus the degree of
compactness (noted D by the authors of [7]) makes
results of soil compaction experiments more generally
applicable. Then the soil bulk density can be a
satisfactory measure for crop growth, and is possible that
there are optimal values of the soil compaction degree for
different agricultural processes and for different soil
compositions. But such as many other authors, the
authors of [7] consider that the penetration resistance and
air-filled porosity are satisfactory measures for the soil
compaction. They consider that the critical value for the
penetration resistance is 3 MPa, and for the air-filled
porosity is 10 %.
If between the bulk soil density and the soil
penetration resistance there is a precise relation, then the
soil penetration resistance can provide safety information
about the soil compaction degree. The existence of this
relation and the form of this is another subject.
Consequently, a mathematical definition for the soil
compaction degree, can be considered, after [7]:
r
D

=
(1)
where D is the bulk soil density, is the bulk soil density
and r is the reference soil bulk density.

ELEMENTARY RELATION
Now, for investigate the dependence between the
soil compaction degree and the soil moisture and the air-
filled porosity. The theoretical consideration are very
simple and the aim of this calculus is only to give a first
image of the relation which connect the soil compaction
degree with the soil moisture and the air-filled porosity.
Be M the soil mass, Md, the dry soil mass, Mw the
water mass included in soil, and Ma the mass of the air
included in the soil. Starting at the mass balance:

d w a
M M M M = + + (2)
Similar is considering the volume density balance:
d w a
V V V V = + + (3),
where V the soil volume, Vd, the dry soil volume, Vw the water
volume included in soil and Va the volume of the air included
in the soil. The relations (2) and (3) are only work hypothesis.
In the next calculus is used the bulk density formulae:
, , ,
d w a
d w a
d w a
M M M M
V V V V
= = = =
, (4)
where is the soil bulk density, and d, w, a are the dry
soil density (the reference soil density, in this case, which
appear in the formula (1), r), water density and air
density. Finally, is used the porosity formula:

a w
V V
V
+
=
(5)
materiale.
Dup [4], compactarea solului este o cretere a
densitii ntr-un stadiu neperturbat (nederanjat). Dup
[5], compactarea solului apare atunci cnd particolele de
sol sunt presate mpreun, reducnd spaiul dintre porii.
Dup [6], compactarea poate fi definit ca un proces de
densificare, n scopul eliminrii golurilor de aer, atunci
cnd se aplic o presiune pe sol.
Toate aceste definiii au numai caracter calitativ. O prim
definiie cantitativ este dat n [7]: Gradul de compactare a
fost definit ca fiind raportul procentual intre densitatea unei
probe de sol uscate i densitatea unui sol referin, obinut
printr-un test de compresie uniaxial standardizat pe un
numr mare de eantioane la o presiune de 200 kPa.
Autorii din [7] afirm faptul c, mrimea densitii poate
fi determinat n condiii de umiditate standard, n scopul
prevenirii problemelor cauzate de variaia coninutului de ap
n solurile dilatate (umflate)/ compresate. n plus, gradul de
compactare (notat cu D de autorii din [7]) fac ca rezultatele
experimentelor de compactare a solului s fie mai
generale. Atunci densitatea cantitii de sol poate fi o
msur satisfctoare pentru creterea produciei i este
posibil ca s existe valori optimale ale gradului de
compactare a solului pentru diferite procese agricole i
pentru diferite compoziii ale solului. Dar, asemenea altor
autori, autorii din [7] consider c, rezistena la penetrare
i porozitatea relativ la porii cu aer, sunt msuri
satisfctoare pentru compactarea solului. Ei consider
c, valoarea critic pentru rezistena la penetrare este de
3Mpa, i porozitatea cu aer umplut este de 10%.
Dac ntre densitatea cantitii de sol i rezistena la
penerare n sol exist o relaie precis, rezistena la
penetrare n sol poate furniza informaii certe despre
gradul de compactare a solului. Existena acestei relaii i
forma acesteia este ns un alt subiect.
n consecin, dup [7], poate fi luat n considerare o
definiie matematic pentru gradul de compactare a solului:
r
D

=
(1)
unde D este densitatea cantitii de sol, r este densitatea
cantitii de sol de referin.

RELAII ELEMENTARE
n continuare vom analiza dependena dintre gradul
de compactare a solului, umiditatea i porozitatea
golurilor de aer. Consideraiile teoretice sunt foarte simple
i scopul calculelor este numai acela de a da o prim
imagine a relaiei care conecteaz gradul de compactare
a solului cu umiditate i porozitatea.
Fie M masa solului, Md, masa solului uscat, Mw,
masa apei coninut n sol i Ma,masa aerului din sol. Se
ncepe de la echilibrul masei:
d w a
M M M M = + + (2)
Similar se consider echilibrul densitii de volum:
d w a
V V V V = + + (3)
unde V este volumul solului, Vd, volumul de sol uscat, Vw
volumul de aer din sol i Va volumul de aer din sol.
Relaiile (2) i (3) sunt numai ipoteze de lucru. n
calculele urmtoare s-au utilizat formulele densitii:
, , ,
d w a
d w a
d w a
M M M M
V V V V
= = = =
(4)
unde este densitatea solului i d, w, a sunt densitile
solului uscat (densitatea solului de referin n acest caz
care apare n formula (1), r), densitatea apei i
densitatea aerului. n final s-a utilizat formula porozitii:
a w
V V
V
+
=
(5)

127
and the definition of the soil moisture:

d w a
d d
M M M M
m
M M
+
= =
(6)
Solving the system relation (2) (6), is obtaining the next
formula:
i definiia umiditii solului:
d w a
d d
M M M M
m
M M
+
= =
(6)
rezolvnd sistemul de relaii (2) (6), se obine
urmtoarea formul:
( )( ) 1 1
d
m = +
(7)
The formula (7) and the definition (1), where the
reference soil bulk density is the dry sol density (subject
of compression at a certain pressure, for example 200
kPa, after [7]) allows calculus of the soil compaction
degree, like:

( )( ) 1 1 D m = +
(8)
Result that the soil compaction degree increase with
the soil moisture, and decrease with the soil porosity.
Therefore, for estimate the soil compaction degree is
necessary to know not only the soil moisture, but so the
soil porosity. Generally is accepted that [0; 1), m[0;
0.8). For example, after [8], typical bulk density of sandy
soil is between 1.5 and 1.7 g/cm. This calculates to a
porosity between 0.43 and 0.36. Typical bulk density of
clay soil is between 1.1 and 1.3 g/cm. This calculates to
a porosity between 0.58 and 0.51. Is important to
remember two important relation for the soil parameters.
First is the Athy equation (1930):
0
( )
kz
z e

= (9)
where 0 is the surface porosity, k is the compaction
coefficient (m
1
) and z is depth (m). The second important
relation is between the bulk density and particle density
particle
:
1
particle
=
, (10)
After [9], normal particle density is assumed to be
approximately 2.65 g/cm, although a better estimation
can be obtained by examining the lithology of the
particles. There is a possibility to obtain an advanced
result, if is consider that the soil moisture and the soil
porosity are related by a formula. For example, if the
relation is linear:
0
m = + , (11)
where
0
is the dry porosity, and is a coefficient. In this
situation the formula of soil compaction degree (8),
becomes:
( )
2
0 0
1 1
d
c m m = + +
(12)
If
0
0 =
,
then (12) becomes:
( )
2
1 1
d
c m m = + + (13)
The formula (11), for the soil compaction degree has a
point of maximum, with the coordinates:
( )
2
m a x m a x
1 1
,
2 4
d
m

= =
(14)
For a certain soil, if the maximum point is know,
then is given by the next formula:

max
1
2 1 m
=
+
(15)
Using these formulae is possible to modeling the
soil behavior ant to obtain soil curve describe in many
paper, like, for example, [9]. Now is possible to continue
to explicit the soil reference bulk density. According with
the many papers and references is consider that the main
components of the soil are: clay, sand and silt. Is
suppose that the mass balance:
Formula (7) i definiia (1), unde densitatea de sol de
referin este densitatea de sol uscat (supus
compactrii la o presiune precis, de exemplu 200 kPa,
dup [7]) permite calculul gradului de compactare a
solului, precum:
( )( ) 1 1 D m = +
(8)
Rezultatul c gradul de compactare al solului crete
odat cu umiditatea i scade micoreaz odat cu
porozitatea solului. De aceea, pentru estimarea gradului
de compactare a solului este necesar de tiut nu numai
umiditatea solului, ci i porozitatea acestuia. n general
este acceptat faptul c [0; 1), m[0; 0.8). De
exemplu,, dup [8], densitatea obinuit a solului nisipos
este ntre 1,5 i 1,7 g/cm. Acesta calculeaz o porozitate
ntre 0,43 i 0.36. Pentru o densitate cuprins ntre 1.1 i
1.3 se da porozitatea intre 0.58 si 0.51 Este important de
reamintit dou relaii importante pentru parametrii solului.
Prima relatie importanta este ecuuaia lui Athy (1930):
0
( )
kz
z e

= (9)
Unde 0 este porozitatea suprafeei, k este coeficientul
de compactare (m
1
) i z este adncimea (m). A doua
relaie important este ntre densitatea i densitatea
particolelor particle.
1
particle
=
(10)
Dup [9], densitatea normal a particolelor se
presupune a fi de aproximativ 2,65 g/cm
3
, dei, o mai
bun estimare poate fi obinut prin examinarea litologiei
particulelor. Exist o posibilitate de a obine un rezultat
avansat, dac se consider c umiditatea solului i
porozitatea sunt legate printr-o formul. De exemplu,
dac relaia este liniar:
0
m = + (11)
Unde
0
este porozitatea uscat i este un
coefficient. n aceast situaie formula gradului de
compactare a solului (8), devine:
( )
2
0 0
1 1
d
c m m = + +
(12)
Dac
0
0 =

atunci (12) devine:
( )
2
1 1
d
c m m = + + (13)
Formula (11) pentru gradul de compactare a solului
are un punct maxim, cu coordonatele:
( )
2
m a x m a x
1 1
,
2 4
d
m

= =
(14)
Pentru un anumit sol, dac punctul de maxim este
cunoscut, atunci este dat de urmtoarea formul:
max
1
2 1 m
=
+
(15)
Utiliznd aceste formule este posibil s se modeleze
comportamentul solului i obinerea unei curbe de sol,
descris n multe lucrri, ca de exemplu, [9]. Acum este
posibil continuarea explicitrii densitii de referin a
solului. n conformitate cu multe lucrri i referine, se
consider faptul c, componentele principale ale solului sunt
argila, nisipul i nmolul. Se presupune c echilibrul de mas:

128

d c sa si
M M M M = + + , (16)
and the volume balance:

d c sa si
V V V V = + + (17)
are valid. In the formula (16) Mc is clay mass, Msa is the
sand mass and Msi is the silt mass. In the formula (16) Vc
is clay volume, Vsa is the sand volume and Vsi is the silt
volume. The parameters Md and Vd are defined up. The
mass concentration of the soil components are:
, ,
c sa si
c sa si
c sa si
M M M
c
V V V
= = =
(18)
The components density are the next:
, ,
c s a s i
c s a si
c s a si
M M M
V V V
= = =
(19)
Using the relation (16) (19) is obtain the next
formula of the dry (reference) soil density:
c sa si
d
c sa si sa si c si c sa
c c c

=
+ +
(20)
Using (7) and (20) is obtain:
( )( ) 1 1
c sa si
c sa s i sa s i c si c s a
m
c c c

= +
+ +
(21)
Taking account that
1
c sa si
c c c + + = , (22)
result:
d c sa si
M M M M = + + (16)
i echilibrul de volum:
d c sa si
V V V V = + + (17)
sunt adevrate. n formula (16) Mc este masa argilei, Msa
este masa nisipului i Msi masa nmolului. n formula
(16) Vc este volumul argilei, Vsa este volumul nisipului i
Msi volumul nmolului. Parametrii Md i Vd sunt definii.
Concentraiile masei componentelor solului sunt:
, ,
c sa si
c sa si
c sa si
M M M
c
V V V
= = =
(18)
Densitile componentelor sunt urmtoarele:
, ,
c s a s i
c s a si
c s a si
M M M
V V V
= = =
(19)
Utiliznd relaiile (16) (19) se obine formula
densitii solului de referin uscat:
c sa si
d
c c c

=
+ +
(20)
Utiliznd (7) i (20) se obine:
( )( ) 1 1
c sa si
m
c c c

= +
+ +
(21)
Avnd n vedere c,
1
c sa si
c c c + + = (22)
rezult:
( )( )
( )
1 1
1
c sa si
c sa si sa si c c sa c sa
m
c c c c

= +
+ +
(23)
The calculus can be continued, but for the rigorous
definition of the soil compaction degree, these relation
are sufficiently. The relation show that the soil
compaction degree can be strictly mathematically defined
in term of the density.

SOME NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS
The soil compaction is seeing like a mechanical
pollution produce by the farm machinery traffic on the
farm land, but out of these there is a substantial natural
compaction given by own soil weight and water action.
The authors expose the main results obtained during the
investigation of the soil compaction problem, using
classical and original mathematical models. For solving
the soil compaction problem the authors have applied
two different ways. First way uses the analytical solving
(using the calculus of variation, for an equation system)
for soil compaction phenomena and obtain solution which
give the possibility to estimate the influence of some
process parameter about the compaction degree. The
second consist in the structural solving, which use the
finite elements modeling for the soil and using different
loads.
A synthetically comparison between the two types of
solutions are given in the table 1. The parameters
significations are the next: u is the displacement, x is the
coordinate on the vertical direction (table 1, a)), t is the
time, is the strain, 0 is the initial soil density (the
density of the initial configuration), is the soil density in
the current configuration, 0 is the soil density in the initial
configuration (at t=0), f is the inertial load deliver by the
soil mass ( inertial force density), S is the Piolla
Kirchoff stress of first species in the soil, is the soil
strain, l is the length of the soil column (or the soil depth),
M is the wheel mass specific load, m is the mass of the
soil column situated under the contact zone between the
wheel and the soil, R is the wheel dynamic radius, V is
the vehicle velocity, L and b are the length and the width
of the contact zone between the wheel and the soil.
Calculele pot fi continuate, dar pentru o definiie
riguroas a gradului de compactare a solului, aceste relaii
sunt suficiente. Relatia arat c, gradul de compactare a
solului poate fi definit strict matematic, n termenii
densitii.

CTEVA SOLUII NUMERICE
Compactarea solului este vzut ca o poluare
mecanic i se produce prin traficul de pe cmpurile
agricole, dar n afar de acesta exist i o compactare
natural substanial dat de propria greutate a aciunii
apei. Autorii expun principalele rezultate obinute n
timpul investigrii problemei compactrii solului, utiliznd
modele matematice clasice i originale. Pentru
rezolvarea problemei compactrii solului, autorii au
aplicat dou metode diferite. Prima metod utilizeaz
rezolvarea analitic (utiliznd calculul variaional pentru
un sistem de ecuaii) pentru fenomenul de compactare a
solului i se obine soluia care d posibilitatea estimrii
influenei unor parametrii de proces referitoare la gradul
de compactare. A doua metod const n rezolvarea pe
calea analizei structurale, care utilizeaz modelarea cu
elemente finite pentru sol utiliznd ncrcri diferite.
O comparaie sintetic ntre cele dou tipuri de
soluii este dat n tabelul 1. Parametrii semnificativi sunt
urmtorii: u este deplasarea, e este coordonate pe
direcie vertical (tabelul 1, a), t este timpul, este
deformatia specific, 0 este densitatea iniial a solului
(densitatea configuraiei iniiale), este densitatea solului
n configuraia curent, 0 este densitatea solului n
configuraia iniial (la t = 0), f este ncrcarea inerial
furnizat de masa solului (densitatea forei ineriale), S
este tensiunea Piolla Kirchoff a primelor tipuri de sol,
este solicitarea de sol, l este lungimea coloanei (sau
adncimea solului), M este ncrcarea specific a roilor,
m este masa coloanei de sol situat sub zona de contact
dintre roat i sol, R este raza dinamic a roii, V este
viteza de deplasare a vehiculului, L i b sunt lungimea i
limea zonei de contact dintre roat i sol. (figura 1, e)

129
(figure 1, e)) is a function which give the mechanical
behavior of the soil material.
este o funcie care d comportamentul mecanic al solului
ca materialului.

