106

Nucl ear I nst rument s

and Met hods i n Physi cs Research A264( 1988)
106- 113
Nort h- Hol l and,
Amst erdam
Sect i on VI .
Fundament al propert i es of part i cl es
REVI EW
OF

DECAYANDDARKMATTER
SEARCHESWI THi 8 APPARATUS
Davi d O. CALDWELL
Physi cs Depart ment , Uni versi t y of Cal i f orni a,
Sant a Barbara, CA93106, USA
Physi cs beyondt he st andard model
i s bei ng sought i n Geexperi ment s i n t woqui t e di f f erent
ways : l ooki ng f or neut ri nol ess doubl e
bet a decay i n 76Ge and f or dark mat t er
col l i si ons wi t h Ge at oms. Li f et i me l i mi t s on t he f ormer, now( 5- 9) x
1023 yr, provi de severe
const rai nt s on ( 1) l ept on number nonconservat i on
; ( 2) t he ef f ect i ve mass of a l i ght Maj orana
el ect ron neut ri no; ( 3) ri ght - handed
current s ; ( 4) t he mass of aheavy Maj orana neut ri no
; ( 5) t he 1i squark mass as a f unct i on of gaugi no
mass i n supersymmet ri c t heori es
wi t h R- pari t y vi ol at i on; and ( 6) f or a di f f erent
decay mode, t he coupl i ng of a Maj oron t o t he el ect ron neut ri no
.
The
dark mat t er
search has el i mi nat ed a cl ass of shadowmat t er and
i s set t i ng const rai nt s on masses of vari ous ki nds of weakl y
i nt eract i ng massi ve
part i cl es . I n bot h pursui t s newt echni ques are st art i ng
t o be used whi chpromi se even bet t er resul t s soon.
1. I nt roduct i on
Neut ri nol ess doubl e bet a decay i s an ext remel y sen-
si t i ve probe of physi cs
beyond t he st andard model ,
si nce i t i s a
second- order weak i nt eract i on wi t h l arge
phase space, requi ri ng
t wo pi eces of newphysi cs . Be-
cause t he l i f et i me of t he process i s very l ong ( =1024
yr) , t he apparat us must be very sensi t i ve and have an
ext remel y l ow background, maki ng i t usef ul al so t o
search f or t he
dark mat t er of t he uni verse. The t wo
t opi cs wi l l be
di scussed
i n
order wi t h, i n each case, a
bri ef i nt roduct i on, a summary
of current experi ment s,
t he
best
l i mi t s
obt ai ned and t hei r i nt erpret at i on, and
t hen a vi ewof f ut ure
prospect s.
2. Doubl e bet a decay
2. 1. I nt roduct i on t o t he processes
Doubl e bet a decay [ 1- 4] i s possi bl e because f or
nearl y st abl e nucl ei a nucl eus wi t h an even number of
prot ons and of neut rons wi l l general l y be more t i ght l y
bound t han i t s odd- odd nei ghbor, and hence decay
may be possi bl e onl y t o t he next even- even nucl eus . A
decay whi chwi l l cert ai nl y occur, al bei t wi t ha very l ong
l i f et i me, i s t he second- order weak process ( desi gnat ed
here as
/ 3/ 32 ) : [ A, Z] - >[ A, Z+
2]
+
2e- +2ve. Apro-
cess havi ng a more f avorabl e phase space ( -
106- 108
i n rat e) woul d be
o, :
[ A, Z] - [ A, Z+2] +2e- .
Si nce onl y t wo l ept ons are emi t t ed, o requi res l ept on
nonconservat i on. I n addi t i on pari t y nonconservat i on
i mposes anot her st rong i nhi bi t i on of t he rat e. I n t he
convent i onal vi ewof o decay t he vi rt ual v
e
produced
when a neut ron emi t s t he f i rst e
- must have posi t i ve
hel i ci t y, but t o be absorbed by a second neut ron
t o
0168- 9002/ 88/ $03. 50 El sevi er Sci ence Publ i shers B. V.
( Nort h- Hol l and Physi cs Publ i shi ng Di vi si on)
produce anot her e - , a negat i ve hel i ci t y v
e
i s requi red.
For t hi s
t o occur v=
ve,
or t he neut ri no must be a
Maj orana and
not a Di rac part i cl e, and t here must be
some admi xt ure
of t he opposi t e hel i ci t y. The l at t er
coul d be provi ded i f
t he neut ri no has a mass, m,
maki ng t he l i f et i me
short er t he l arger m. The mass
coul d al so be t hat , M,
of a heavy Maj orana neut ri no
whi ch coupl es
t o t he l i ght el ect ron neut ri no. The neces-
sary hel i ci t y reversal
coul d al so be provi ded by ri ght -
handed current s ( RHC) .
The RHCand m or M,
mechani sms are i n pri nci -
pl e di st i ngui shabl e experi ment al l y. I n
t he l at t er case
t wol ef t - handed Wbosons are i nvol ved,
produci ng t wo
l ef t - handed e - , so t hei r hel i ci t i es cancel
i n t he back- t o-
back decay, permi t t i ng s- wave
emi ssi on and gi vi ng a
t ot al angul ar moment umchange of zero.
Thus decay
occurs onl y f romt he 0+ground st at e of one even- even
nucl eus t o t he 0+ground st at e of anot her . I n t he RHC
case, a ri ght - handed Wboson i s i nol ved, so bot h a
ri ght - handed and a l ef t - handed e- are emi t t ed. The
back- t o- back e
L
and eR requi re an angul ar moment um
of one, necessi t at i ng p- wave emi ssi on, so t he t ot al angu-
l ar moment um
change f or t he process can be 2, 1, or 0,
maki ng
possi bl e a t ransi t i on t o an exci t ed st at e as wel l .
General l y t he f i rst exci t ed st at e i s 2+, so observi ng a
decay
t o t hat st at e woul d ensure t hat RHCare i nvol ved.