Table 1 / Tabelul 1
Comparison between the calculus of variations and numerical solution / Comparaia ntre calculul variaiei i soluia numeric

Calculus of variations solutions Structural numerical solutions
a) b)
c)
( )
2
0 2
0
,
,
1 ,
( , )
S u
f
x t
u
x
S h

+ =

= +
=

d)

e)
0
( , ) ( ( ), , , , , , , , ) t x x M m R V L l t x =

f)
g)
h)

In our studies we consider that the soil bulk density
is the main characteristic of the soil compaction.
Generally, this characteristic is, not given by the classical
structural solution, and many others solutions dont give
the soil bulk density space-time variation.
The use of the hand solving for the compaction
problem has the next advantages:
- it is possible to obtain soil bulk density formulae
which give the influence of each parameter
considered about the compaction phenomenon (for
example vehicle velocity influence);
- it is possible to consider many types of equations
which describe the soil material behavior;
- the formulae obtained by this way can provide
different optimal solution for the soil compacting
problem, for example, we find the influence of the
velocity traffic about the compacting phenomenon;
- using the explicit formulae we have obtained on this
way it is possible to formulate some farm
management principle, which lead to the diminution
of the compaction intensity;
- it is possible to precise a soil bulk density formula,
which include the model parameters;
- it is possible to precise the depth of the compacting zone.
The using of the hand solving for the compaction
problem has the next disadvantage:
- the solution is usually 1-dimensional because the 3-
n studiile noastre am considerat c, densitatea
solului este caracteristica principal a compactrii solului.
n general, aceast caracteristic nu este dat prin
soluiile structurale clasice i multe alte soluii nu dau
variaia spaiu-timp a densitii.
Utilizarea rezolvrii pas cu pas a problemei
compactrii solului prezint urmtoarele avantaje:
- este posibil obinerea formulei a densitii solului,
care d influena fiecrui parametru, considernd c
fenomenul al compactaii solului (de exemplu
influena deplasrii vehiculelor) ;
- este posibil considerarea multor tipuri de ecuaii care
s descrie comportarea materialului ce modeleaza solul;
- formula obinut n acest mod poate furniza soluie
optimal diferit pentru problema compactrii, de
exemplu, putem gsi influena vitezei traficului
asupra fenomenului de compactare;
- prin utilizarea formulei explicite am obinut n
formularea unor principii de management de ferm,
care conduce la diminuarea intensitii de
compactare
- este posibil precizarea formulei densitii solului,
care include parametrii de model;
- este posibil precizarea adncimii zonei de compactare.
Utilizarea rezolvrii de mn pentru problema
compactrii are urmtoarul dezavantaj:
- soluia este 1-dimensional, deoarece soluiile 3-

130
dimensional solutions are difficult to obtain.
The structural solution use the continuous body
mathematical model. An example is given in the table 1
(b, d, f, h), which is a 2-dimensional model for the soil.
For the agricultural soils, we exclude from the start the
elastic body model. We consider that is necessary a nonlinear
elastic-plastic model, and for the future applications we
will consider a viscous-elastic-plastic model.
This soil have an uniform and homogenous initial
bulk density and stress strain properties.
The structural solving for the compaction problem
has the next advantages:
- the solutions are 2 or 3 dimensional and give the
space-time variation of the stress, strain;
- by the way of structural analysis is possible to
visualize the compacted zone of the soil in 3-
dimensional space;
The structural solving for the compaction problem
has the next disadvantages:
- generally, this way dont give the soil bulk density
space-time variation;
- the structural analysis programs cannot consider
whatever material equation for describe the soil
behavior;
- for finding the influence of the parameters
compacting problem about the compacting degree
(with a exactly definition), we need many numerical
solving and supplementary general studies;
Using the obtained results we can evaluate the time
period that which is necessary a deep tillage for the soil
compaction amelioration.

CONCLUSIONS
The compaction soil problem solutions given by the
commercial software programs give not as result the soil
bulk density, which is the main characteristic of the
compaction phenomenon. The relation between the soil
strain and the soil bulk density in the deformation
(compaction) process, is, for the moment, vague.
This relation depend on the type of the continuous body
which modeling the soil, but, the FEA software, generally
give not the map of the final or of the current soil bulk density
in the soil. For this reason, the solutions based on hand
calculus is favorite, because on these solution is possible
to calculate the soil compaction degree in term of soil bulk
density report. These solutions, but so the structural
solutions, show that the soil compaction degree is variable
with the soil point, because the current soil bulk density is
variable with the point. Also the initial soil bulk density is,
generally, non-homogenous, is a function on the soil point.
Finally, in the aim to obtain efficient solutions for the
soil compaction problem, is necessary that the structural
solution that include the current density function and to
calculate the report between the final and the initial
density in each point of the body which is analyzed. The
general structural solutions for the soil compaction problem
will must take account that the initial density is variable
with the point in the soil, especially with the soil depth.
dimensionale sunt dificil de obinut.
Soluia structural utilizeaz modelul matematic al
corpului continuu. n tabelul 1 (b, d, f, h) este dat un
exemplu care este un model 2-dimensional pentru sol.
Pentru solurile agricole, excludem din start modelul
elastic. Considerm necesar un model nelinear elastio-
plastic i pentru aplicaiile viitoare considerm necesar
un model viscoelastic-plastic.
Solul initial are distributii spatiale ale densitatii, si
tensiunii, uniforme si omogene.
Rezolvarea structural pentru problema compactrii
are urmtoarele avantaje:
- soluiile sunt bi sau tri dimensionale i dau variaia
spatio temporala a tensiunii si deformatiei;
- pe calea de rezolvare a analizei structurale este
posibil vizualizarea zonei compactate a solului tri-
dimensional;
Rezolvarea structural pentru problema compactrii
are urmtoarele dezavantaje:
- n general, acest mod nu d variaia spaiu-timp a
densitii solului;
- programele de analiz structural nu pot
considera orice ecuaie de material pentru
descrierea comportamentului solului;
- pentru gsirea influenei parametrilor problemei de
compactare referitoare la gradul de compactare
(cu o definiie exact) avem nevoie de multe soluii
numerice i studii generale suplimentare.
Utiliznd rezultatele obinute, putem evalua
perioada de timp dup care este necesar o artur
adnc pentru ameliorarea compactrii solului.

CONCLUZII
Soluiile problemelor de compactare a solului date
de programele comerciale nu dau ca rezultat densitatea,
care este caracteristica principal a fenomenului de
compactare. Relaia dintre deformaia specific a solului i
densitate n procesul de deformare este pentru moment
vag (neprecizat).
Relaia depinde de tipul de corp continuu care
modeleaz solul, dar programul FEA, n general nu d
harta densitii curente sau finale a solului. Din acest
motiv, soluiile bazate pe calcule realizate de mn (nu
folosind metode numerice) sunt indicate, deoarece cu
aceste soluii este posibil s se calculeze gradul de
compactare a solului n termenii densitatii solului.
Aceste soluii, ct i soluiile structurale, arat faptul c,
gradul de compactare a solului este variabil n funcie de
coordonatele punctului n spaiu, deoarece densitatea
curent a solului este variabil cu aceleai coordinate.
n final, n scopul obinerii soluiilor eficiente pentru problema
compactrii solului, este necesar ca soluia structural s
includ funcia densitate i calcularea raportului dintre
densitatea iniial i densitatea final n fiecare punct al
locului care este analizat. n general, soluiile structurale
pentru problema compactrii solului trebuie s ia n
considerare faptul c, densitatea iniial este variabil n
funcie de punctul din sol, n special adncimea solului.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1].www.sfrc.ufl.edu/Extension/ssfor11.htm;
[2].eusoils.jrc.it/ESDB_Archive/glossary/Soil_Terms.html;
[3].www.csu.org/environment/xeriscape/resources/page3862.html;
[4].www.cof.orst.edu/cof/teach/for442/glossary/gloss1.htm;
[5]. J. DeJong-Hughes, J. F. Moncrief, W. B. Voorhees,
and J. B. Swan, Soil Compaction, Causes, Effects and
Control, 2001 Regents of the University of Minnesota;
[6]. Donald H. Gray, Balancing engineering requirements
and plant-growth needs in slope protection and erosion
control work, EC - September/October 2002;

[7]. Inge Hakansson, Jerzy Lipiec, A review of the usefulness
of relative bulk density values in studies of soil structure
and compaction, Soil & Tillage Research, Incorporating
Soil Technology, ELSEVIER, Amsterdam Lausanne
New-York Oxford Shannon Tokio, vol. 53, NO.2,
January 2000;
[8]. www.civil.usyd.edu.au/courses/civl2410/compaction_test_handout.doc.
[9] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porosity

131

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ON TEXTURE HOMOGENEITY FIRMNESS
OF THE PULP APPLES
/
CERCETRI EXPERIMENTALE PRIVIND OMOGENITATEA FERMITII TEXTURII PULPEI
MERELOR

Prof.dr.ing Csndroiu Tudor; Drd.ing. Ivnescu Daniela - U.P. Bucureti
Conf.dr.ing. Vintil Marian ICDIMPH Bucureti

Abstract
This paper presents the results of experimental
research on the assessment firmness texture on a variety
of local apples, from the production of 2008.
Were conducted measurements for Idared variety from
I.S.C.P. Voinesti - Dmbovia grouped in three categories
of predominant color assigned to different stages of
ripening and after three periods of cold storage in cells (3
months, 5 months and 7 months).
Each group contained 6 fruit. Also, for each fruit the
measurements were performed on three areas
(peduncular, equatorial and apical), each of them in four
diametrically opposite points.
The firmness of the fruit texture sometimes assimilated
by, the rigidity of texture was quantified using the method
known as, the method of the test-push Magnes Taylor
measuring the pressure force of a calibrated cylindrical
rods which penetrates into the fruit pulp for a certain depth,
force called ,,resistance to penetration. The measurements
were made with the electrometer Pnefl FTD 14 (Digital
Firmness Tester) with an accuracy of 0.4 N.
To established that the retention times of more than 3
months has as effect, homogenization assuredness fruit
texture, the resistance of penetration with slightly different
values between different measurement areas on the
surface of the fruit and the different stages of ripening.
The data obtained are useful in evaluating the quality of
consumption and from storage and storage for different
periods of the apples.

1. INTRODUCTION
After harvesting, to maximize production of fresh fruit in
marketing (especially apples), it undergoes a chain-packing
operations transport (handling) - storage - preservation -
sort. value (class) and quality of fruit is largely reduced by
the mechanical crunching, by the injury (contusion) of the
tissue, by taunting, appearance of internal rifts
cracks(breaks) of the tissue and by deformation and
modification of the geometrical shape(permanent visible
strains) [7].
Injury by the tissue contusion in apples and the
permanent visible strains with modification of the
geometric shape causes the major losses of quality and,
consequently the degree of reduction in the marketing of
fresh apples [6,7,8,13].
Therefore the total losses of fruits after harvest, can
reach 30% of production, [13]. During storage, the apples,
losses can exceed sometimes 1012%, [6.7].
Injuries from the apples proceeded from the
preservation period are caused by the superficial injuries
produced previously under epicarp which subsequently is
developing in the apples pulp and of injuries caused by the
application of compressive load to constant weight of fruits
from the upper ranks to the fruits from the lower ranks,
realizing a relationship force-deformation featured to the
rheological behavior of the creep, [7]. In this case an
important role is the size of packaging used (particularly
the available storage height) that must not exceed certain
Rezumat
n lucrare se prezint rezultatele cercetrilor experimentale
privind evaluarea fermitii (,,firmness) texturii la un soi de
mere autohton, din producia anului 2008.
S-au efectuat msurtori pentru soiul Idared provenit de
la I.S.C.P. Voineti Dmbovia grupat pe trei categorii ale
culorii predominante atribuite stadiilor de coacere diferite i
dup trei durate de pstrare n celule frigorifice (3 luni, 5
luni i 7 luni).
Fiecare grup a coninut 6 fructe. De asemenea pentru
fiecare fruct msurtorile au fost efectuate pe trei zone
(peduncular, ecuatorial i apical), n fiecare din acestea n cte
patru puncte diametral opuse.
Fermitatea (,,firmness) texturii fructelor asimilat uneori
prin ,,rigiditatea texturii a fost cuantificat utiliznd metoda
cunoscut sub numele de ,,metoda testului de apsare
Magnes Taylor msurnd fora de apsare a unei tije
cilindrice calibrate care ptrunde n pulpa fructului pe o
anumit adncime, for denumit ,,rezisten la penetrare.
Msurtorile au fost efectuate cu penetrometrul Pnefl
DFT 14 (Digital Firmness Tester) cu o precizie de 0,4 N.
Se constat c pstrarea pe durate de peste 3 luni are
ca efect, omogenizarea fermitii texturii fructelor,
rezistena la penetrare avnd valori diferite nesemnificativ
ntre diferitele zone de msurare pe suprafaa fructului i
diferitele stadii de coacere.
Datele obinute sunt utile n activitatea de evaluare a
calitii pentru consum i n activitile de depozitare i
pstrare pe diferite perioade a merelor.

1. INTRODUCERE
Dup recoltare, pentru valorificarea produciei de fructe
n stare proaspt prin comercializare (n particular mere),
acestea sufer un lan de operaii de ambalare-transport
(manipulare) depozitare pstrare sortare. Valoarea
(clasa) i calitatea fructelor este n mare msur redus
prin vtmarea mecanic prin strivirea (contuzia) esutului,
prin nepare, prin apariia fisurilor interne i crpturilor
(ruperilor) esutului i prin deformarea i modificarea
formei geometrice (deformaii permanente vizibile) [7].
Vtmarea prin contuzia esutului la mere i
deformaiile permanente vizibile cu modificarea formei
geometrice constituie cauzele majore a pierderilor de
calitate i n consecin a gradului de reducere a
comercializrii n stare proaspt a merelor [6,7,8,13].
De aceea pierderile totale de fructe, dup recoltare,
pot ajunge la 30% din producie, [13]. In timpul pstrrii, la
mere, pierderile pot depi uneori 1012%, [6,7].
Vtmrile merelor provenite din perioada pstrrii sunt
cauzate de vtmrile superficiale produse anterior sub epicarp
care ulterior se dezvolt n pulpa mrului i a vtmrilor
produse de solicitarea de compresiune la ncrcare constant
din partea greutii fructelor din rndurile superioare
asupra fructelor din rndurile inferioare, realizndu-se o
relaie for-deformaie caracteristic comportrii reologice de
fluaj, [7]. In acest caz un rol important l au dimensiunile
ambalajelor folosite (ndeosebi nlimea util) care nu
trebuie s depeasc anumite limite crora s-ar putea

132
limits which could be due to defects of the lower rows of
fruits, which could affect apples quality and grade [7, 8, 13].
These limits are depending on the variety of apples and
baking stage characterized by a mechanical property that
can be a measure of stiffness (firmness) qualities of fruit
pulp. This mechanical property was defined by mechanical
sizes such as: Young modulus of elasticity [3, 7, 8, and 13],
resistance ultimate [7, 8, and 13], resistance to penetration
[2.7], limit of bioyield [3, 7.8]. Therefore the best suited for
evaluating apple firmness, seem to be used the resistance
ultimate and / or resistance to penetration [2.7].
The limitation or even avoidance of the defects of
mechanical origin that may affect fruit quality can be
achieved only by knowing the physical and mechanical
properties and behavior of the various types of mechanical
requests of apples. Based on their knowledge can be
made useful recommendations for appropriate design and
choice of packaging according to the category of fruits, the
degree of maturation and duration and conditions of
storage (storage). Therefore took place and continues to
conduct numerous theoretical and experimental
researches on this properties and behavior to various
types of mechanical requests of the fruits, the factors
which affects them, their correlations with the tissue and
cellular chemical composition.
Appropriate mathematical models have been developed
to describe these correlations, as the consistent with reality
and based on which to be provided, under concrete
conditions, either the mechanical injuries caused by
storage in certain packages, or imposing the maximum
permitted level of defects or injuries related to deviations
from the geometrical shape to be chosen properly the
suitable packaging [2,7,8,13].
There have been initiated researches in this regard and
in our country at the Department of Biotechnical Systems
from UPB under the guidance of prof. dr. engineer Tudor
Csndroiu, early on 19921994 under the form of
contracts for scientific research and of numerous scientific
papers, articles published and presented at several
national scientific conferences, as well as under the format
of doctoral theses completed and in progress.
Is found that the researches are based on fundamental
theoretical developments, first with reference to the
homogeneous and isotropic bodies with ideal elastic
behavior or viscous-elastic [7,8,11,13], and then thoroughly
steeped in accordance with the parenchyma structure of the
apple tissues for correction and adoption of the patterns
for a more adequate concordance to the reality [4,1,15].
There have been broached modern methods of research
in this field regarding the utilization of the finite element method
to the analysis of mechanical contact tissues of apples [11] and
regarding the modeling of the apples response to static
shipments using images technique for reproducing the spatial
distribution of the cells mechanically affected by considering the
maximum stress of crushing (contusion) of cells [10].
Nowadays there has been introduced the modern
concept of susceptibility to injury which takes into account
in determining the stress value at which mechanical
damages occurs by imposing of a certain probability with
whom is produced a certain level of injury and a certain level
of confidence of it [5].
This paper presents the results of experimental
researches regarding the firmness assessment of the pulp
tissue for a local variety of apples (Idared) from the
production of 2008. It has been followed the influence of
the degree of ripening, storage duration and homogeneity
degree of texture firmness of, the Magnes Taylor test-
push method [7] measuring the necessary force to
penetrate the fruit pulp for a certain depth of a rigid
cylindrical rod, force called, resistance to penetration.
datora defecte ale fructelor din rndurile inferioare, ceea
ce ar afecta calitatea i clasa merelor [7,8,13].
Aceste limite sunt funcie de soiul de mere i de stadiul
de coacere caracterizate printr-o proprietate mecanic ce poate
fi o msur a nsuirilor de rigiditate (fermitate ,,firmness) a
pulpei fructelor. Aceast proprietate mecanic a fost definit
prin mrimi mecanice ca: modulul de elasticitate Young [3,7,8,13],
rezistena la rupere [7,8,13], rezistena la penetrare [2,7],
limita de biocurgere [3,7,8].Dintre acestea cele mai potrivite
pentru evaluarea fermitii merelor, se pare c sunt utilizate
rezistena la rupere i/sau rezistena la penetrare [2,7].
Limitarea i chiar evitarea defectelor de natur
mecanic ce pot afecta calitatea fructelor se poate realize
numai prin cunoaterea proprietilor fizice i mecanice i
a comportrii la diversele tipuri de solicitri mecanice a
merelor. Pe baza cunoaterii acestora se pot face
recomandri utile n proiectarea i alegerea adecvat a
ambalajului n funcie de categoria de fructe, de gradul de
coacere i de durata i condiiile de pstrare (depozitare).
De aceea s-au desfurat i continu s se desfoare
numeroase cercetri teoretice i experimentale referitoare
la aceste proprieti i la comportarea la diverse tipuri de
solicitri mecanice ale fructelor, a factorilor care le
influeneaz, a corelaiilor acestora cu structura esuturilor
celulare i a compoziiei chimice.
S-au dezvoltat modele matematice adecvate care s
descrie aceste corelaii, ct mai concordant cu realitatea i
pe baza crora s se prevad, n condiii concrete, fie
nivelul vtmrilor mecanice cauzate de depozitarea n
anumite ambalaje, fie impunnd nivelul maxim admis al
vtmrilor sau defectelor legate de abaterile de la forma
geometric s se proiecteze sau s se aleag corespunztor
ambalajele adecvate [2,7,8,13].
S-au iniiat cercetri n acest sens i la noi n ar la
catedra de Sisteme Biotehnice din UPB sub ndrumarea
prof.dr.ing. Tudor Csndroiu, nc din 19921994 sub
forma unor contracte de cercetare tiinific ca i a unor
numeroase lucrri tiinifice, articole publicate i
prezentate la diverse conferine tiinifice naionale,
precum i sub forma unor teze de doctorat, realizate i n
curs de realizare.
Se constat c cercetrile au la baz dezvoltri teoretice
fundamentale, pentru nceput referitoare la corpuri
omogene i izotrope cu comportare ideal elastic sau
vscoelastic [7,8,11,13], mai apoi aprofundat i adncit
n concordan cu structura parenchimatic a esuturilor
mrului pentru corectarea i adoptarea modelelor pentru o ct
mai adecvat concordan cu realitatea [4,1,15].
Au fost abordate metode moderne de cercetare n
acest domeniu privind utilizarea metodei elementului finit la
analiza esuturilor de contact mecanic a merelor [11] i
privind modelarea rspunsului merelor la ncrcri statice
folosind tehnica imaginilor pentru redarea distribuiei
spaiale a celulelor afectate mecanic prin considerarea
tensiunii maxime de strivire (contuzie) a celulelor [10].
S-a introdus n prezent conceptul modern de
susceptibilitate la vtmare care ine seama la stabilirea
valorii tensiunii la care apar vtmri mecanice de o
anumit probabilitate impus cu care se produce un
anumit nivel al vtmrii i un anumit nivel de ncredere al
acesteia [5].
In prezenta lucrare se prezint rezultatele cercetrilor
experimentale privind evaluarea fermitii (,,firmness)
esutului pulpei unui soi de mere (Idared) autohton din
producia anului 2008. S-a urmrit influena gradului de
coacere, a duratei de pstrare i gradului de omogenitate
al fermitii texturii fructelor,,metoda testului de apsare
Magnes-Taylor [7] msurnd fora necesar ptrunderii n
pulpa fructului pe o anumit adncime a unei tije cilindrice
rigide, for denumit ,,rezisten la penetrare.

133
2. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
In the In the first moments of pressing the axial rod of die normal
to the flat surface of the fruit body, strains can be
considered elastic ( for small strains).
Further, increasing strains (so-called domain of large
strains) show deviations linearity in the force-deformation
curve occurs when the first damage cells bioyield points),
followed by breaks of cellular tissue by compression and
shearing and it take place a penetration of die in the fruit
body.
It will be analize, theoretically, the first and the last
phase in change of place of rigid (stiff) die at the pressing
on the fruit surface.
In the first phase of small deformations, considered to
be elastic form, is the application of the theory of elastic
semispace Bussinesq [ 14].
In accordance with this theory, the distribution of the
pressure on the die surface of the homogeneous semiinfinite
elastic boby, correspond to the relation (fig. 1) [7].
2.CONSIDERAII TEORETICE
In primele momente ale apsrii axiale a tijei (puansonului)
normal la suprafaa plan a corpului fructului, deformaiile
se pot considera elastice (pentru deformaii mici).
In continuare, la creterea deformaiilor (n aa numitul
domeniu al deformaiilor mari) apar abateri de la liniaritatea
curbei for-deformaie cnd se manifest primele
distrugeri de celule (puncte de biocurgere), urmat de ruperi
ale esutului celular prin compresiune i forfecare i are loc
o ptrundere a puansonului n corpul fructului.
Vor fi analizate teoretic prima i ultima faz n
deplasarea puansonului rigid la apsarea sa pe suprafaa
fructului.
In prima faz a deformaiilor mici considerate elastice,
se aplic, de regul, teoria semispaiului elastic a lui
Bussinesq [14].
Conform acestei teorii, distribuia presiunii pe faa
puansonului a corpului omogen elastic semiinfinit
corespunde relaiei (fig.1) [7]:

Fig. 1 - Distribution of pressure on the die homogeneous elastic body under Bussinesq hypothesis /
Distribuia presiunii pe faa puansonului a corpului omogen elastic, conform ipotezei Bussinesq

2 2
2 r a a
F
p
(1)
where:
F- force of total loading of die;
a -radius of die;
r - the distance from the center area to prompt action die.
This shows that the maximum takes place along the
contour puanson, where r=a, and the minimum pressure
occurs die in the center where r=0. This minimum pressure
is half of the average pressure on a circular area die.
|
\
|
=
2
min
2
1
a
F
p
(2)
Elastic semi space is driven in a domain D of a load
distributed to the normal whose expression in a coordinate
point (x,y) is p (x,y) given by equation (1).

2 2
2 r a a
F
p
(1)
unde:
F- fora de ncrcare total a puansonului;
a raza puansonului;
r distana de la centrul ariei la punctul de aciune al poansonului.
Aceast relaie arat c presiunea maxim are loc de-a
lungul conturului puansonului unde r=a, iar presiunea minim
are loc n centrul puansonului unde r=0. Aceast presiune minim
este jumtate din presiunea medie pe aria circular a puansonului
|
\
|
=
2
min
2
1
a
F
p
(2)
Semispaiul elastic este acionat ntr-un domeniu D de
o sarcin distribuit, normal la plan a crei expresie ntr-
un punct de coordonate (x,y) este p(x,y) dat de ecuaia (1).

Fig. 2 - Scheme computing center for the movement due to the die distributed force p (x,y) /
Schema de calcul pentru deplasarea centrului puansonului datorat forei distribuite p(x,y)

movement of origin produced in O (equal to the
displacement at any point of the domain (D) due to the
rigidity force die (see Fig. 2 ) is consistent with the theory
of elastic semispace Bussinesq, based on particular:
( )
=
D y x
dxdy y x p
E
2 2
2
, 1
(3)
where: E- Young elasticity modulus of the apple.
Poisson coefficient of apple material
Deplasarea total produs n originea O (egal cu
deplasrile n orice punct ale domeniului (D), datorit
rigiditii forei puansonului) (vezi fig.2) este conform
teoriei semispaiului elastic a lui Bussinesq, pe baza
particularizrii relaiei generale [14] exprimat prin relaia:
( )
=
D y x
dxdy y x p
E
2 2
2
, 1
(3)
unde: E- modulul de elasticitate Young al mrului
- coeficientul Poisson al materialului mrului

134
[ ] [ ] a a y a a x , , ,
For the calculation of the full double failure ( 3 ) is
moving from carteziene coordinate (x, y) in polar
coordinate (, r), because expression (1) p is the pressure
in polar coordinate. Charge of coordinates from the
Cartesian coordinate (x, y) in polar coordinates (, r), fig.
2, it is known that dr rd dxdy = and r y x = +
2 2

where [ ] 2 , 0 and [ ] a r , 0 .
After the replacement of the ec. (3) and the
relationship (1) to obtain:
( )
( )
=
D r a
dr d
Ea
F
2 2
2
2
2
1
( 4 )
Making full calculation is double
( )
2
2 2
D r a
dr d
and
substituting in (4) to obtain:
( )
Ea
F
2
1
2

=
(5)
Ec. (5) is well-known [7] and it is often used for
evaluation of elasticity modulus. It is used as index to
estimate the firmness of fruit body tissue, after ec. 5 is
arranged like:
a
F
E
2
1
2
=
(6)
Modulus of elasticity E is a feature used to
characterize the mechanical state of maturation (ripening)
fruit and in many engineering problems of calculation. By
increasing the deformation displacement die in the
biological material to get to the point where bioyield start
crushing cells and then continuing the movement is
breaking die cellular tissue by pressing (compression) to
tension r breaking at all points on the surface of the
frontal and die the shearing stresses at break r contours
on the outside of the area under die fig (3).

[ ] [ ] a a y a a x , , ,

Pentru calculul integralei duble din ec.(3) se trece de
la coordonate carteziene (x,y) la coordonate polare (,r),
deoarece expresia (1) a presiunii p este n coordonate
polare. La schimbarea coordonatelor de la coordonate
carteziene (x,y) la coordonate polare (,r) fig.2, se tie c:
dr rd dxdy = i r y x = +
2 2
unde [ ] 2 , 0 i
[ ] a r , 0
Dup nlocuirea n ec. (3) i avnd n vedere relaia
(1) se obine:
( )
( )
=
D r a
dr d
Ea
F
2 2
2
2
2
1
(4)
Efectund calculul integralei duble se gsete
( )
2
2 2
D r a
dr d

i nlocuind n (4) se obine:
( )
Ea
F
2
1
2

=
(5)
Ec.(5) este o relaie cunoscut [7] i este frecvent
utilizat pentru evaluarea modulului de elasticitate E folosit
ca indice de apreciere a rigiditii esutului pulpei fructelor
[7] dup ce ec.(5) este aranjat sub forma:
a
F
E
2
1
2
=
(6)
Modulul de elasticitate E este o caracteristic mecanic
utilizat la caracterizarea stadiului de coacere (maturizare) a
fructelor i n numeroase probleme inginereti de calcul. Prin
creterea deformaiei prin deplasarea puansonului n materialul
biologic se ajunge la punctual de biocurgere cnd ncepe
strivirea celulelor i apoi continund deplasarea puansonului
are loc ruperea esutului celular prin presare (comprimare) la
tensiuni de rupere r n toate punctele de pe suprafaa
frontal a puansonului i la tensiuni de forfecare la rupere r
pe conturul exterior al suprafeei puansonului conform fig (3).

Fig. 3 - Scheme of calculation of the penetration force, F / Schema de calcul a forei de penetrare, F

In the penetration depth, die h in fruit pulp, the balance
is fig. 3 can write:
r r
ah a F 2
2
+ = (7)
Ec. 7 is arranged like:
|
|
\
|
+ =
r
r
r
a
h
a F
2 1
2
(8)
If the report notes
=
r
r can be considered a constant
for given state of the fruit pulp is obtained in equation (8).
|
\
|
+ =
a
h
a F
r
2 1
2 (9)
For a die given by a radius and a constant depth h ,
parenthesis 1 + 2 h/a= may be constant. In this case,
ec.9 becomes:
r
a F
2
= (10)
Under such failure (10) shows that F, is for accepting 2a=
7/16 * 25,4= 11.1 mm [ 7 ], so a
2
= 1 cm
2
, and thus:
F= r (11).
La ptrunderea pe adncimea h a puansonului n pulpa
fructului, la echilibru, fig.3 se poate scrie:
r r
ah a F 2
2
+ = (7)
Aranjnd ecuaia (7) sub forma:
|
|
\
|
+ =
r
r
r
a
h
a F
2 1
2
(8)
Dac se noteaz raportul
=
r
r
se poate considera o
pentru o anumit stare a pulpei fructului, se obine n ecuaia (8):
|
\
|
+ =
a
h
a F
r
2 1
2 (9)
Pentru un puanson dat prin raza a i pentru o adncime
h constant, paranteza 1+2h/a = se poate lua
constant. In acest caz, ec(9) devine:
r
a F
2
= (10)
Sub aceast form ec. (10) arat c F, acceptndu-se pentru
2a= 7/16 in = 7/16 x 25,4 =11,1 mm [7], deci a
2
=1 cm
2
i astfel:
F= r (11)

135
In this case of failure (11) that scale , the force F
measured resistance ultimate of the fruit pulp tissue and
therefore F is a feature mechanical, determination that
estimate the firmness of the tissue called the force F
,,resistance to penetration that is measured. According to
data from [7], it is recommended that
mm x in h 9 , 7 4 , 25
16
5
16
5
= =

On this basis was developed Magnes- Taylor Method
for evaluating firmness fruit pulp texture measuring force F
(N) known resistance to penetration of a rigid cylindrical
die a certain depth in the fruit pulp.
The measurements ,we made on penetromate
PENEFEL DFT 14 Digital Firmness Tester with an
accuracy of 0,4 N, die with diameter of 11.1 mm
(s 1cm
2
).