Two ot her mechani sms
coul d suppl y t he t wo pi eces
of newphysi cs needed t o provi de l ept on
nonconserva-
t i on and hel i ci t y reversal . I n supersymmet ri c t heori es
wi t h R- pari t y vi ol at i on, 8, 80, can be i nduced by t he
exchange
of zi nos and phot i nos and probabl y gl ui nos,
i nst ead of neut ri nos
[ 5] . The o resul t s can t hen be
used t o set l i mi t s on squark mass as a
f unct i on of
gaugi no mass . The ot her process f or i nduci ng o
woul d occur i f a l i ght or massl ess boson, such as a
Maj oron [ 6] , exi st ed. Thi s Gol dst one boson, Bo, ari si ng
fromt he breaki ng
of B-L (baryon number
mi nus
l ept on number)
symmet ry coul d i nduce t he
decay
[A, Z]
-
[A, Z+2]
+2e - +B0 , whi ch i s desi gnat ed
/ 30 . B. I n t hi s case t he
vi rt ual ri ght -handed ve emi t t ed
i n t he fi rst neut ron
decay becomes a vi rt ual
l eft -handed
ve for absorpt i on
by t he secondneut ronbecause
t he B0
i s creat ed i n t hat
conversi on.
Fort unat el y,
t he t hree t ypes of decay
are di s-
t i ngui shabl e
experi ment al l y. I f t he summed
energy of
t he t wo
el ect rons emi t t ed i n ppdecay i s
measured, as i s
t he case
wi t h Ge det ect ors, 0 woul d
gi ve a spi ke at
t he
end-poi nt energy (2. 041 MeVfor
76Ge),
z
di s-
pl ays a four-body
decay spect rumpeaki ng at
about 0 . 65
MeV, and / 30 , B
woul d appear as a t hree-body
spec-
t rum
peaki ngat about 1. 55 MeV.
2. 2.
Two-neut ri no doubl e bet a decay
Whi l e t he
i nt erest i ng part i cl e physi cs resul t s come
fromt he
vari ous forms of neut ri nol ess pp decay,
t he
val ues
of, or l i mi t s on, t he quant i t i es of
i nt erest are
qui t e
dependent on t he nucl ear mat ri x
el ement s, t he
onl y
checks on whi ch come from
02,
decay. Even
t hese
checks are dubi ous because
p0,
i s
a short -range,
hi gh-energy process, whi l e p2 i s much
l onger range
and
l ower energy. However, not onl y
i s p2 i n pri nci -
pl e cal cul abl e, but al so t he onl y posi t i ve
resul t s for p
decay are l i fet i mes for p2
fromgeochemi cal experi -
ment s [7] . The probl emi s t hat
t he l i fet i mes or l i fet i me
l i mi t s are one t o t wo orders of
magni t ude l onger t han
t he cal cul at i ons predi ct .
Usi ng quasi -part i cl e random
phase approxi mat i on
(QRPA) cal cul at i ons, recent l y
Vogel and Zi rnbauer [8]
and t hen Ci vi t arese, Faessl er,
and Tomoda [9] have
found t hat a cancel l at i on
can occur i f t he previ ousl y
negl ect ed part i cl e-part i cl e
component of t he spi n-i so-
spi n pol ari zat i on force i s i ncl uded,
maki ngi t possi bl e t o
obt ai nagreement bet ween
t heory andexperi ment . How-
ever, t he resul t i s
very sensi t i ve t o t he amount of par-
t i cl e-part i cl e
force i ncl uded, so t here i s very l i t t l e pre-
di ct i ve
power. Furt hermore, i t i s not cl ear why t he
effect i s
not al ready i ncl uded i n ful l shel l model cal cul a-
t i ons
whi ch di sagree wi t h t he dat a. We shal l di scuss
l at er
t he reason t hi s i ssue i s cruci al t o i nt erpret i ng
t he
p0 resul t s.
At one t i me t here was hope t hat
l aborat ory measure-
ment s woul d favor t he cal cul at i ons, but l i mi t s
on
pp,
for
82
Se by t he I rvi ne group [10] do not di sagree
wi t h
t he geochemi cal resul t s. That group has
rebui l t i t s t i me-
proj ect i on chamber (TPC) andi s
agai n t aki ng dat a, soa
l aborat ory l i fet i me
measurement shoul d be avai l abl e
soon.
Posi t i ve resul t s onp2 shoul d al so be fort hcom-
i ng from
experi ment s usi ng t hi nfoi l s of separat ed 100 Mo
bet ween Si el ect ron det ect ors, as used by bot h t he
Osaka [111 and Lawrence
Berkel ey Laborat ory/ Mt .
Hol yoke/ NewMexi co
[12] groups.
D. O. Cal dwel l /

decay
anddark mat t er searches
2. 3. Neut ri nol ess doubl e bet a
decay experi ment s
107
Whi l e a number of ot her
nucl ei have been used, at
present t he best l i mi t s for
o come from
76Ge,
whi ch
const i t ut es 7. 8%of normal Ge
. Ge makes an excel l ent
el ect ron det ect or, wi t h
resol ut i on - 0 . 1%, i s of unusu-
al l y hi gh puri t y, and has
t he great advant age t hat t he
source i s spread
uni forml y t hroughout t he det ect or .
Fi rst performed by
t he Mi l an group [13], t here have
nowbeenseven Ge
experi ment s i n si x count ri es. These
are at dept hs underground
varyi ng from600 t o 5000
m. w. e. , al l wi t h good passi ve
shi el ds, and st rong effort s
of varyi ng success have
been made t o reduce i nt ri nsi c
radi oact i vi t y.
The mai n di st i nct i on
i n met hod of background sup-
pressi on i s whet her or
not an act i ve Nal shi el d i s used.