3. METHOD AND MATERIALS
The apples used in Experiments were Idared variety,
from ISCP Voinesti County Dmbovia harvested at the
end of August 2008.
These were grouped into three categories of
predominant colors assigned to three different stages of
ripening (dough ripeness', medium and mature). Apples
were grouped into groups of 6 each for each fruit baking,
placed in the individual casket and stored in cells
refrigerators at a temperature of 3-40 C and a relative
humidity of 90 -95%. The evaluation of the firmness
texture of apples was made after a storage period of 3, 5
and 7 months using the method known as, the method
test-push magnes Taylor measuring the pressure force of
a calibrated cylindrical rods which penetrate into pulp fruit
on a certain depth, the force called ,,resistance to
penetration. The measurements were made with FTD
penetrometer Pnfel 14 (Digital Firmness Tester) with an
accuracy of 0.4 N and using a calibrated cylinder rod 11
mm. depth penetration rod was 8 mm.
The apples were removed from cells 12 hours before to
the measurements in order to acclimatization environment.
The measurements were performed in 12 measuring
points on each fruit in every 4 points diametrically opposite
on each of the areas: the equatorial zone, the peduncle
zone and the apical zone. According to figure 4 which
means that were performed 24 measurements for each
area (equatorial, peduncle and apical) for each stage of
ripening.
In the measurement points was removed the epidermis
so that the penetration occurs only on the fruit pulp.

Fig. 4 - Areas on the surface of the fruit and the measurement
points of resistance to penetration

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The experimental measurements obtained were
processed statistically using the program MathCad
achieved PARSTAT.MCD [9]. The results are presented in
table 1, 2 and 3 for the three durations of storage.

In acest caz, din ec.(11) rezult c, la scara , fora F
msoar rezistena la rupere a esuturilor pulpei fructului
i de aceea F este o caracteristic mecanic ce
evaluaeaz fermitatea (,,firmness) esutului, fora F
denumit ,,rezistena la penetrare care este msurat.
Conform datelor din [7], este recomandat ca
mm x in h 9 , 7 4 , 25
16
5
16
5
= =

Pe aceast baz s-a elaborate ,,metoda testului
Magnes-Taylor pentru evaluarea fermitii (,,firmness)
texturii pulpei fructului msurnd fora F (N) denumit
,,rezisten la penetrare a ptrunderii unui puanson
cilindric rigid pe o anumit adncime n pulpa fructului.
La msurtorile efectuate de noi s-a utilizat penetrometrul
Pnfel DFT14 Digital Firmness Tester cu o precizie de 0,4
N, cu puansonul de diametru 11,1 mm (s 1cm
2
).

3. METOD I MATERIALE
Merele folosite n experimentri au fost din soiul Idared,
provenite de la I.S.C.P. Voineti jud. Dmbovia recoltate
la sfritul lunii august 2008.
Acestea au fost grupate pe trei categorii de culori
predominante atribuite pentru trei stadii de coacere diferite
(prg, medie i copate). Merele au fost grupate n grupe
de cte 6 fructe pentru fiecare categorie de coacere,
aezate n ldie individuale i depozitate n celule
frigorifice la o temperatur de 3-4
0
C i o umiditate relativ
de 90 -95%. Evaluarea fermittii (firmness) texturii merelor
s-a fcut dup o perioad de pstrare de 3, 5 i 7 luni
utiliznd metoda cunoscut sub numele de ,,metoda
testului de apsare Magnes- Taylor msurnd fora de
apsare a unei tije cilindrice calibrate care ptrunde n
pulpa fructului pe o anumit adncime, for denumit
,,rezisten la penetrare. Msurtorile au fost efectuate cu
penetrometrul Pnfel DFT (Digital Firmness Tester) 14 cu
o precizie de 0,4 N i utiliznd o tij cilindric calibrat 11
mm. Adncimea de penetrare a tijei a fost de 8 mm.
Merele au fost scoase din celule cu 12 ore nainte de
efectuarea msurtorilor n vederea aclimatizrii la mediul
ambiant. Msurtorile au fost efectuate n 12 puncte de
msur pe fiecare fruct, respectiv n cte 4 puncte
diametral opuse n fiecare din zonele: ecuatorial,
peduncular i apical.,conform figurii 4 ceea ce nseamn
c s-au efectuat cte 24 de masurtori pentru fiecare zona
(ecuatorial, peduncular i apical) pentru fiecare faz de
coacere.
In punctele de msur a fost ndeprtat epiderma
astfel nct penetrarea s se produc numai pe pulpa fructului.

Fig. 4 - Zonele de pe suprafaa fructului i punctele de msurare a
rezistenei la penetrare

4. REZULTATE I DISCUII
Datele msurtorilor obinute experimental au fost
prelucrate statistic cu ajutorul programului PARSTAT.MCD
realizat n MathCad [9]. Rezultatele obinute sunt prezentate n
tabelele 1, 2 i 3 pentru cele trei durate de pstrare.


136
Table 1 - Resistances to penetration values for the variety of apples Idared after 3 months of cold storage environment / Valorile
rezistenelor la penetrare pentru soiul de mere Idared dup 3 luni de pstrare n mediu frigorific

Resistance penetration/ Rezistena
la penetrare, F(N)
Degree
of maturation/ Grad
de coacere
Area measuring/
Zona de msur
min max medie
Root deviation/
Abaterea medie
ptratic, (N)
Eq
1)
46,4 57,6 51,3 3,6
Ped
2)
47,2 55,6 51,1 2,9
Dough ripe
Ness / Prg
Apic
3)
46,7 54,2 51,7 2,1
Ec 47,5 61,7 55,3 4,5
Ped 49,8 65,4 57,5 4,6 Medium / Mediu
Apic 48,8 59,8 54,9 3,7
Ec 50,6 61,1 56,6 3,4
Ped 49,1 61,2 55,5 4,4 Mature/ Coapte
Apic 49 57,1 53,9 3,0
1)
the equatorial zone;
2)
the peduncle zone;
3)
the apical zone /
1)
zona ecuatorial;
2)
zona peduncular;
3)
zona apical

Table 2 - Resistances to penetration values for the variety of apples Idared after 5 months of cold storage environment / Valorile
rezistenelor la penetrare pentru soiul de mere Idared dup 5 luni de pstrare n mediu frigorific

Resistance penetration /
Rezistena la penetrare, F(N)
Degree
of maturation /
Grad de coacere
Area measuring /
Zona de msur
min max medie
Root deviation /
Abaterea medie
ptratic, (N)
Eq

41,7 57,3 47,9 4,5
Ped

43 57,1 49,9 3,5
Dough ripe
Ness / Prg
Apic

38,1 55,2 48,3 5,0
Ec 44 51,1 48,4 1,9
Ped 43,9 51,5 47,9 2,2 Medium / Mediu
Apic 47 51,1 48,6 1,1
Ec 42,8 48,4 45,9 1,5
Ped 42,9 49,4 46,2 1,5 Mature / Coapte
Apic 43,4 48,1 45,3 1,2

Table 3 - Resistances to penetration values for the variety of apples Idared after 7 months of cold storage environment / Tab.3
Valorile rezistenelor la penetrare pentru soiul de mere Idared dup 7 luni de pstrare n mediu frigorific

Resistance penetration /
Rezistena la penetrare, F(N)
Degree of maturation /
Grad de coacere
Area measuring /
Zona de msur
min max medie
Root deviation /
Abaterea medie
ptratic (N)
Eq

29 39,6 35 2,8
Ped

28,1 39,3 34,1 2,8
Dough ripe Ness /
Prg
Apic

28,6 37,6 32,9 2,7
Ec 31 38,7 34,9 1,9
Ped 29,4 39,1 34,2 2,6 Medium / Mediu
Apic 29,2 38,3 33,5 2,8
Ec 28,4 36,2 32,3 2,2
Ped 27,4 34,6 31 2,2 Mature/ Coapte
Apic 27,2 32,8 29,6 1,5

Were carried out tests of string normalityi every 24 data
obtained from measurements. To verify the normality of
repartition thwe asymmetry index ,,g and the excess ,,E
were compared with the mean square errors and the
corresponding analysis resolte on the normality distribution
of data obtained from measurements are presented in
table 4. The calculated value (in absolute value) must not
exceed significantly (two-three times) mean square errors
to have a normal distribution [12].
S-au efectuat testri ale normalitii irurilor de cte 24
de date obinute la msurri. Pentru verificarea normalitii
repartiiei indicele de asimetrie ,,g i excesul ,,E au fost
comparate cu erorile medii ptratice corespunztoare iar
rezultatele analizei privitor la normalitatea distribuiei datelor
obinute la msurtori sunt prezentate n tabelul 4.
Valoarea calculat (n valoare absolut) nu trebuie s
depeasc semnificativ (de dou-trei ori) erorile medii
ptratice pentru a avea o distribuie normal [12].

Table 4 - Checking the normality of the distribution of the data for Idared apples after 3 months storage / Verificarea
normalitii distribuiei datelor pentru merele Idared dupa 3 luni de pstrare

The asymmetry index /
Indice de asimetrie ,,g
The excessl / Excesul ,E Degree
of maturation /
Grad coacere
Area/
Zona Calculated
/ Calculat
Mean square error /
Eroarea medie ptratic
Calculated/
Calculat
Mean square error/ Eroarea
medie ptratic
Eq. 0,45 0,45 1,3 0,8
Ped. 0,45 0,45 0,8 0,8
Dough ripe Ness
/ Prg
Apic 0,45 0,45 0,66 0,8
Eq. 0,27 0,45 1,02 0,8
Ped. 0,1 0,45 0,99 0,8 Medium / Mediu
Apic 0,3 0,45 1,4 0,8
Eq. 0,4 0,45 1,1 0,8
Ped. 0,1 0,45 1,5 0,8 Mature / Coapte
Apic 0,44 0,45 1,4 0,8

137

Analyzing the data in table 4 finds that the distribution
of measurement data for all areas of measurement can be
considered normal. The calculated values do not exceed
two or three times the average square errors accordingly.
Strings in the values obtained can be considered to have a
normal distribution.
It was investigated if the strings of data obtained from
measurements for the three areas are significantly
different. For this it was investigated if they are significant
differences dispersions of the between the values strings
and average values of measurements according to the
methodology of mathematical processing of experimental
data Rumsiski [12].The data are presented in table 5.
Analiznd datele din tabelul 4 se constat c distribuia
datelor de la msurtori pentru toate zonele de msurare
poate fi considerat normal. Valorile calculate nu
depesc de dou-trei ori erorile medii ptratice
corespunztoare. In consecin irurile de valori obinute
pot fi considerate c au o distribuie normal.
S-a cercetat dac irurile de date obinute la msurtori
pentru cele trei zone sunt semnificativ diferite. Pentru
aceasta s-a cercetat dac sunt diferene semnificative ntre
dispersiile irurilor de valori i valorile medii ale
msurtorilor conform metodologiei de prelucrare
matematic a datelor experimentale din Rumsiski [12]
Datele sunt prezentate n tabelul 5.

Table 5 - Calculated and critical values for the significance of the differences between the
strings of the values measured for the 3 areas of apples /
Valorile calculate i critice pentru semnificaia diferenelor ntre irurile de valori de la msurtori
pentru cele 3 zone ale merelor

The report of dispersions/
Raportul dispersiilor
Th report / Raportul
,,t (ec.2.31 pag41[12])
Degree
of maturation /
Grad coacere
Area / Zona
Value calculated /
Valoare calculat
Critical value
*)
/
Valoare critic
Value calculated /
Valoare calculat
Critical value
*)
/
Valoare critic

Eq.-Ped 1,457 2,04 0,242 2,012 Dough ripe
Ness / Prg Ped-Apic 2,002 2,069 0,847 2,016
Ped-Eq. 1,037 2,04 1,65 2,012
Medium/ Mediu
Ped.-Apic 1,56 2,04 2,05 2,02
Ped-Eq. 1,658 2,04 0,88 2,012

Ped-Apic 2,028 2,04 1,5 2,012
*)
The critical value was chosen from the tables for a confidence level of 95% for 24 measurements, [12] /
*)
Valoarea critic s-a ales din tabele pentru un nivel de ncredere de 95%, pentru 24 de msurtori, [12]

If the calculated values are lower then the critical data
then the strings compared have the dispersions the
average values slightly different that so the two strings of
data are insignificantly different [12].
Examining the data in Table 5 is found that the calculated
values in all cases are lower on then the critical values so that
the strings of data obtained from measurements of the 3
areas on the 6 apples in each sample are slightly different,
which leads to the conclusion that can be done measurements
in any point on the surface of the fruit with the same accuracy.
In the analogue to strings of data for measurements
made for strings of data for 5 months and 7 months of
storage was obtained the same conclusion. For each
degree of ripening and after each period of storage strings
were obtained values in the three areas were united
achieving a string of 72 values for which was evaluated the
normality of these strings and have been calculated the
following parameters: mean values, roots deviations and
found that the values obtained do not differ significantly
from the values corresponding to each of the three areas
of measurement.
This allows measurements to be made at any point on
the surface of the fruit. In table 6 are average values of
penetration resistance according to the area of the three
periods the storage of apples.
Dac valorile calculate sunt inferioare valorilor critice
atunci irurile de date comparate au dispersiile respectiv
valorile medii nesemnificativ diferite, deci cele dou iruri
de date sunt nesemnificativ diferite [12].
Examinnd datele din tabelul nr.5 se constat c valorile
calculate n toate cazurile sunt inferioare valorilor critice deci
irurile de date ale msurtorilor obinute pe cele 3 zone ale
celor 6 mere din fiecare prob sunt nesemnificativ diferite, fapt
ce conduce la concluzia c se pot face msurtori n orice
punct de pe suprafaa fructului cu aceeai acuratee.
Procednd n mod analog pentru irurile de date pentru
msurtorile efectuate pentru irurile de date la 5 luni i 7
luni de pstrare s-a obinut aceeai concluzie. Pentru
fiecare grad de coacere i dup fiecare durat de pstrare
irurile de valori coninute n cele trei zone au fost reunite
obinndu-se un ir de 72 de valori pentru care s-a evaluat
normalitatea acestor iruri i s-au calculat urmtorii
parametri: valorile medii, abaterile medii ptratice i s-a
constatat c valorile obinute nu difer semnificativ de
valorile corespunztoare pe fiecare din cele trei zone de
msurare.
Acest fapt permite ca msurtorile s se fac n orice
punct de pe suprafaa fructului. In tabelul 6 sunt date
valorile medii ale rezistenei la penetrare n funcie de zon
pentru cele trei durate de pstrare ale merelor.

Table 6 - Average values of penetration resistance / Valori medii ale rezistenei la penetrare, F (N)

Degree of maturation/ Gradul de
coacere
after 3 months of
storage / dup 3
luni de pstrare
after 5 months of
storage / dup 5
luni de pstrare
after 7 months of
storage / dup 7
luni de pstrare
Dough ripe ness equatorial zone
/ Prg-zona ecuatorial
51,3 47,9 35,0
Medium equatorial zone / Mediu
-zona ecuatorial
55,3 48,4 34,9
Mature equatorial zone /
Coapte- zona ecuatorial
56,6 45,9 32,3


138
Analyzing these data was find out that with increasing
duration of storage the penetration resistance on the fruit
tissue firmness decreases significantly, from 51.3 N (at 3
months) to 35 N (at 7 months). Also for the storage of 3
months appears significant relative values of resistance to
penetration by the ripening stage (assessed by the
intensity of the fruit color) this difference of firmness
became insignificant by increasing the storage period over
3 months.

5. CONCLUSIONS
The results from experiments referring to the flesh
firmness of apples Idared shows us that resistances to
penetration of the fruit tissue are not significantly different
in different areas of measurement of the fruit, which
requires a high homogeneity of the fruit tissue firmness on
their outer surface, so you can make do measurements at
any point on the surface of the fruit with the same
accuracy.
The period of influence of the storage on the firmness
of the pulp tissue of the apple is smoothing it between the
3 areas defined on the surface of the fruit of which was
found not significant differences.
As utility of these results we refer to the fact that the
mechanical resistance to of the fruit compression
increases concording to their fermity decreases as the
duration of storage. We expect an increase of the
magnitude of the deformations for the same forces of
compresion with the increasing of the length of storage,
findings directly related to the heights of storage containers
for sale, causing alteration of the characteristic geometrical
shape of the fruit (judged by the degree of deformation,
distortion of the shape) particularly those in the vicinity of
the container bottom.
Analiznd aceste date se constat c o dat cu
creterea duratei de pstrare rezistena la penetrare sau
fermitatea esutului fructului scade semnificativ, de la 51,3
N (la 3 luni) la 35 N (la 7 luni). De asemenea pentru durata
de pstrare de 3 luni apar valori relativ semnificative ale
rezistenei la penetrare cu stadiul de coacere (apreciat prin
intensitatea coloritului fructelor) aceast diferen de
fermitate devenind nesemnificativ la creterea duratei
peste 3 luni.

5. CONCLUZII
Rezultatele obinute n experimentri privind fermitatea
pulpei merelor Idared ne arat c rezistenele la penetrare
ale esutului fructului nu sunt semnificativ diferite n
diversele zone de msurare ale fructului, ceea ce reclam
o omogenitate ridicat a fermitii esutului fructelor pe
suprafaa exterioar a acestora, deci se pot face
msurtori n orice punct de pe suprafaa fructului cu
aceeai acuratee.
Influena duratei de pstrare asupra fermitii esutului
pulpei mrului este de uniformizare a acesteia ntre cele 3
zone delimitate pe suprafaa fructului ntre care s-a
constatat c nu apar diferene semnificative.
Ca utilitate a acestor rezultate ne putem referi la faptul
c rezistena mecanic la compresiune a fructelor n
concordan cu fermitatea acestora scade pe msura
creterii duratei de pstrare. Ne ateptm la o cretere a
mrimii deformaiilor pentru aceleai fore de compresiune
cu creterea duratei de pstrare constatri puse direct n
relaie cu nlimile containerelor de depozitare n vederea
comercializrii, cauznd modificarea formei geometrice
caracteristice a fructelor (apreciate prin gradul de
deformare, distorsiune a formei) ndeosebi a celor din
vecintatea fundului containerelor.

REFERENCES / BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. J.A. Abbott, R.Lu, 1996, Anisotropic mechanical
properties of apples, Transactions of the ASAE,
vol.39(4), pp.1451-1459
2. T. Csndroiu, N. Opria, 1994, Cercetri
experimentale privind evaluarea comportrii la
compresiune i la penetrare a unor soiuri de mere,
Raport tiintific de cercetare UPB (contract de
cercetare cu ICDVPH-RA Bucureti)
3. R.B. Fridley, P.A. Adrian, 1966, Mechanical properties
of peaches, pears, apricots and apples, Trans. Of the
ASAE, vol 9(1), pp.135-138
4. Q. Gao, R.E. Pitt, 1991, Mechanics of parenchyma
tissue based on cell orientation and microstructure,
Trans. Of the ASAE, vol.34(1), pp.232-238
5. J.L. Garcia, M. Ruiz-Altisent, P. Barreiro, 1995,
Factors influencing mechanical properties and bruise
surceptibility of apples and pears, J. Agric. Engng.
Res., vol.61, pp.11-18
6. A. Gherghi, C.Iordchescu,I.Burzo, 1979, Meninerea
calitii legumelor i fructelor n stare proaspt, Ed.
Tehnica, Bucureti
7. N.N. Mohsenin, 1970, Physical properties of plant and
animal materials, Gordon and Breach Science
Publishers, N.Y.

8. C.W. Nelson, N.N. Mohsenin, 1968, Maximum
allowable static and dynamic loads and effect of
temperature for mechanical injury in apples, J. Agric.
Engng. Res., vol.13(4), pp.305-317;
9. I. Punescu, L. David, 1999, Bazele cercetrii experimentale
a sistemelor biotehnice, Ed.Printech, Bucureti
10. A.C. Roudot, F.Duprat, C.Weinian, 1991, Modelling
the response of apples to loads, J. Agric. Engng. Res.,
vol.48, pp.249-259
11. T.R. Rumsey, R.B. Fridley, 1977, Analysis of
viscoelastic contact stress in agricultural products
using a finite element method, Transactions of the
ASAE, vol.20(1), pp.162-167
12. L.Z. Rumsiski, 1974, Prelucrarea matematica a datelor
experimentale (trad. Limba rusa), Ed. Tehnica, Bucuresti
13. Y. Shahabasi, L.J. Segerlind, N.J. Carroll, 1995, A simulation
modal to determine the allowable depth for apples stored
in bulk, Transactions of the ASAE, vol.38(2), pp.587-591
14. R. Voinea, D. Voiculescu, F.P. Simion, 1989, Introducere
n mecanica solidului cu aplicaii n inginerie, Ed.Acad. Romane
15. J. Wang, 2003, Anisotropic relaxation properties of
pear, Biosystems Engineering, vol.85(1), pp.59-65
* * *, Manuel dutilisation Pnfel DFT 14 Digital Firmness
Tester, Agro-technologie, 2007.

139

INDEPENDENT DISK HARROWS FOR STUBBLE-TURN AND READY GERMINATION, ALL
TYPES OF SOIL, DESIGNED 120 220 HP TRACTORS
/
GRAPA CU DISCURI INDEPENDENTE PENTRU DEZMIRISTIT SI PREGATIT PATUL
GERMINATIV, PE TOATE TPURILE DE SOL, DESTINAT TRACTOARELOR DE 120 220CP

dr. ing. Nicolae CONSTANTIN, Prof.on dr. ing. Iosif COJOCARU, Prof. dr. ing. Ion PIRNA,
dr.ing. Vasile NITESCU - INMA Bucureti
ing.Ion LEU-MAT Craiova

Abstract: The surface employed in our country with soil
cultures are established summer-fall is about 37% of the
total agricultural area. New technology for mechanization
work includes soil by stubble-turn and / or germination
bed prepared fresh, or plow the field near the crops to be
established by summer-autumn can be applied to an
appropriate level of quality requirements agropedologice,
at a cost price as low and a reduced consumption of
energy by promoting a new technical equipment intended
for wheeled tractors 120-220 HP. New technical
equipment called GD-4 performs depths of 6 8 cm soil
dezmirititul and 10 14 cm from the germination bed
preparation plowing fresh ground or near, the working
width is approx. 4 m and the working capacity of approx.
3 ha / h.

Keywords: machinery, stubble-turn and ready
germination bed, independent, compact construction

1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Of the country's arable land area (about 8905 ha)
approximately 37% (about 3305 ha) is occupied with the
cultures are established summer-fall, the rest being
arable land for spring crops. If the establishment of the
spring crops are agricultural (combination C2, 6 C3, 9;
CPGC4 etc.) Prepared for land for sowing, in exchange
for the establishment of summer crops-autumn, the range
of existing agricultural machinery is not appropriate or is
insufficient.
Plants sown or planted on a bed properly germination
develops better than plants in the germination bed is
situated on the lump that makes (pause capillarity)
penetration of water to plant roots. At present, prepare a
bed for germination plowing summer-autumn, in our
country, run with disc harrows light (in most cases) for
tractors of 65 HP, with the specialized or heavy harrows
made of import for high power tractors. Prepare
germination beds with light harrows disc leads to a high
consumption of fuel, increasing employment, increasing
the duration of the campaign and running a bed
germination in inappropriate conditions of low soil
moisture. In this context, the aim is to promote a disc
harrows and organs (additional) to grind, for tractors of
higher power in order to improve technology the stubble-
turn and ready germination bed to plow fresh crops to be
established by summer-autumn. Work performed by
grapele soil with heavy discs are characterized by good
mrunirea results, mixing soil and mobilization performed
in conditions of low soil moisture. From the constructive
and functional graplele disc presents the advantage to
easily pass over any obstacles that arise in the work and
the active type spherical disks have a low degree of wear
as a result of that process requests Work is distributed
throughout the length of edge.
Abstract: Suprafaa ocupat n ara noastr de solurile cu
culturi ce se nfiineaz vara-toamna este de circa 37% din
totalul suprafeei agricole. Noua tehnologie de mecanizare
cuprinde lucrarea solului prin dezmiritit i/sau pregtit patul
germinativ pe arturi proaspete sau pe teren nearat n care
se nfiineaz culturile de var-toamn se poate aplica la un
nivel calitativ corespunztor cerinelor agropedologice, la un
pre de cost ct mai sczut i cu un consum redus de
energie, prin promovarea unui nou echipament tehnic,
destinat tractoarelor pe roi de 120-220 CP. Noul
echipamentul tehnic denumit GD-4 realizeaza adancimi de
lucru de 68 cm la dezmirititul solului si de 1014 cm la
pregtirea patului germinativ pe arturi proaspete sau pe
teren nearat, limea de lucru fiind de cca. 4 m si capacitatea
de lucru de cca. 3 ha/h.

Cuvinte cheie: echipament tehnic; dezmiritit i pregtit
patul germinativ; discuri independente; construcie compact

Din suprafaa arabil a rii (cca 8905 mii ha)
aproximativ 37% (cca 3305 mii ha) este ocupat cu culturi
ce se nfiineaz vara-toamna, restul fiind teren arabil
destinat culturilor de primvar. Dac pentru nfiinarea
culturilor de primvar exist utilaje agricole (combinatoare
C2,6; C3,9; CPGC4 etc.) pentru pregtit terenul n vederea
semnatului, n schimb pentru cele destinate nfiinrii
culturilor de var-toamn, gama de maini agricole
existent nu este corespunztoare sau este insuficient.
Plantele semnate sau plantate pe un pat germinativ
corespunztor se dezvolt mai bine dect plantele la care
patul germinativ este aezat pe bulgri care ngreuneaz
(ntrerup capilaritatea) ptrunderea apei la rdcinile plantelor.
La ora actual, pregtirea unui pat germinativ pe arturi de
var-toamn, la noi n ar, se execut cu grape cu discuri uoare
(n majoritatea cazurilor) destinate tractoarelor de 65 CP, cu
combinatoare specializate sau cu grape grele aduse din import,
destinate tractoarelor de puteri mari. Pregtirea patului germinativ cu
grape cu discuri uoare conduce la un consum ridicat de combustibil,
la creterea forei de munc, mrirea duratei campaniei de lucru
i la executarea unui pat germinativ necorespunztor n condiii
cu umiditate sczut ale solului. n acest context, se urmrete
promovarea unei grape cu discuri i organe (suplimentare) de
mrunire, destinat tractoarelor de puteri mari, n vederea perfecionrii
tehnologiei de dezmiritit i pregtit patul germinativ pe arturi
proaspete n care se nfiineaz culturile de var-toamn. Lucrrile
solului executate de grapele cu discuri grele sunt caracterizate
prin rezultate bune de mrunirea, amestecarea i mobilizarea
solului, realizate n condiii de umiditate sczut a solului. Din
punct de vedere constructiv i funcional graplele cu discuri
prezint avantajul de a trece uor peste eventualele obstacole ce
apar n procesul de lucru, iar organele active, de tip discuri sferice,
au un grad sczut de uzur, ca urmare a faptului c solicitrile n
procesul de lucru sunt distribuite pe toat lungimea tiului.

140
2. AGRICULTURAL EQUIPMENT NEW TECHNOLOGY
IN THE WORKS OF SOIL
New technology for mechanization work includes soil
by stubble-turn and / or germination bed prepared fresh,
or plow the field near the crops to be established by
summer-autumn. Processing with grapele plow disc runs
on diagonal direction brazdelor to smooth coamele them.
Given that Romania is currently in the tractor factory
195CP, and some farmers have imported tractors from
100-240CP, emerged as a necessary development and
introduction to manufacturing in economic interest, of
machines, which are now bringing in import tractors in
this range.
In this connection was attempted and harrow disk
designed with independent high power tractors, GD-4 type,
which is building much reduced from that of existing
grapelor. Harrow disk independent GD-4 is worn and / or
hauled by tractor hydraulic ridictoarele for 120-220 HP
tractors, category III of SR ISO 730-1 + C1: 2000. The
harrow disk consists of the following main assemblies:
the chassis, batteries disc (front + back); train transport
roller to level and grind; hydraulic installation.
2. UTILAJE AGRICOLE NOI IN TEHNOLOGIILE DE
LUCRARE A SOLULUI
Noua tehnologie de mecanizare cuprinde lucrarea solului
prin dezmiritit i/sau pregtit patul germinativ pe arturi proaspete
sau pe teren nearat n care se nfiineaz culturile de var-
toamn. Prelucrarea arturilor cu grapele cu discuri se execut
diagonal pe direcia brazdelor pentru a netezi coamele acestora.
innd seama ca n prezent n Romnia se fabrica
tractorul de 195CP, iar unii fermieri au importat tractoare de
100-240CP, a aprut ca necesar realizarea i introducerea n
fabricaie la ageni economici interesati, a unor utilaje,
care n prezent se aduc din import, pentru tractoarele din
aceast gam.
n acest sens a fost realizat i ncercat grapa cu discuri
independente destinat tractoarelor de mare putere, tip GD-
4, care are o constructie mult redus fa de cea al grapelor
existente. Grapa cu discuri independente GD-4 este purtat
i/sau tractat pe ridictoarele hidraulice ale tractoarelor de
120-220 CP pe roi, categoria a III-a SR ISO 730-1+C1:2000.
Grapa se compune din urmtoarele ansambluri principale:
asiu; baterii cu discuri (fa+spate); tren de transport;
tvlugi de nivelare i mrunire; instalaie hidraulic.

Fig.1 - Lateral view of grape GD4-working position and transport /
Vedere lateral a grapei GD4-pozitie de lucru i de transport

Fig. 2 - View of back of grape GD4-position transport / Vedere din spate a grapei GD4-pozitie de transport

2.1. Destination and area of use
Independent disk harrow GD-4 running on a single
passage:
dezmiritirea;
bed preparation on germination or plowing fresh
ground near the crops to be established by summer-
autumn sowing of cereals to cereal plants and
weeding, at depths of between 1014 cm. Use the
summer-autumn (spring in certain circumstances) by
plowing fresh in all types of soil on flat land or slope
to 6. Plowing harrowing must once have been
performed because they reinforce, not change and
can increase water loss through evaporaie.

2.1. Destinaia i domeniul de utilizare
Grapa cu discuri independente GD-4 execut la o
singur trecere:
dezmiritirea;
pregtirea patului germinativ pe arturi proaspete sau
pe teren nearat n care se nfiineaz culturile de var-toamn,
n vederea semnatului cerealelor pioase i a plantelor
pritoare, la adncimi de lucru cuprinse ntre 1014 cm. Se
utilizeaz vara-toamna (n anumite situaii primvara) pe
araturi proaspete, n toate tipurile de sol aflate pe terenuri
plane sau cu pant pn la 6. Arturile trebuie grpate de
ndat ce au fost efectuate deoarece acestea se ntresc, nu
se pot mruni i cresc pierderile de ap prin evaporaie.


141
2.2. Description of your constructive working
Harrow with independent disk GD-4 is an
agricultural equipment worn and / or hauled to the side
tiranii (category III of SR ISO 730-1 + C1: 2000) of the
wheeled tractors 120-220 HP.
Chassis of harrow consists
of bar and beam traction,
the central and two side
frames which are mounted
disc batteries, rail transport
and the grind and leveling
soil rollers. Beam traction
and the traction bar is
made up of welded pipe and square plates in thick sheets.
They set the framework by means of bolts, washers and
splints. Within central grape is a welded construction of
the square tube in the form of a rectangle, rigided with
reinforcement plates. On the sides of the four camps are
welded to mounting frame side, and in the central area
are welded two camps for fixing the train transport.
Battery disc (front + back) consists of a central
semibatery and two lateral
semibaterii which discount,
vertical position for transport.
Each semibaterie is attached to
one pipe through square
flanges and rubber rings.
Batteries are composed of
embattled disks, bearings with rolling bearings, shaft and
mounting arm support. Disks
have outer diameter of 660 mm
and are made of sheet
manganese.
Train transport is designed
for grape grape movement on
public roads and consists of a
welded frame with two wheels
and tires. rubber rings.
Roller grind of leveling
and is mounted behind the disc batteries to chip, scrape
and replace additional soil processed grape batteries. For
transport the rollers are plaet in vertical wedge gauge
falls in the transport of 3 m.