The Osaka [11],
Bordeaux/ Zaragoza/ St rasbourg [14],
and UCSB/ LBL [15]
experi ment s use Nal , and t he
Cal t ech/ SI N/ Neuchat el [16],
Paci fi c Nort hwest Labo-
rat ori es/ Sout h Carol i na [17], Guel ph/
Apt ec/ Queens
[18], and Mi l an[13] groups do
not . NaI andassoci at ed
phot ot ubes are not as
free of radi oact i vi t y as ot her
mat eri al s near Ge det ect ors,
and despi t e sel f-vet oi ng,
syst ems wi t h NaI t end t o
di spl ay more and l arger
ful l -energy peaks t hando
t hose wi t hj ust passi ve shi el ds.
Whi l e t he peaks do
not i nt erfere wi t h observi ng pp
decay, i t i s t he
l ow-energy t ai l s fromt hose peaks whi ch
rai se backgrounds.
The Nal provi des t ypi cal l y an order
of magni t ude suppressi on
of t he Compt on t ai l , ei t her
fromvet oi ng t he Compt on
scat t ered phot on or one of
t he associ at ed phot ons
whi ch are oft en t i me-coi nci dent
wi t h t he i ni t i al phot on
froma cascade decay. Thi s
suppressi on i s i mport ant
because t he number of count s
i n a Compt on t ai l
may be many t i mes t he number of
count s i n t he peak, wi t h
t he rat i o bei ngvery di ffi cul t t o
model .
Current l y avai l abl e
resul t s fromt he Ge experi ment s
are gi ven
i n
t abl e
1. The background count i ng rat e i s
gi ven for energi es around 2 MeV. The hal f-l i fe l i mi t for
t he ground st at e t ransi t i on (0 +-0 +), whi ch i s gi ven at
t he
one st andard devi at i on l evel , i s det ermi ned mai nl y
by t hat background, t he amount of Ge used, and t he
count i ng t i me. The l at t er t wo quant i t i es are mul t i pl i ed
t oget her i n t he "kgyr" col umn, whi ch gi ves t he
ki l o-
grams of Ge t i mes t he count i ng t i me
i n years. The
l i fet i me l i mi t s are somewhat i l l -defi ned quant i t i es, wi t h
some experi ment s report i ng a val ue based on t he
fl uct uat i on i n t he number of backgroundcount s
over a
range of energynear t he expect edpeak, whi l e ot hers
use
one of several maxi muml i kel i hood t echni ques
. I f t here
i s a di p i n t he spect rum
where a peak i s expect ed, as i s
remarkabl y
oft en t he case, t he maxi muml i kel i hood
met hodgi ves a l arger l i fet i me l i mi t . Thi scert ai nl y woul d
be l egi t i mat e i f t here are nei ghbori ng unresol vedpeaks
i n t he backgroundspect rum. For t he t wobest
l i mi t s t he
range of val ues byt he t wo
met hods i s gi ven i n t he t abl e,
VI . FUNDAMENTAL
PROPERTI ES
108
Tabl e 1
Summary
of
o
Resul t s f or Ge
a)
Two det ect ors were used wi t h qui t e di f f erent
backgrounds,
but t he rest of t he i nf ormat i on
combi nes t hei r resul t s .
and i t i s seen t o be nearl y a f act or
of t wo. Al so gi ven,
when avai l abl e, i s t he l i f et i me l i mi t f or
t he t ransi t i on t o
t he f i rst exci t ed st at e, whi ch coul d be
i nduced by RHC.
2. 4. I nt erpret at i on of t he / 3a resul t s
The rest ri ct i ons on quant i t i es of physi cal
i nt erest
i mposed by a l i f et i me l i mi t s wi l l be gi ven usi ng
t he
more conservat i ve l i mi t ( 5 X10 23
yr) f rom t he
UCSB/ LBLexperi ment . Mat ri x el ement s f rom
t he Los
Al amos [ 2] , Ti l bi ngen- J i i l i ch [ 19] , and Hei del berg
[ 20]
groups wi l l be used t o showt he dependences of pub-
l i shed cal cul at i ons on t hose mat ri x el ement s . The prob-
l emof t he 2 l i f et i mes has been di scussed above, and
i t s possi bl e i mpl i cat i ons here wi l l be di scussed short l y,
but t wo ot her caveat s i n i nt erpret i ng t hese resul t s must
be ment i oned now. Fi rst , more t han one mechani smt o
i nduce decay may be operat i ve, but we showt he
sensi t i vi t y of one paramet er at a t i me t o t he l i f et i me
l i mi t by t aki ng al l ot hers t o be zero. However, i t has
been
shown
[ 21] t hat i n anygauge t heory i f RHCexi st ,
t hen m00. Second, i f
t here i s a mi xt ure of neut ri nos,
t hese can have opposi t e
CP ei genst at es, produci ng a
cancel l at i on whi ch
woul d, f or exampl e, make t he ef f ec-
t i ve neut ri no mass f or decay, ( m) , much l ess t han
i t mi ght be f or si ngl e
decay[ 22] .
The RHCparamet ers i n
t abl e 2 are most readi l y
underst ood f rom a si mpl i f i ed Hami l t oni an f or / 3o
decay:
Hw=( - GF cos 0
. /
~2_
) [ j i ( J Ly+11LRJ RW)
+I R( 7l RLJ LW+7l RRJ R, , ) ] +h
. c .
Here t he
AL( R)
are t he component s of t he l ept oni c
current , wi t h L and R st andi ng f or l ef t - and ri ght -
handedness, whi l e t he J ' s are si mi l ar component s of t he
D. O. Cal dwel l / , B
decay and dark mat t er searches
Tabl e 2
Li mi t s on mand RHCf or
T1, 2
>5 X
1023 yr
Ref . [ 25]
0. 7
a)
The mat ri x el ement s of ref . [ 2]
are used wi t h correct i ons f or
arel at i vi st i c p- wave
el ect ron wave f unct i on and f or nucl eon
recoi l f romref . [ 3] .
hadroni c
current . At present t he 0+
-
0+
resul t gi ves a
bet t er l i mi t t han
t hat f romt he 0+
-
2+t ransi t i on .
For t he remai ni ng
const rai nt s f romt he o l i f et i me
l i mi t , t he nucl ear
mat ri x el ement s f romref . [ 2] were
used. For
heavy Maj orana neut ri nos t he l i mi t s are ex-
pressed di f f erent l y
dependi ng on whet her t he coupl i ng
i s t o l ef t - or
ri ght - handed Wbosons. For neut ri nos
whi ch mi ght come
f roma f ourt h generat i on or resul t
f romt he l ow- energy
l i mi t of st ri ng t heori es, l i mi t s can
be set on t he
mass, M
,
as a f unct i on of t he coupl i ng of
t hat heavy
neut ri no t o t he el ect ron neut ri no wi t h a
mi xi ng probabi l i t y
( UeL) 2,
as shown i n f i g. 1. Val ues
above and t o t he
l ef t of t he di agonal l i ne are excl uded,
and t hese are general l y
much bet t er t han l i mi t s ( whi ch
appl y t o Di rac neut ri nos
as wel l , however) f romot her
experi ment s, al so
shown i n t he f i gure and t aken f roma
recent compi l at i on
[ 23] . I f i nst ead t he heavy Maj orana
neut ri no were coupl ed
t o a ri ght - handed Wboson, WR,
such as appears i n l ef t - ri ght
symmet ri c model s, t hen t he
l i mi t ed on neut ri no mass ( now
gi ven as
MN
i n f i g. 2)
becomes a f unct i on of t he mass of WR,
as shown i n t he
f i gure mai nl y t aken f romMohapat ra
[ 24]
.
He used our
earl i er [ 15] l i f et i me l i mi t of 2. 5 X10 23
yr, and t he smal l
i mprovement i n excl uded masses wi t h 5 X
10 23 yr i s
shown by t he dot t ed area.
J N
I '
, ( : F5
1 0- 7
102
104 I d,
M GeV
Fi g. 1. Li mi t s on t he
mass of a heavy Maj orana neut ri no
coupl ed t o a l ef t - handed Wboson as
a f unct i on of i t s prob-
abi l i t y f or mi xi ng wi t h an el ect ron neut ri no .
Group
Background
count
/ keVkgyr
kg yr
T1/ 2
l i mi t s ( 1023 yr)
0+- 0+ 0+
~
2+
Zar . / Bord
. /
St rasbourg
39 0. 63 0. 2 0. 6
CI T/ SI N/
Neuchat el 4 0. 37 0. 6
Osaka
6 0. 87 0. 7 0. 6
PNL/ USC
2. 5 0. 66 1. 4 0. 8
Guel ph/ Apt
. /
Queens 2. 7
1. 1 1. 6
Mi l an 22,
5
a)
2. 8 1 . 7- 3. 3 0. 3
UCSB/ LBL 1 . 4 8 . 4 5- 9 2
Paramet er Ref . [ 2, 3]
a)
Ref . [ 19]
( m)
eV 1. 8 1. 3
( TI RA)
3. 4 X10 - 6 2. 5 X10- 6
( 7I RL)
3. 2X10 - 7 3. 1X10- 8
2 . 4
2 . 0
MWR
i n
1 . 2
TeV
0. s
0 . 4
0
0
m
0
J
a
Y

0
1 04
1 03
D. O. Cal dwel l / decay
an d dar k mat t er sear ches
Fi g. 2. Li mi t s on t he
mass of a heavy Maj or an an eut r i n o
coupl ed
t o a r i ght - han ded Wboson as af un ct i on
of t he mass
of t hat boson
. I n cr easi n g t he doubl e bet a decay
l i mi t f r om
2. 5
x1 0
23
t o 5 x1 0 23 yr has added t he dot t ed
r egi on .
On e ot her use of t hi s l i f et i me l i mi t i s
t ocon st r ai n t he

squar k mass as af un ct i on of gaugi n o

mass f or super -
symmet r i c t heor i es wi t h R- par i t y
vi ol at i on [ 5] . Ther e ar e
t wo possi bl e l i mi t s . On e i s
gi ven by zi n o pl us phot i n o
exchan ge whi ch shoul d sur el y
occur , but an even mor e
st r i n gen t l i mi t i s set i f gl ui n o
exchan ge i n vol ves essen -
t i al l y apoi n t i n t er act i on so
t hat aFi er z t r an sf or mat i on
i s al l owed an d col or ed
i n t er medi at e st at es ar e n ot r e-
qui r ed. Bot h l i mi t s ar e
shown i n f i g. 3 . I t wi l l be n ot i ced
t hat t hese ar e
gen er al l y wel l beyon d val ues whi ch can be
r eached wi t h pr esen t
accel er at or s .
The f i n al

i ssue
con cer n s 0 , B decay. Repor t s
[ 25] of t he
possi bl e obser vat i on of n eut r i n ol ess 1 de-
cay i n duced
by Maj or on emi ssi on ar oused wi despr ead
i n t er est ,
si n ce t he Maj or on n ot on l y br eaks B-
L sym-
met r y, but al so t he pr ocess coul d gi ve a mass t o
l i ght
1 0 2
1 0 2 1 03
GAUGI NG
MASS

( GeV)
Fi g. 3 . Lower l i mi t on t he 1 i squar k mass as a f un ct i on of t he
mass of t he gaugi n o
exchan ged.
1 04
1 09
Maj or an a n eut r i n os .
As or i gi n al l y pr esen t ed,
t he
PNL/USCdat a
[ 25] woul d r equi r e T1 1 2 ( P
o
,
B) =( 6
1 ) X1 0 20 yr .
Ot her exper i men t s have si n ce set
l i mi t s i n
di sagr eemen t wi t h
t hi s r esul t . CI T/SI N/Neuchat el
f i n ds
T1 /2( 0, , B)
>1 . 2
X1 0 21 yr at t he 90%C. L
. [ 26] .