3. CONSTRUCTION AND FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS
3.1. Functional and constructive characteristics
- Harrow Type Tractor (worn)
- Tractor necessary CP 120-220
- Working width, m max.4
- The width of the gauge transport 3.0 m
- Number of discs 32
- The distance between discs, 220 mm
3.2. Functional Characteristics
- Depth of work, cm: 10 14
- Working speed, km / h max. 8

2.2. Descrierea constructiv i funcional
Grapa cu discuri independente GD-4 este un utilaj agricol
purtat i/sau tractat la tiranii laterali (categoria a III-a SR
ISO 730-1+C1 :2000) ai tractoarelor de 120-220 CP pe roi.
Sasiul grapei are n
componen bara i proapul
de traciune, cadru central i
dou cadre laterale pe care se
monteaz bateriile cu discuri,
trenul de transport i tvlugii
de mrunire i nivelare a
solului. Proapul de traciune
i bara de traciune sunt realizate n variant sudat din
eav ptrat i plci groase din tabl. Ele se fixeaz de
cadru cu ajutorul unor boluri, aibe i plinturi. Cadrul
central al grapei este o construcie sudat din evi ptrate,
sub forma unui dreptunghi, rigidizat cu plci de ntrire. Pe
prile laterale ale cadrului sunt sudate patru lagre pentru
montarea cadrelor laterale, iar n zona central sunt
sudate dou lagre pentru fixarea trenului de transport.
Bateria cu discuri (fat+ spate) are n componen o semibaterie
centrala i dou semibaterii laterale,
care se rabat, pe vertical, pentru
pozitia de transport. Fiecare semibaterie
se fixeaz pe cate o teava patrata
prin intermediul unor flane si inele
din cauciuc. Bateriile sunt din
alctuite discuri crenelate, lagre
cu rulmeni, ax de fixare i brat de susinere. Discurile au
diametrul exterior de 660 mm i sunt executate din tabl
manganoas.
Trenul de transport al grapei
este conceput pentru deplasarea
grapei pe drumurile publice i
are n componen un cadru
sudat i dou roi cu pneuri.
Tvlugul de mrunire i
nivelare se monteaz n spatele
bateriilor cu discuri cu scopul de a
mruni, nivela i reaeza suplimentar
solul prelucrat de bateriile grapei.
Pentru transport, tvlugii se pliaz n plan vertical pan
se ncadreaz n gabaritul de transport de 3 m.

3. CARACTERISTICI CONSTRUCTIVE I FUNCIONALE
3.1. Caracteristici funcionale i constructive
- Tipul grapei tractat (purtat)
- Tractor necesar, CP 120-220
- Limea de lucru, m max.4
- Limea de gabarit n transport, m 3,0
- Numrul discurilor 32
- Distana ntre discuri, mm 220
3.2. Caracteristici funcionale
- Adncimea de lucru, cm: 10 - 14
- Viteza de lucru, km/h max. 8

4. TEST CONDITIONS IN HOUSE, FIELD LABORATORY
AND EXPLOITATION
Tests in the home, laboratory and field-operation
were made in aggregate with tractor T-195 during July-
October 2008, in accordance with specific test
procedures PSpI-01.10.29 "Testing grapelor disc and
PSpI-01.00.33 "Determination of power indices for
agricultural aggregates.
In tests during the summer-autumn, with
independent harrow disk GD-4, Figure 3, has completed
work on quality indicators and quality of work and
corresponding energy.

4. NCERCRI N CONDIII DE CAS, CMP-LABORATOR
I DE EXPLOATARE
ncercrile n condiii de cas, cmp-laborator i de
exploatare s-au efectuat n agregat cu tractorul T-195, n
perioada iulie - octombrie 2008, n conformitate cu procedurile
specifice de ncercare PSpI-01.10.29 "ncercarea grapelor
cu discuri" i PSpI-01.00.33 "Determinarea indicilor
energetici pentru agregatele agricole".
La ncercrile din perioada de var-toamn, grapa cu
discuri independente GD-4, figura 3, a realizat lucrri de
calitate i indici calitativi de lucru i energetici
corespunztori.

142

Fig. 3 - Aspect of the work with independent disk harrow GD-4 /
Aspect din timpul lucrului cu grapa cu discuri independente GD-4

The harrow with independent disk GD-4 presented a
good stability in horizontal and vertical. Changes in
qualitative indices of the type of soil to be processed are
presented in the chart in Figure 4 .
Grapa cu discuri independente GD-4 a prezentat o
bun stabilitate n plan orizontal i vertical. Variaia indicilor
calitativi de lucru cu tipul solului de prelucrat sunt prezentai
n diagrama din figura 4.

0 5 10 15
Viteza lucru (km/h)
Latime lucru (m)
Adincime lucru (cm)
Consum comb.
(l/ha)
Indicii de lucru ai grapei GD-4
Aratura normala
Aratura bolovanoasa
Miriste
Aratura normala 7.17 4.02 14.2 8.4
Aratura bolovanoasa 7.25 3.99 12.3 8.1
Miriste 7.35 3.96 10.1 7.3
Viteza lucru (km/h) Latime lucru (m) Adincime lucru (cm) Consum comb. (l/ha)

Fig. 4 - Changes of indices of grape GD4 work with soil type /
Variaia indicilor de lucru ai grapei GD4 cu tipul lucrrii solului

The degree of grind soil Gm [%]
The main indicator of quality of grape it is the
degree of grind soil. Determination was limited to a
sample of soil with dimensions 1m x 1m (using frame
metric depth work carried out by harrow). Of the sample
were separated by fractions of land smaller than 50 mm
and bugrii larger than 50 mm. The degree of grind is the
proportion by weight of soil factions satisfactory grind with
the Bulgarians with a maximum size 50 mm, reported in
the total mass of the sample of soil, calculated using the
relationship:
Gradul de mrunire a solului, Gm [%]
Principalul indicator calitativ de lucru al grapei l reprezinta
gradului de mrunire a solului. Pentru determinare s-a
delimitat o prob de sol cu dimensiunile de 1m x 1m (folosind
rama metric adncimea de lucru realizat de grap). Din
proba respectiv s-au separat fraciunile de pmnt cu
dimensiuni mai mici de 50 mm de bugrii i cu dimensiuni mai
mari de 50 mm. Gradul de mrunire reprezint proporia n
greutate a fraciunilor de sol cu mrunire satisfctoare,
respectiv cu dimensiunile bulgrilor de maxim 50 mm, raportat la
masa total a probei de pmnt, calculat cu ajutorul relaiei:
100
1
=
n
M
M
G
n
ti
ci
m

where: MCI - measured weight of bulgarian soil with
conventional maximum size less than 50 mm of soil
sample taken, [kg];
Mti - measured weight of the whole soil samples taken, [kg].
Weighings were made with a lightweight portable, with a
permissible relative error of 1%.
The main qualitative indices of energy and perform are:
- Average depth of amed = 10.114.2 cm;
- Average width of Bmed = 3.823.96 cm;
- The grind of soil Gm = 75.180.2%;
- The incorporation into the soil plant remains Gv =
95.296.6%;
- The raising Gas = 20.126.2%;
- Speed work ve = 4.977.35 km / h;
unde: Mci - greutatea msurat a bulgrilor de sol cu
dimensiunea maxim convenional mai mic de 50 mm
din proba de sol luat, [kg];
Mti - greutatea msurat a ntregii probe de sol luat, [kg].
Cntririle s-au efectuat cu un cntar portabil, cu o eroare
relativ admisibil de 1%.
Principalii indici calitativi de lucru i energetici realizai sunt:
- adncimea medie de lucru amed =10,114,2 cm;
- limea medie de lucru Bmed =3,823,96 cm;
- gradul de mrunire al solului Gm=75,180,2%;
- gradul de ncorporare n sol a resturilor vegetale
Gv=95,296,6%;
- gradul de afnare Gas=20,126,2%;
- viteza de lucru ve=4,977,35 km/h;

143
- Ability to work effectively during: Wef = 1.982.95 ha/h;
- Fuel consumption Q = 7.298.37 l/ha.
- capacitatea de lucru la timpul efectiv: Wef=1,982,95 ha/h
- consumul de combustibil Q=7,298,37 l/ha.

4. CONCLUSIONS
Analyzing data obtained from tests resulted the
following conclusions:
- Harrow with independent disk GD-4 for tractors
120220CP was parallel with two batteries and
additional organ grind with working width of 4 m;
- Harrow with independent disk GD-4 is used for
summer-autumn (spring in certain circumstances) by
plowing fresh in all types of soil on flat land or slope
to 6;
- Harrow with independent disk GD-4 is robust, simple
from the constructive and functional, easily operated,
maintained and operated in the work;
- Harrow with independent disk GD-4 is a tractor or
worn, the coupling operation is performed by one
man (mecanizatorul);
- Harrow with independent disk GD-4 has made
quality work with a high degree of grind soil and
burying the plant remains
- Coefficients of technical safety and technology have
made high values, not necessary time to correct
defects in service.

4. CONCLUZII
Din analiza datelor obinute la ncercri au rezultat
urmtoarele concluzii:
- Grapa cu discuri independente GD-4 pentru tractorul de
120220CP pe roi a fost realizat cu dou baterii paralele i
cu organe suplimentare de mrunire, cu lime de lucru de 4 m;
- Grapa cu discuri independente GD-4 se utilizeaz vara-
toamna (n anumite situaii primvara) pe araturi proaspete,
n toate tipurile de sol aflate pe terenuri plane sau cu
pant pn la 6;
- Grapa cu discuri independente GD-4 este robust, simpl
din punct de vedere constructiv i funcional, este uor de
manevrat, ntreinut i exploatat n procesul de lucru
- Grapa cu discuri independente GD-4 este de tip tractat
sau purtat, operaia de cuplare fiind executat de ctre un
singur om (mecanizatorul)
- Grapa cu discuri independente GD-4 a realizat lucrri de
calitate, cu un grad ridicat de mrunire a solului i de
ngropare a resturilor vegetale
- Coeficienii de siguran tehnic i tehnologic au
nregistrat valori ridicate, nefiind necesari timpi pentru
remedierea defeciunilor n exploatare.

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Iosif Cojocaru and col. - New technical solutions in the
design grapelor disc. Magazine "Mechanization of
agriculture, no.7 Bucharest, 2000;
2. Traian Popescu, Iosif Cojocaru, Constantin Nicolae,
Petre Toanchina, Buciu Florian, Maican Constantine -
Studies and research on the achievement of a family of disc
harrows worn light tractors 30, 45 and 65 HP tractors,
INMA Bucharest, 1993;
3. Kolozsvri Constantina, Constantine N. - Equipment
for working the soil with discs and additional organs grind
for leveling and high power tractors Magazine
"Mechanization of Agriculture", nr.3/2006 Bucharest.
4 Constantin Nicolae Cojocaru Iosif, Alexandros Alexoi -
Grapa disc medium GDM-7 used in the germination bed
preparing for the establishment of cereal crops Magazine
"Mechanization of Agriculture", nr.1-2/2009 Bucharest.

5. BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Cojocaru Iosif i colab. - Noi soluii tehnice n concepia
grapelor cu discuri. Revista "Mecanizarea agriculturii", nr.7
Bucureti, 2000
2. Popescu Traian, Cojocaru Iosif, Constantin Nicolae,
Toanchina Petre, Buciu Florian, Maican Constantin -
Studii si cercetari privind realizarea unei familii de grape
cu discuri usoare purtate pentru tractoarele de 30, 45 si
65 CP pe roti, INMA Bucuresti, 1993
3. Kolozsvari Constantina, Constantin N. - Echipament de
lucrat solul prevzut cu discuri i organe suplimentare de
mrunire i nivelare destinat tractoarelor de mare putere
Revista Mecanizarea Agriculturii, nr.3/2006, Bucureti.
4 Constantin Nicolae, Cojocaru Iosif, Alexandros Alexoi
Grapa cu discuri mijlocie GDM-7 folosit la pregtirea
patului germinativ pentru nfiinarea culturilor de cereale
Revista Mecanizarea Agriculturii, nr.1-2/2009, Bucureti.


144

EXPERIMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF THE SOIL HILLSLOPE LOSSES BY EROSION CAUSED
BY WATER ACTION
/
ESTIMAREA EXPERIMENTALA A PIERDERILOR DE SOL PE VERSANTI, PRIN EROZIUNE,
DATORITA ACTIUNII APEI

Dr. eng. V. Herea
1)
, math. P. Crdei
2)
,
dr. eng. V. Muraru
2)
, dr. eng. C. Muraru-Ionel
2)

1)
ICDVV Valea Clugreasc, Romania
2)

Abstract. The paper present a method to assessment the
soil erosion caused by the water action on the hillslope. This
paper present especialy the processing of the data obtained
using the experimental results of the IMERE installation,
designed and manufactured at ICDVV Valea Calugareasca,
where the experiencies are develped. Our calculus
introduce new soil erosion estimators, but for equivalence,
we use also the classical soil erosion estimators. the lost soil
per ha for an year.
The article present specific application in horticultura, but
this application can be generalized at many others crops.

Keywords: erosion, assessment, experimental

INTRODUCTION
Estimating the risk of erosion of soils located on the
versions, because the action of water, has been a
constant concern in the sphere of science since the first
half of the twentieth century and strengthened in the
years 1990 - 2000, when they were prepared representative
theoretical models in this area. Even if the tools are very
modern theoretical and applied, primarily due
convenience their underlying mathematical models of the
underlying facts and experimental observations made in
decades of study.
On the other hand, theoretical methods used in the
mathematical apparatus, many constant that can not be
estimated only by the experimental and the same kind of
relationships between groups of parameters. Experiment
remains, therefore, absolutely necessary, either for direct
estimation of the unknown, either for evaluation of
relations between the coefficients or parameters of a
process, but and for verification of theoretical relations or
partially theoretical.
Much more is at the current method of empirical
evaluation of the risk of erosion, developed in 2008, [16],
[17]. In addition, this method and announces a possible
estimate of the risk of erosion in the long term using a
small number of experiments pluviometric event type, in
some measure similar to the material fatigue predictive
testing regime accelerated.
In previous articles about this method, we present
IMERE installation, with which to make experiments, [16],
and main results obtained, and applications of this
equipment in the investigation of erosion processes, but
also in other areas such as agriculture precision [17].
In this article presents the basic algorithm of
experiments, the method of processing raw data and use
them to obtain higher-level data.

ALGORITHM TESTING
Because experiences have comparable results,
they must be carried by a common procedure, which
specify the process parameters and how to obtain them
and how to obtain a final estimator of erosion from the
gross results.
Rezumat. Articolul prezint o metod de evaluare a
eroziunii provocat de aciunea apei pe versani.
Se prezint n special procesarea datelor obinute
utiliznd rezultatele experimentale ale instalaiei IMERE,
proiectat i construit la ICDVV Valea Clugreasc,
unde au efectuate i experimentele.
Calculele noastre introduc estimri noi ale eroziunii
solului, dar pentru echivalare s-au utilizat i estimri
clasice ale eroziunii solului, pierderile de sol la ha ntr-un an.
Acest articol prezint aplicaii specifice n agricultur, dar
i aplicaii ce pot fi generalizate la multe alte culturi.