UC I r vi n e
usi n g
82
Se get s
T1 /260 , B)
>4 . 6
X1 0 20 yr
( 90%C. L . ) [ 1 0] ,
but t hi s t r an sl at es i n t o a
Maj or on - n eu-
t r i n o coupl i n g
whi ch i s compar abl e t o t hat
obt ai n ed
f r omt he
best 76Ge l i mi t , whi ch comes
f r omt he
UCSB/LBL
exper i men t an d i s
T1 /2( 1 80v, $)
>
1 . 4 X
1 0 21 yr ( 90%C. L . )
[ 27] . The r esul t i n g coupl i n g,
gee
<7
X1 0 - 4 , usi n g t he
mat r i xel emen t s of r ef . [ 2] an d
<3 X
1 0 - 4 , usi n g t hose of
r ef . [ 20] . The backgr oun d
i n t he
UCSB/LBL
exper i men t can be f i t t ed usi n g
t ai l s of
kn own peaks, t he
kn own quan t i t y of "Ga+ act i vi t y
( f r om68 Ge) , pl us a
smal l con st an t t er m. I f acon t r i bu-
t i on of Maj or on - i n duced
decay at t he l evel of
T1 /2( 0, , B)
=
6
X1 0 20 yr . i s added, even i f t he t ai l
an d
68 Gacon t r i but i on s
ar e pushed t o t he l owest l evel s
al -
l owed by t hei r
er r or s, t he f i t t o t he backgr oun d t hen
has
a pr obabi l i t y
1 0 4 wor se t han t he f i t wi t h n o 0 . B
con t r i but i on
. The UCSB/LBL exper i men t has about
t en t i mes t he
sen si t i vi t y ( i . e. , kgyr ) an d l ower
back-
gr oun ds
i n t hi s r egi on t han t he PNL/USA
exper i men t .
Un f or t un at el y, on e can con cl ude t hat on ce
agai n
decay
has set an i mpor t an t l i mi t on physi cs
beyon d t he
st an dar d
model , but n o posi t i ve ef f ect has
been ob-
ser ved
.
2. 5.
Fut ur e pr ospect s f or o
What can on e expect f r om0
exper i men t s i n t he
n ear t er man d i n t he mor e di st an t f ut ur e?
Fi r st , we shal l
r evi ew br i ef l y what i s happen i n g t o each of
t he Ge
exper i men t s di scussed above, t hen t her e
wi l l be men t i on
of some ot her t echn i ques, an d f i n al l y some
di scussi on of
a t heor et i cal devel opmen t whi ch may
have a pr of oun d
ef f ect on t he f ut ur e of

exper i men t s
.
The Bor deaux/Zar agoza/St r asbour g
gr oup i s r e-
bui l di n g t hei r f our det ect or s i n t he
Fr ej us t un n el so as
t o achi eve l ower backgr oun ds,
an d t he Zar agozapar t of
t hat gr oup i s al so set t i n g up
a separ at e exper i men t i n
Spai n t o st udy especi al l y
t o 0 +
-
2 + t r an si t i on . The
Paci f i c Nor t hwest
Labor at or i es/Sout h Car ol i n agr oup
oper at i n g i n t he
Homest ake mi n e i s st i l l con cen t r at i n g
on backgr oun d
r educt i on t echn i ques, wi t h some wor k
on al ar ger syst em
whi ch i s supposed t o have 0 . 71 of Ge
i n t he f i r st st age
an d t hen even t ual l y t wi ce t hat quan t i t y
of Ge.
The Geul ph/Apt ec/Queen s gr oup i s r ewor ki n g
t hei r
t hr ee 200 cm3 det ect or s t o r educe t he backgr oun ds .
The Cal t ech/SI N/Neuchat el gr oup has j ust begun op-
er at i n g a syst emof ei ght 1 4 0 cm3 det ect or s
i n t he
Got t har d t un n el , an d so f ar t he
backgr oun ds seemver y
f avor abl e. The UCSB/LBL gr oup
oper at i n g i n t he
power house of t he
Or ovi l l e Dami n t he Si er r af oot hi l l s
i s con t i n ui n g t o
t ake dat awi t h si x 1 60 cm3 det ect or s
VI . FUNDAMENTAL
PROPERTI ES
whi l e twoother s ar e bei ng al ter ed.
Par t of the ti me they
wi l l
use al l ei ght detector s, but i f f unds
ar e avai l abl e,
they wi l l i mpr ove twodetector s at a ti me
.
The Osaka gr oup i s now
concentr ati ng on
1o0Mo
.
Thei r smal l er detector menti oned i n
secti on 2. 2 i s to be
r epl aced wi th a ver y much l ar ger
detector , usi ng dr i f t
chamber s, pl asti c sci nti l l ator , and
Nal . The Lawr ence
Ber kel ey Labor ator y/ Mt . Hol yoke/ New
Mexi co gr oup,
al so menti oned above, has achi eved
ver y good back-
gr ounds i n sampl e- out r uns and
r ecentl y i nstal l ed some
new100Mof oi l s whi ch have
consi der abl y r educed r adi o-
acti vi ty over those f or mer l y avai l abl e
. Both exper i ments
shoul d dover y wel l on 2 , o , 13 ,
and possi bl e even
on / 3 / 3 0 .
The 100Moexper i ments have the advantage
of usi ng
separ ated i sotopes. ALeni ngr ad/ Moscow
gr oup, now
ai ded by Hei del ber g, i s obtai ni ng
15
kg
of separ ated
- t6Ge,
a f i scal i mpossi bi l i ty f or Wester n
exper i ments .
I mpr ovi ng the abundance a of the / 3
i sotope i mpr oves
the l i f eti me l i mi t l i near l y f or the backgr ound B
l i mi ted
case, si nce
_
T1
/
2 >_( 0. 693 x6. 02x10
23
aA)

MT
RE
f or
atomi c number Aand mass Mof the detector
whi ch
has ener gy
r esol uti on AEand i s used f or a counti ng
ti me T
.
The
same advantage appl i es to
13 6
Xe detector s,
si nce
the Xe
gas used can be r ather r eadi l y enr i ched i n the
desi r ed
i sotope. The Mi l an gr oup has concl uded thei r
Ge exper i ment i n
the Mt . Bl anc tunnel and i s nowusi ng
a Xe mul ti wi r e
pr opor ti onal counter of 100 1 at 10atm
i n the Gr an Sasso
l abor ator y. Whi l e usi ng nor mal Xe at
pr esent,
they have obtai ned gas enr i ched to - 60%i n
13 6
Xe. They get
some spati al i nf or mati on ( typi cal l y 3 - 8
el ements woul d gi ve
a si gnal f or a

event) and - 5%
f whmener gy r esol uti on.
Af ter 150 h of r unni ng, they
have
T112( o. )
>1. 7 x 1021
yr ( 90%C. L. ) . The Cal tech
gr oup has bui l t a 3 55 1
TPCwhi ch has begun oper ati ng
at 5 atm. I t i s pl anned to
move i t to the Gotthar d tunnel
and use i t wi th 60%enr i ched
13 6
Xe by the begi nni ng of
1988. Fi nal l y, the I NRand I TEP
gr oups i n Moscow
have been bui l di ng a3 mx 3 mx1. 5 mTPC
and possess
10 kg of 93 %
13 6
Xe.
The exper i ment wi th enr i ched
76 Ge can pr oduce an
or der of magni tude i mpr ovement i n l i f eti me
l i mi t f or
o , but the
13 6
Xe exper i ments candoas wel l i n ter ms
of
l i mi ts
on par ameter s such as ( m) , accor di ng to
publ i shed cal cul ati ons
. I ndeed, the spati al r esol uti on of
the Xe chamber s
may r educe backgr ounds suf f i ci entl y
that theseexper i ments wi l l domuch
better than the Ge.
Mor eover , ther e i s the possi bi l i ty that
13 6
Xe exper i -
ments
wi l l
do f ar better than the
76Ge,
based on r ecent
r esul ts of Engel ,
Vogel , and Zi r nbauer [ 28] , usi ng the
same type of QRPA
cal cul ati ons wi th the addi ti on of
the cancel i ng par ti cl e- par ti cl e ( p- p)
i nter acti on de-
D. O. Cal dwel l /
decay and dar k matter sear ches
scr i bed i n secti on 2. 2.
Once agai n ther e i s the
uncer -
tai nty
cr eated by the sensi ti vi ty of
thi s cal cul ati on to the
amount of p- p
f or ce added and
by the di sagr eement
wi th shel l
model cal cul ati ons . Ther esul ts
pr ovi de such a
dr asti c
change, however , that thi s cr eates
as the most
i mpor tant
i ssue i n the whol e subj ect
of / 3 decay the
deter mi nati on
of whether these new
r esul ts ar e cor r ect .
To i ndi cate
the ef f ect of thi s p- p
f or ce cancel l ati on,
l i f eti mes ar e
gi ven f or ( m) =1 eV f or
the thr ee i so-
topes of
i nter est wi th ( and wi thout)
the p- p f or ce:
76Ge,
1. 1 x
1026 yr ( 1. 6 x 1024 yr ) ;
100
Mo, 9. 7
x
1024
yr ( 1. 1 x
1023 yr )
;
13 6
Xe, 1. 3 x 1025
yr ( 7 . 0 x 1023 yr ) ,
as gi ven i n r ef .
[ 28] . On thi s basi s the heavi er
i sotopes
ar e much mor e
f avor abl e, and pr esent r esul ts
( 5- 9x
1023 yr ) f r om
76 Ge woul d cor r espond to ( m) <11- 15
eV, whi ch woul d not
even r ul e out ve as dar k matter .
Note: af ter thi s
manuscr i pt was compl eted, a Uni ver si ty
of Ti l bi ngen pr epr i nt
was r ecei ved f r omTomoda
and
Faessl er , whoal so di d
aQRPAcal cul ati on wi th thep- p
f or ce f or o and
do not f i nd an appr eci abl e cal cel l a-
ti on. For the UCSB/ LBL
l i mi t they woul d get ( m) <
1. 8- 2. 4 eV.
Thi s devel opment
may pr ovi de another ar gument f or
the use of cr yogeni c
detector s [ 29] . For exampl e, the
l ar ger ener gy r el ease i n
100Mo ( 3 . 03 4 MeV) coul d
r e-
duce the backgr ound by
an or der of magni tude, and
wi th another or der of magni tude
i mpr ovement over Ge
i n ener gy r esol uti on, the system
shoul d have negl i gi bl e
backgr ound wi thi n the ener gy
i nter val of the expected
peak, maki ng
T1/ 2
a MTi nstead
of MT. Then 0. 3 kg
of
100Moas a super conductor
coul d do as wel l as the
Sovi et
76 Ge exper i ment i n one year , and
better ther e-
af ter . I f the
newcal cul ati ons ar e cor r ect, 13 0
Te used
bol ometr i cal l y or as a cr ystal acousti c detector woul d
be
an even
better choi ce, wi th T1/ 2 =2. 5 x 1024
yr f or 1
eV.
3 . Dar k
matter sear ches wi th, B/ 3 appar atus
3 . 1. I ntr oducti on
to the techni que
Backgr ounds have
been r educed i n Ge / 3 appar atus
to such an extent that
i t i s possi bl e to sear ch f or
candi dates f or the nonl umi nous
matter whi ch may con-
sti tute 90%of the mass of
the uni ver se. Knowl edge of
the natur e of thi s dar k matter woul d
not onl y have
wi despr ead
i mpor tance f or astr ophysi cs and
cosmol ogy,
but al so f or par ti cl e
physi cs, si nce i t i s unl i kel y that
dar k matter consi sts of
par ti cl es as they ar e known i n
the standar d model .