Cuvinte cheie: eroziune, evaluare, experimental

INTRODUCERE
Estimarea riscului de eroziune a solurilor situate pe
versanti, din cauza actiunii apei, a constituit o preocupare
constanta in sfera stiintifica inca din prima jumatate a
secolului XX si s-a consolidat in anii 1990 2000, cand
au fost perfectate modelele teoretice reprezentative in
acest domeniu. Chiar daca instrumentele teoretice sunt
foarte moderne i solicitate, n primul rnd datorit
comoditii lor, la baza modelelor matematice ale
acestora stau fapte experimentale i observaii fcute n
zeci de ani de studiu.
Pe de alt parte, metodele teoretice folosesc n
cadrul aparatului matematic, foarte multe constante care
nu se pot estima decat pe cale experimental, precum i
relaii de aceeai natur, intre grupe de parametri.
Experimentul ramane, in consecinta, absolut necesar, fie
pentru estimarea directa a unor necunoscute, fie pentru
evaluarea unor coeficienti sau relatii intre parametrii unui
proces, dar sipentru verificarea unor relatii teoretice sau
partial teoretice.
Cu atat mai mult, se situeaza in actualitate metoda
empirica de evaluare a riscului de eroziune, elaborata in
anul 2008, [16], [17]. In plus, aceasta metoda anunta si o
posibila estimare a riscului de eroziune pe termen lung
folosind un mic numar de experimente de tip eveniment
pluviometric, n oarecare masura similar cu predictia
oboselii materialelor prin testare in regim accelerat.
In articolele precedente despre aceasta metoda, am
prezentat instalatia IMERE, cu ajutorul careia se fac experimentele,
[16], si rezultatele principale obtinute, precum si aplicatiile
acestei instalatii in domeniul investigarii proceselor de eroziune,
dar si in alte domenii,cum ar fi agricultura de precizie, [17].
In acest articol se prezinta algoritmul de baza al
experimentelor, metoda de prelucrare a datelor brute si
utilizarea acestora pentru obtinerea unor date de rang superior.

ALGORITMUL DE EXPERIMENTARE
Pentru ca experienele s aib rezultate comparabile,
acestea trebuie s se desfoare dup o procedur
comun, care s precizeze parametrii procesului i modul
de obinere al acestora, precum i modul de obinere a
estimatorilor finali ai eroziunii plecnd de la rezultatele brute.

145
CONDUCTING EXPERIMENTS
Operations in the experiments, the parameters that
are measured or calculated and the measure units of
these appear in Table 1.
DESFURAREA EXPERIENELOR
Operaiunile desfurate n cadrul experienelor,
parametrii care se msoar sau calculeaz i unitile de
msur ale acestora apar n tabelul 1.

Table 1 Table containing conducting experimental steps and parameters which are measured or calculated / Tabelul
coninnd desfurarea etapelor experimentale parametrii care se msoar sau se calculeaz

Stage
no. /
Etapa
nr.
Operations / Operaiuni
Numerical data collected /
Date numerice preluate
Observations /
Observaii
1
Putting into operation:/ Punerea n funciune:
- putting in the working position /punerea n
poziie de lucru,
- beginning the wet with constant pressure and
flow, which remains constant throughout the experience
all time / se ncepe udarea cu presiune si debit
constante, care se menin constante pe toat
perioada desfurrii experienei,
- moisture determination in soil layer 020 cm /
determinarea umiditii solului n stratul 020 cm;
- determination of resistance to penetration in
soil layer up to 30 cm / determinarea rezistenei
la penetrare a solului n stratul de pn la 30 cm;
- determining the density of soil to the initial
moisture in layer 05 cm; / determinarea densitii
solului la umiditatea iniial n stratul 05 cm;
- the cover crop / acoperirea vegetala, %;
S wetted surface area / aria suprafeei udate;
p land slope / panta terenului;
p0 Water pressure in the installation /
presiunea apei n instalaie;
t0 time when star wetting / timpul la care
ncepe udarea;
i0 initial index of the water meter indexul /
iniial al contorului de ap;
u0 soil initial humidity in zone 020 cm; /
umiditatea iniial a solului n zona 020 cm;
r0 resistance to penetration on the first 30
cm depth (average and variation); / rezistena
la penetrare pe primii 30 cm adncime
(variaia i valoarea medie);
u0 soil density in superficial layer between 0
and 5 cm; / densitatea solului n stratul
superficial ntre 0 i 5 cm;
Vc the cover crop / acoperirea vegetala
m
2

grade / degree
N/m
2

s

m
3

%

N/m
2

kg/m
3

%
2
Recording the start of leakage material detached
/ nregistrarea nceputului scurgerii materialului detaat.
Leave the wet continue / Se las udarea s continue
tc timpul la care se observ nceputul
scurgerii materialului detaat / the time which
observed the beginning of leakage material
detached;
ic The index of water at the beginning of
leakage material detached / indexul contorului
de ap la momentul observrii nceperii curgerii
materialului detaat;
pc pressure water plant at the beginning
of leakage material detached / presiunea
apei n instalaie la momentul nceputului
curgerii materialului detaat
hmax maximum height of falling raindrop /
nlimea maxim de cdere a picturilor de
ploaie;
hmed average height of a falling raindrop; /
nlimea medie de cdere a picturilor de
ploaie;
mp an average mass of water drops /
masa unei picturi medii de ap
s

m
3

N/m
2

m

m

kg

3
Measurements - stage starts immediately after
the occurrence is observed material flow
detached / Msurri etapa ncepe imediat ce
se observ apariia curgerii materialului detaat.
Leaked material is collected in containers of
known capacity, preferably equal containers
marked in order to fill (buckets). / Materialul
scurs se colecteaz n recipiente de capaciti
cunoscute, de preferin egale, recipiente notate
n ordinea umplerii (glei). At this point leave
wetting continue until filled 4-5 containers / La
acest moment se las udarea s continue, pn
cnd se umplu 4 5 recipiente. Then stops
wetting. / Apoi se oprete udarea.
Collection will continue until finished flow of
material detached, taking care to take the
material from the pipe or from pipes collection /
Colectarea se va continua pn la ncetarea
curgerii materialului detaat, avnd grij s se
preia i materialul de pe conducta sau
conductele de colectare.
tf - the time when the water supply was sroped /
timpul la care se oprete alimentarea cu ap;
if the water index at stopping the water supply /
indexul contorului de ap la momentul opririi
alimentrii cu ap;
trii,- i=1,2,n, the initial times when filling the
containers / timpii initiali de umplere a recipientelor;
trfi, i=1,2,n, the final times when filling the
containers / timpii finali de umplere a recipientelor;
(nf <n): index last container filled before the
closing supply water / indicele ultimului recipient
umplut nainte de nchiderea alimentrii cu
ap (nf <n)
s

m
3

s

s

146
4
Weighing the evidence / Cntrirea probelor:
The contents of each container is subject to a process
of extraction of soil (dry) and then weighed dry
soil (0% moisture) / Coninutul fiecrui recipient se
supune unui proces de extragere a solului (uscare)
i apoi se cntrete solul uscat (0 % umiditate)
mi, i=1,,n, masses of soil in the containers
with the same index / masele de sol coninute
n recipientele cu acelai indice;
the density of dry soil / densitatea solului
uscat

kg

kg/m
3

5 Calculus / Calcule
5.1
The total quantity of water used / Cantitatea
total de ap administrat:
0 f
A i i =
m
3

5.2
The total quantity of water used / Cantitatea de
ap administrat pn la apariia curgerii:
0 c c
A i i =
m
3

5.3
Average flow of water distributed / Debitul mediu
de ap distribuit: 0 f
A
Q
t t
=

m
3
/s
5.4
The quantity of specified water unit area necessary
to trigger flow / Cantitatea de ap specifica unitii
de suprafa necesar declanrii curgerii
c
c
A
a
S
=

m
5.5
The quantity of specified water unit area
administered throughout the period / Cantitatea
de apa specifica unitii de suprafa, administrat
pe ntreaga perioad:
A
a
S
=

m
5.6
Specific flow for unit area / Debitul specific
unitii de suprafa:
Q
q
S
=

m/s
5.7
Total mass of dry soil collected / Masa total de
sol uscat colectat:
1
n
i
i
M m
=
=

kg
5.8
Mass of soil collected from the emergence of flow by
the end of water supply / Masa de sol colectata de la
apariia curgerii pn la nchiderea alimentrii cu ap
1
1
f
n
i
i
M m
=
=

n kg
5.9
Overall loss of specific surface area unit per
event / Pierderea global specific unitii de
suprafa pe eveniment:
M
P
S
=

kg/m
2
5.10
Overall loss per hectare per event / Pierderea global
la hectar pe eveniment:
10 Pha P = tone/ha
5.11
Overall loss of soil specific unit surface and unit
debit pluviometric / Pierderea global de sol
specific unitii de suprafa i unitii de debit
pluviometric:
P
Q
=

kgs/m
5
5.12
Overall loss of soil specific unit surface and unit
debit pluviometric specific unit area: / Pierderea
global de sol specific unitii de suprafa i
unitii de debit pluviometric specific unitii de
suprafa:
P
q
=

n kgs/m
3
5.13
Local speed of variation flow material detached /
Vitezele locale de variaie a scurgerii materialului
detaat:
i
i
rfi rii
m
t t
=

kg/s
5.14
Chart speed variation of leakage of material
detached in time: it will be separate all the time
flow and during of occurrence flow and decoupling
the source of water / Graficul variaiei vitezei de
scurgere a materialului detaat n timp: se va face
separat pe toat perioada de curgere i pe
perioada dintre apariia curgerii i decuplarea
sursei de ap.
The coordinates of graphic points are:
Coordonatele punctelor graficul sunt:
( )
1
,
2
i
rfi rii
rfk rik i
k
t t
t t m
=
| |
+ |
|
\

5.15
Gross estimator of annual soil loss per hectare
for a given pluviometer / Estimator grosier de
pierdere anual de sol la hectar, pentru un regim
pluviometric dat, Pl (n mm)
1000
Pl Pha
Phaa
a

t/ha on year / n
t/ha pe an
5.16 The total period of wett / Durata total a udrii T=tf-t0 s
5.17
Durata udrii pana la apariia curgerii
The wet period until appearance flow / Durata
udrii pana la apariia curgerii
Tc=tc-t0 s
5.18
Length slopes (wet plot) / Lungimea pantei
(parcelei udate)
L m
5.19 Rain intensity / Intensitatea ploii
1000 A
I
S
=

mm
5.20 Rain intensity per hour / Intensitatea orara a ploii
3600 A
i
T
=

mm/h

147

The main measures of erosion estimated appear in
the table in fig.1, specify overall loss unit area per event,
P, overall loss per hectare per event Pha, the overall loss
of soil specific unit surface and unit debit pluviometric,
overall loss of soil specific unit surface and unit debit
pluviometric specific unit area, . Measures the intensity
of rain, are: the total quantity of water used, A, average
flow of water distributed, Q, the quantity of water
specified unit area, administered over the entire period, a,
the flow specific unit surface q. The quantity of water
used to flow occurrence, Ac, and the quantity of water
specified unit area to trigger flow, ac are possible
measures of soil erosion. Direct measures of soil erosion
are the local speeds variation of flow material detached,
i, or gross estimator of annual soil loss per hectare for a
given pluviometric regime, Pl, Phaa. For intensity of
energy of the raindrops, have appreciable importance
parameters: hmax - maximum height of falling raindrops;
hmed - average height of falling raindrop, mp - mass of an
average drop of water.
Principalele msuri sau estimatori ai eroziunii apar n tabelul
din fig.1, pierderea global specific unitii de suprafa pe
eveniment, P, pierderea global la hectar pe eveniment, Pha,
pierderea global de sol specific unitii de suprafa i unitii de
debit pluviometric, i pierderea global de sol specific
unitii de suprafa i unitii de debit pluviometric specific unitii
de suprafa, . Msuri ale intensitii ploii, sunt: cantitatea
total de ap administrat, A, debitul mediu de ap distribuit,
Q, cantitatea de apa specific unitii de suprafa, administrat
pe ntreaga perioad, a, debitul specific unitaii de suprafa, q.
Cantitatea de ap administrat pn la apariia curgerii, Ac, si
cantitatea de ap specifica unitii de suprafa necesar
declanrii curgerii, ac, sunt posibile msuri ale erodabilitii
solului. Msuri directe ale erodabilitii solului sunt i vitezele
locale de variaie a scurgerii materialului detaat, i, sau
estimatorul grosier de pierdere anual de sol la hectar, pentru
un regim pluviometric dat, Pl, Phaa. Pentru intensitatea
energetic a picturilor de ploaie, au o importan apreciabil
parametrii: hmax nlimea maxim de cdere a picturilor de
ploaie; hmed nlimea medie de cdere a picturilor de
ploaie; mp masa unei picturi medii de ap.

SOFTWARE ALGIMERE FOR PROCESS EXPERIMENTAL
DATA
Software ALGIMERE for process experimental data
were elaborated in MS Office Excel and structured like
algorithm described in table 1.
The software is made of working Excel spreadsheet.
The first sheet contains all the cells of input data and
calculations necessary for the ordinary final report and
related graphics.
In sheet no. 2 of ALGIMERE, is given a graphic with
speed of detached variation in time, calculated as the
ratio between the amount of collected material detached
on each container and the time collection - is therefore an
average speed of deployment for each interval collection
( Fig. 2).
It can be seen the existence a ceiling approximately
constant during rain in steady state by wett. The
phenomenon is pursued only during the material flows.
On the same graphic are represented the variation of
speed leakage corrected with corrections due pauses
replacement the containers.
PROGRAMUL ALGIMERE DE PRELUCRARE A
DATELOR EXPERIMENTALE
Programul de prelucrare a datelor experimentale
ALGIMERE, este elaborat n produsul MS Office Excel, n
esen fiind structurat dup algoritmul descris n tabelul 1.
Programul este format dim mai multe foi de lucru
Excel. Prima foaie conine toate celulele de introducere a
datelor si calculele ordinare necesare raportului final i
graficelor aferente.
n foaia nr. 2, a programului ALGIMERE, se d un
grafic coninnd variaia n timp a vitezei de detaare,
calculat ca raportul ntre cantitatea de material detaat
colectat pe fiecare recipient i timpul de colectare prin
urmare este o vitez medie de detaare pe fiecare
interval de colectare (fig. 2).
Se poate observa existena unui plafon aproximativ
constant pe parcursul timpului ploii in regim stabilizat de
udare. Fenomenul este urmrit numai pe timpul ct
materialul curge. Pe acelai grafic se reprezint variaia
vitezei de scurgere corectat cu coreciile datorate
pauzelor de nlocuire a recipientelor.

Fig. 1 - Informaiile de baz din raportul programului ALGIMERE /
The principal information from ALGIMERE software report

148
In sheet 3 of the ALGIMERE, it is graphic
represented the variation in time of dry material collected,
in uncorrected variant and corrected variant (fig. 3).
CALCULUS REPORT ADDITIONAL RESULTS
The main results of the software and a series of
additional results appear in sheet no. 4 of ALGIMERE.
The results are given in the table in Fig. 1 and the
graphical representations in Fig. 2 and 3. All estimators
are calculated according to formulas in Table 1.
From program report, only one gross estimator is
annual soil loss per hectare. This estimator, normally can
not be inferred from a single experiment using the
IMERE.
A value of this estimator will be even better as it is
calculated as the average of several experiments, broken
during a whole year, during esteniale vegetation
development, conduct of agricultural work and taking into
account the natural breakdown of average pluviometric
regime.
n foaia 3 a programului ALGIMERE, se reprezint
grafic, variaia n timp a materialului uscat colectat, n
varianta necorectat i n varianta corectat (fig. 3).
RAPORTUL DE CALCULREZULTATE SUPLIMENTARE
Principalele rezultate aleprogramului, precum si o serie de
rezultate suplimentare apar n foaia nr. 4 a programului ALGIMERE.
Rezultatele de baza sunt date n tabelul din fig. 1 i n
reprezentrile grafice din fig. 2 i 3. Toi estimatorii sunt
calculai conform formulelor din tabelul 1.
Din raportul programului, singurul estimator grosier
este pierderea anual de sol la hectar. Acest estimator, n
mod normal, nu se poate deduce dintr-un singur experiment
cu ajutorul instalaiei IMERE.
O valoare a acestui estimator va fi cu atat mai bun cu
ct ea se calculeaz ca medie a mai multor experimente,
repartizate pe durata unui ntreg an, n perioadele
esteniale de dezvoltare a vegetaiei, de desfurare a
lucrrilor agricole i innd seama de repartiia natural
medie a regimului pluviometric.