To detect the scatter i ng of dar k
matter f r om Ge
nucl ei [ 3 0] ,
i t i s necessar y to r educe the ener gy thr eshol d
f or the Ge as l ow
as possi bl e. The UCSB/ LBL exper i -
ment was constr ucted to
r educe backgr ounds especi al l y
ar ound 2 MeV, but a
r api dl y r i si ng backgr ound was
20
Z
0
25
15
10
5
0
Fi g.
4. I oni zat i on ener gy det ect ed i n
t he l ow end of t he
oper at i ng r ange of one Ge
count er i n a t wo- week r un. Bel ow
t he Ga and Zn X- r ay peaks t he noi se
r i ses, but si nce poi nt s be
bel ow
t he cur ve, a l i mi t of - 20GeV
can be set on t he mass of
weakl y i nt er act i ng massi ve
par t i cl es whi ch i nt er act vi a Z
exchange and whi ch coul d be t he
dar k mat t er i n t he hal o of
our
gal axy. Asl i ght l y bet t er l i mi t i s
set on Magni nos, whi ch
i nt er act al so vi a a
magnet i c moment .
obser ved
bel ow400keV. Thi s was due t o about a
hal f a
gr amof
I n, whi ch has a 486keV- wi t h
T112
=4X10
14
yr ! For one det ect or i n whi ch
t he I n was r epl aced by
Au, t he backgr ound became
f l at down t o 14 keV, except
f or some X- r ay peaks, at a
l evel of 'f count / keVkg d. A
par t of t hat spect r umi s
shown i n f i g. 4, wher e at l ower
ener gi es t he count i ng r at e
r i ses due mai nl y t o a Ga ( 10. 4
keV) and a l i t t l e t o a Zn ( 9 . 7
keV) X- r ay peak whi ch
r esul t f r om t he 68Ge-
68 Ga decay chai n r ef er r ed t o
above. Bel ow t he peaks
t he count i ng r at e r i ses due t o
noi se, l i mi t i ng t he
measur ement t o 4 keV. Thi s cor r e-
sponds t o a r ecoi l
ener gy of about 18 keV, because
r el at i vel y l i t t l e ener gy
goes i nt o i oni zat i on f or such l ow
r ecoi l ener gi es f r om
heavy par t i cl es .
3. 2. Li mi t at i ons
i mposed on dar k mat t er candi dat es
The spect r um of f i g. 4 can be used
t o pl ace con-
st r ai nt s on t hr ee cl asses of dar k
mat t er . The f i r st r esul t s
f r om t he specul at i on, whi ch
has some mot i vat i on f r om
st r i ng t heor y, t hat anot her
wor l d may occupy t he space
i n whi ch we l i ve and t hat
t hi s shadowuni ver se i nt er act s
wi t h us onl y gr avi t at i onal l y
. However , Hol dom [ 31]
showed t hat i f any
connect or par t i cl e exi st s, no mat t er
how heavy, t hen
t he shadow wor l d has a massl ess
phot on whi ch
mi xes wi t h our phot on. Whi l e
shadow
mat t er woul d
emi t mai nl y shadowphot ons,
whi ch we
coul d not
det ect , i t woul d al so pr oduce our phot ons
wi t h st r engt hs
ae 2, wher e e _ < 10- 3. Gol dber g and
Hal l [ 32]
have i nvest i gat ed whet her such
mi l l i char ged
shadow
mat t er coul d be a candi dat e f or dar k
mat t er .
Despi t e const r ai nt s f r om cosmol ogy,
gal act i c ast r o-
physi cs, and sear ches
f or dar k mat t er , par t i cul ar l y by
anot her Ge det ect or [ 33] ,
t her e was a r ange of al l owabl e
masses of t he shadow
pr ot on vs shadowel ect r on . The
Ge l i mi t s came
f r om obser vat i ons bot h at t he sur f ace
and at a
dept h of 4000m. w. e . , wher e t he count r at es
of
- 100kg- 1 d - 1 f or Ge nucl eus r ecoi l ener gi es of
20- 150
D. O. Cal dwel l / decay and dar k
mat t er sear ches
keV
wer e sat i sf i ed by
r equi r i ng t he i nt er act i on cr oss
sect i on, and hence t he mass,
of t he shadowpr ot on t o be
suf f i ci ent l y l ar ge so t hat t oo
f ew par t i cl es sur vi ved t o
t hat dept h t o be count ed. The
UCSB/ LBL exper i ment
had about one- t hi r d t hat
count i ng r at e, but mor e
si g-
ni f i cant i s i t s shal l owdept h,
600m. w. e . , whi ch f or ces an
or der of magni t ude i ncr ease
i n cr oss sect i on, ef f ect i vel y
wi pi ng out t he al l owabl e
r egi on of shadowpr ot on
vs
shadowel ect r on
mass.
Asecond candi dat e
f or dar k mat t er i s t he cl ass
of
weakl y i nt er act i ng massi ve
par t i cl es ( WI MPS)
whi ch
i nt er act vi a Z exchange
and have an i ni t i al par t i cl e- an-
t i par t i cl e asymmet r y l i ke
t hat of bar yons. Thi s vect or i al ,
spi n- i ndependent i nt er act i on
i s coher ent i n a nucl eus
and so depends on
t he squar e of t he number of neu-
t r ons. To compar e t he
measur ed r at es i n f i g. 4wi t h t he
spect r um f or a gi ven mass of
such a par t i cl e, whi ch
mi ght be a Di r ac neut r i no
f r omt he hal o of our gal axy,
cal cul at i ons wer e made wi t h a
hal o densi t y of 7 X10
- 25
gcm- 3 and a Maxwel l i an
vel oci t y di st r i but i on wi t h a
r oot mean squar e aver age
of 300kms- 1 ( wi t hout any
t r uncat i on, whi ch coul d
exi st i f t he gal axy escape vel oc-
i t y wer e r el at i vel y
l ow) . I t i s seen i n f i g. 4 t hat t he
f our
l owest ener gy
poi nt s ( and especi al l y t he second)
l i e
bel owt he 20
GeVcur ve, gi vi ng t hat mass as
a l i mi t ,
qui t e si mi l ar t o
t he ot her Ge det er mi nat i on
[ 33] . The
mass r ange
excl uded i s up t o about 1 TeV, because
t he
i nt er act i on r at e
i s i nver sel y pr opor t i onal t o t he mass
.