Fig. 2 - Graficul variatiei vitezei de detasare a solului,care apare in raportul programului ALGIMERE /
Chart speed change to the deployment of the soil, which appears in the program ALGIMERE

Fig. 3 - Variatia n timp a masei de sol detasate,graphic ce apare in Raportulprogramului ALGIMERE / Variation in time of soil mass
detached, the graphic that appears in in the program ALGIMERE

MORE RESULTS
Outside the fundamental results, the report of
processing experimental data, contains data witch trying to
estimate the geometrical and physical features of the
pluviometric artificially created regime. Calculations are
made under certain simplifying assumptions, which will
specify in each case. If the movement involves raindrops
REZULTATE SUPLIMENTARE
n afara rezultatelor de baz, raportul prelucrrii
datelor experimentale, conine i date care ncearc s
estimeze caracteristici geometrice i fizice ale regimului
pluviometric artificial creat. Calculele se fac n anumite
ipoteze simplificatoare, care se vor specifica, n fiecare
caz. Dac se presupune micarea picturii de ap n

149
conservative gravitational field, then from matching
potential energy (calculated at the maximum and minimum
heights witch are experiment data) and kinetic, it follows
the formula for calculating the contact raindrops speed
with the ground.
2
c
v gh = (1)
where: g is gravitational acceleration and h is height from the
raindrop falls. In report, for height h, is considered the
minimum value, maximum and the average for of the
minimum and maximum.
In form calculating is required the average of
diameter raindrops. Using this information and the
assumption that the density of water is 1000 kg/m3 and
raindrops form is approximately spherical, is given a
second addition result, the average mass of a raindrop
artificial, calculated by the formula:

3
3
4
3 2 6
p
p p
d
m d

| |
= =
|
\
(2)
where: is the density of rainwater (artificial) and dp is the
average diameter of raindrop. In relation to the size of rain
drops can consult [4] or [5].
In [6] maximum diameter of a raindrop is rated at
0.0025 m, in [7], between 0.0005 and 0003 m, in [8], under
0004 m, in [9] between 0.0005 m and 0.01 m, and [10],
between 0.0005 and 0008 m. Complements and details
can be found in [11].
Having calculated the data above can be calculated
easier following additional result: the impact energy of
raindrop with an average size with the soil.

2
1
2
i p c
e m v =
(3)
As order size of this energy may be 0.1 mJ, as
shown in [2], article [3]. An elementary account appears in
[12].
A fourth result of the calculations attached to the
experiment with the IMERE is the average number of
raindrops witch falling per unit wetted surface:

3 3
6
4
3 2
p
p
p
a a
N
d
d

= =
| |
|
\
(4)
where: a is the amount of water administered per unit area
(table with the primary results of Fig. 1), calculated simply
by:

A
a
S
=
, (5)
where: A is the total quantity of water administered, and S
is the area of wetted area in experiment.
This parameter - the average number of drops of
medium size that were administered per unit area is not
adimensional, but is measured in number of raindrops per
square meter, its size is the length superscript - 2.
For this latter parameter calculated deriving simple
and the number of water drops witch hitting unit area in
unit time:

p
p
N
n
T
(
=
(

(6)
where T is the total wetting period table in fig.1, the
primary results).
Starting from the parameters calculated until now, it
calculates the amount of energy received by the unit of
wetted surface, by the formula:

S i p
E e N = , (7)
and the quantity of energy received by unit area in unit
time:
cmp gravitaional conservativ, atunci, din egalarea
energiilor potenial (calculat la nlimile maxim i
minim care sunt date ale experimentului) i cinetic,
rezult formula de calcul pentru viteza de contact a
picturii cu solul
2
c
v gh = (1)
n care: g este acceleratia gravitationala, iar h este
inalatimea de la care picatura cade. n raport, pentru
naltimea h, se considera valorile minima, maxima si medie
aritmetica a celei minime si maxime.
n formularul de calcul se cere valoarea medie a
diametrului picaturilor de apa. Folosind aceasta informatie
si presupunerea ca densitatea apei este 1000 kg/m
3
, iar
forma picaturii este aproximativ sferica, se da un al doilea
rezultat suplimentar, masa medie a unei picaturi de ploaie
artificiala, calculata dupa formula:
3
3
4
3 2 6
p
p p
d
m d

| |
= =
|
\
(2)
n care: este densitatea apei de ploaie (artificiala), iar dp este
diametrul mediu al picaturii de ploaie. n legtur cu
dimensiunile picturilor de ploaie se poate consulta [4] sau [5].
n [6] diametrul maxim al unei picaturi de ploaie este
evaluat la 0.0025 m, n [7], ntre 0.0005 i 0.003 m, n [8], sub
0.004 m, n [9] ntre 0.0005 m i 0.01 m, iar n [10], ntre
0.0005 i 0.008 m. Completri i precizri se gsesc n
[11].
Tinand sema de datele calculate mai sus se poate
calcula usor urmatorul rezultat suplimentar: energia de
impact a unei picaturi de marime medie cu solul:
2
1
2
i p c
e m v =
(3)
Ca ordin de mrime a acestei energii se poate lua 0.1
mJ, asa cum se arat i n [2], n articolul [3]. Un calcul
elementar apare n [12].
Un al patrulea rezultat al calculelor ataate exeprimentului
cu instalaia IMERE, este numarul mediu de picaturi de
ploaie care cad pe unitatea de suprafaa udat:
3 3
6
4
3 2
p
p
p
a a
N
d
d

= =
| |
|
\
(4)
n care: a este cantitatea de apa administrata pe unitatea
de suprafata (tabelul cu rezultate primare din fig. 1),
calculat simplu, dup formula:
A
a
S
=
(5)
unde: A este cantitatea total de apa administrata, iar S
este aria parcelei udate in experiment.
Acest parametru numrul mediu de picaturi de marime
medie care au fost administrate pe unitatea de suprafa - nu
este adimensional, ci se masoara n numar de picaturi pe
metru patrat, dimensiunea lui fiind lungime la puterea minus 2.
Din acest ultim parametru calculat, deriv simplu i
numarul de picturi de apa care lovesc unitatea de
suprafata in unitatea de timp:
p
p
N
n
T
(
=
(

(6)
n care T este durata total a udrii (tabelul din fig.1,
rezultate primare).
Pornind de la parametrii calculati pn acum, se
calculeaz cantitatea de energie primit de unitatea de
suprafa udat, dupa formula:
S i p
E e N = (7)
si cantitatea de energie primita de unitatea de suprafata in
unitatea de timp:

150

s i p
e e n = (8)
These energy quantities are calculated on one of
three variants: minimum, medium or maximum.
The impact energy importance of raindrops is
outlined in [13], which shows that for different types of
soils, there are clear limits, nature of energy power, from
which the top, becoming rain erosion. It considers that the
limits erosion are caught between 5 J for fine sand and
12 J for clayey dust. A parameter more difficult to
assimilate is medium thick layer of soil detached by a drop
of water, and then on medium thick layer of soil detached
and then including this estimate of the mass of soil
detached per unit area and per hectare and in the
simulated experimental pluviometric event.
In [14], says that only 522% of the energy impact of
the raindrops is used for training crater.
The author [14] gives an equation that may provide
the approximate crater volume formed by raindrop.
The calculation is: assume that due to the energy of
impact, the raindrop hoe and disjointed in soil the a
semispherical of height h (hole depth in idealized form of
semispherical cap, whose size depends on the strength of
superficial layer of soil, by its resistance the penetration,
p. The basic equation is:

i c p
e v = , vc (9)
vc is the volume of the semispherical witch shape cavity
created by the raindrop in soil.
An estimate of the volume of crater in the ground
caused by the fall of drops of water, appears in [15], form
very interesting and possibly implemented in the higher
level calculations on experimental data. Formula proposed
in [15] the following form:

2
d t k
d t
E
V

=
+
, (10)
where: V is crater volume, t is the density of target
(ground), d is the density of drop water, Ek is the kinetic
energy of drop water to impact, and is voltage limit of
plastic deformation of the target (soil).
Using this formula and knowing the average energy
of impact, and the average number of drops falling per
square meter, one can try in this way an estimate (as is
very coarse) the volume of soil detached by rain (natural
or artificial).
Formula (10) gives a rather large supraevaluation if
deemed density around 1000 kg/m
3
, the energy of impact
about 0.00008 J and voltage limit flow soil approximately
28000 Pa, resulting soil mass deployment of about 72,131
kilograms.

THE SUMMARY OF SAPLES EXPERIMENTS IN 2008
For use in simulation, and verification that the ability
of various simulation models and programs are still gives a
summary table containing the experimental results of
experiments conducted with the primary IMERE in 2008.
Processing was done with the computer and data
processing described above.
s i p
e e n = (8)
Aceste cantiti energetice se calculeaz pe una dintre
cele trei variante: minim, medie sau maxim.
Importana energiei de impact a picturilor de ap este
subliniat n [13], unde se arat c pentru diverse tipuri de
soluri, exist limite clare, de natur energetic, de la care n
sus, ploaia devine eroziv. Se apreciaz c limitele de
erozivitate sunt cu prinse ntre 5 J, pentru nisip fin i 12 J,
pentru praf lutos.Un parametru mai greu de asimilat este
grosimea stratului mediu de sol detaat de o picatura de
apa, i de aici mai departe grosimea stratului mediu de sol
detasat si apoi estimarea inclusiv pe aceasta cale a masei
solului detasat pe unitatea de suprafata si apoi la hectar in
cadrul evenimentului pluviometric simulat experimental.
n [14], se afirm c numai 522% din energia de impact
a picturilor de ploaie este utilizat pentru formarea craterelor.
Autorul [14] da si o ecuaie cu ajutorul careia se poate prevedea
volumul aproximativ al craterului format de pictura de ploaie.
Principiul de calcul este urmatorul: presupunem ca
datorita energiei de impact, pictura sap i dezlocuiete
n sol o calot sferic de nlime h (adncimea gropii n
forma idealizat de calot sferic), a crei mrime depinde
de rezistena stratului superficial de sol, data prin
rezisten la penetrare, p. Ecuaia de baza este:
i c p
e v = , vc (9)
n care vc este volumul calotei sferice care modeleaz
cavitatea creat de picatur n sol.
O estimare a volumului craterului provocat n sol de
cderea unei picturi de ap, apare n [15], formul foarte
interesant i posibil de aplicat n cadrul calculele de nivel
superior asupra datelor experimentale. Formula care se
propune n [15] are urmtoarea form:
2
d t k
d t
E
V

=
+
(10)
n care: V este volumul craterului, t este densitatea intei
(solul), d este desditatea picaturii de ap, Ek este energia
cinetic a picturii la impact, iar este tensiunea limit de
deformaie plastic a intei (solul).
Folosind aceast formul i tiind energia medie de
impact, precum i numrul mediu de picturi czute pe
metru ptrat, se poate ncerca i n acest fel o estimare (e
drept foarte grosier) a volumului de sol detaat de ploaie
(natural sau artificial).
Formula (10) d o supraevaluare destul de mare
dac se consider densitile de aproximativ 1000 kg/m
3
,
energia de impact n jur de 0.00008 J i tensiunea limit
de plastificare a solului aproximativ 28000 Pa, rezultnd
masa de sol detaat de aproximativ 72.131 kg.

CENTRALIZATORUL EXPERIMENTELOR DE PROB
DESFURATE N ANUL 2008
Pentru folosirea n activitatea de simulare, ca verificare i capacitate
de simulare a diverse modele i programe, se d n continuare un
tabel centralizator coninnd principalele rezultate experimentale ale
experienelor primare desfurate cu instalaia IMERE n anul 2008.
Prelucrarea s-a fcut cu programul de calcul i
prelucrare a datelor, descris mai sus.

Experiment A Experiment B Experiment D Experiment E Experiment F
The width of the parcel / Limea parcelei, m 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00
The length of the parcel / Lungimea parcelei, m 14.00 14.00 9.00 9.00 13.00
The area of a parcel / Aria parcelei, m
2
84.00 84.00 54.00 54.00 78.00
The initial umidity / Umiditatea iniial, % 15.01 14.72 17.74 27.77 15.00
The water quantity used / Cantitatea de
ap administrat, m
3

0.627 3.3838 6.0629 1.4021 9.917
The intensity of rain / Intensitatea precipitatiilor,
mm
7.464 40.283 112.276 25.965 127.141

151
Wetting period / Durata udrii, ore 0.41 2.30 4.00 0.98 6.63
Wetting intensity per hour / Intensitatea
orara a udarii, mm/or
18.355 17.489 28.051 26.480 19.171
Lost soil per m
2
per event / Pierderea
de sol pe m
2
, pe eveniment, kg/m
2

0.0197 0.0041 0.0124 0.0097 0.0027
Water quantity managed until flowing / Cantitatea
de ap administrat pn la curgere, m
3

0.204 2.9778 5.8838 1.2309 9.518
The time until start de flowing / Timpul
scurs pn la declanarea curgerii, ore
0.13 2.03 3.88 0.87 6.37

CONCLUSIONS
After finished stages like design, implementation, testing
and preparation algorithm processing experimental data,
can be drawn conclusions for the method for estimating
the risk of erosion and instruments used by it.
C1) The mobile installation designed estimating the risk
of erosion on slopes due to the action of water, work fine,
but were identified parameters to be measured, in addition to
those measured in the experiences conducted so far, as,
for example, during the replacement of a container
collection of sediments;
C2) Have identified a number of ways of defining the
intrinsic parameters of erosion, including erosion of the
rain intensity and soil characteristics erosional
(measurement parameters dynamics, energy, etc.).
C3) The experiments developed in 2008 using the
installation IMERE have detected risks of erosion on the
ICDVV, in accordance with the feedback database for
European soils.
After improving the algorithm and the experimental data
software, will be able to perform experiments with high
precision for measuring the risk of erosion on an event
pluviometric and theoretical considerations on the annual
variation of the parameter pluviometric, management and
vegetation, will increase and accuracy assessment risk of
erosion in the classical period of annual soil lost per
hectare.
CONCLUZII
In urma parcurgerii etapelor de conceptie, realizare,
experimentare si prepararea algoritmului de prelucrare a datelor
experimentale, se pot trage uneleconcluzii asupra metodei
de estimare a riscului de eroziune si instrumentelor folosite de aceasta.
C1) Instalatia mobila destinata estimarii riscului de
eroziune pe pante datorita actiunii apei, functioneaza
satisfacator, dar au fost identificati parametri care trebuie
masurati, in afara celor masurati in experientele
desfasurate pana acum, cum este, de exemplu, timpul de
inlocuire a unui recipient de colectare a sedimentelor;
C2) S-au identificat o serie de cai de definire a unor parametri
intrinseci de eroziune, care sa includa intensitatea eroziva a
ploii, precum si caracteristicile erozionale ale solului (parametri
de masura deorigine dinamica, energetica,etc.);
C3) Experientele desfasurate in anul 2008, folosind
instalatia IMERE, au detectat riscuri de eroziune pe
teritoriul ICDVV, in deplina concordanta cu aprecierile
bazelor de date europene pentru soluri.
Dupa imbunatatirea algoritmului siprogramului de
prelucrare a datelor experimentale, se vor putea desfasura
experimente cu precizie foarte buna de apreciere a riscului
de eroziune pentru un eveniment pluviometric, iar
consideratii teoretice despre variatia anuala a parametrului
pluviometri, demanagement si vegetatie, vor putea creste
si precizia aprecierii riscului de eroziune in termenul clasic
al pierderii anuale de sol la hectar.

[1]. P. Crdei & colectiv, Prognoza pierderilor de sol de
uz agricol prin eroziune i alunecri de teren, n scopul
elaborrii unor soluii de prevenire sau/i remediere,
etapa II-a, Elaborare metod, noiembrie 2008;
[2]. http://soil.scijournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/55/2/301;
[3]. P. P. Sharma, S.C. Gupta, W. J. Rawls, Soil Detachment
by Single Raindrops of Varying Kinetic Energy, Published in
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