The t hi r d
t ype of dar k mat t er i s a WI MP
whi ch
coul d not
onl y be t he mai n component of dar k
mat t er
but al so
expl ai n t he sol ar neut r i no pr obl em
. Thi s ap-
par ent
def i ci t of 8Bneut r i nos comi ng f r om
t he sun [ 34]
coul d be
expl ai ned [ 35] by WI MPs bei ng t r apped
i n t he
sun and
t r anspor t i ng ener gy f r om t he cor e t o
l ar ger
sol ar
r adi i , sl i ght l y cool i ng t he cent r al
r egi on f r om
whi ch most of t he neut r i nos or i gi nat e.
Thi s mechani sm
r equi r es a r el at i vel y l ar ge cr oss sect i on
( - 10- 36 cm2)
wi t h pr ot ons, a l owenough anni hi l at i on
r at e, and masses
bet ween 4 GeV( so t he par t i cl es do not
evapor at e f r om
t he sur f ace t oo r api dl y) and about
10- 20 GeV, above
whi ch mass t hey woul d not t r avel
f ar enough f r omt he
cor e t o cool i t suf f i ci ent l y
. Such par t i cl es coul d al so
expl ai n t he di scr epancy
bet ween obser vat i ons of sol ar
osci l l at i ons and t he
st andar d sol ar model , but t he r e-
qui r ed pr oper t i es ar e not
possessed by convent i onal or
even pr evi ousl y pr oposed
par t i cl es . To f i l l t hi s need,
Raby and West [ 36] have
post ul at ed a f our t h- gener at i on
Di r ac neut r i no
wi t h a l ar ge magnet i c moment ar i si ng
f r omt he exi st ence
near by i n mass of i t s char ged par t ner
and associ at ed
Hi ggs par t i cl e. The r esul t i ng el ect r omag-
net i c
i nt er act i on wi t h pr ot ons has an appr opr i at el y l ar ge
cr oss
sect i on, but f or a nucl eus l i ke Ge t he
el ect r omag-
net i c and weak cr oss sect i ons ar e about equal
. Thus t he
mass l i mi t gi ven i n f i g. 4 f or
t hese par t i cl es, cal l ed
"magni nos" i s onl y a
l i t t l e mor e st r i ngent ( - 17 GeV)
t han f or Di r ac neut r i nos
.
VI . FUNDAMENTAL
PROPERTI ES
3. 3. Futureprospects f or di rect
dark matter detecti on
Both the PNL/USCand UCSB/LBL
groups are
tryi ng
to reduce i nf rared and el ectroni c
noi se and mi -
crophoni cs
to l ower the threshol ds on
Ge detectors. I n
the
l aboratory the UCSB/LBLgroup
has reduced the
noi se
l evel s on one Ge detector to
correspond to a
threshol d
of 1. 5 keV( 7 keVrecoi l energy) .
I f thi s and a
second detector al so bei ng al tered
can reach thi s
threshol d underground wi th
backgrounds l i ke those
achi eved at sl i ghtl y hi gher energi es,
then a Di rac neu-
tri no
mass l i mi t of - 8 GeVcan
be reached, wi th a
correspondi ngl y l ower l i mi t f or magni nos
. I t i s hoped to
make
such ameasurement bef ore the end
of 1987.
More promi si ng i s the possi bl e use of
Si detectors
[ 37] . These have three advantages over
Ge: ( 1) the
l i ghter Si mass gi ves a l arger recoi l energy,
( 2) l ower
threshol ds can be achi eved ( - 0. 8 keV) , and
( 3) al arger
f racti on
of the recoi l energy goes i nto i oni zati on.
Wi th
even a
mass ( - 0. 1 kg) an order of magni tudel ess
than
that of aGedetector, i t shoul d be possi bl e to cover
the
enti re range of WI MPmasses ( down
to
4
GeV) of
i nterest f or the sol ar neutri no probl em,
even i f the
i nteracti on cross secti on i s onl y at the weak l evel .
I t i s
hoped
that thi s very i mportant devel opment can
begi n
soon.
Here, too, cryogeni c detectors coul d pl ay an
i m-
portant rol e [ 291, si nce they coul d achi eve even
l ower
threshol ds, uti l i zi ng the l arger f racti on of the
recoi l
energy
whi chgoes i nto phonons. I f there are i ndi cati ons
of dark
matter, i t wi l l be i mportant to conf i rmi ts
exi stence by observi ng
not onl y the - 10%summer-
wi nter ef f ect,
whi chrequi res consi derabl e detector mass,
but al so the di f f erent
recoi l spectra gi ven by di f f erent
detector nucl ei .
Wi th these experi mental
possi bi l i ti es f or both dark
matter detecti on and f or
the search f or doubl e beta
decay, these rel ated acti vi ti es wi l l
conti nue to pl ay abi g
rol e i n non- accel erator
physi cs, and hopef ul l y soon a
posi ti ve resul t wi l l poi nt
the way to the newphysi cs
whi chi s so acti vel y bei ng
sought .
Acknowl edgements
Experi mental work has been done i n col l aborati on
wi th R. M. Ei sberg, D. M.
Grumm, D. L. Hal e, and M. S.
Wi therel l at UCSBand
wi thF. S. Goul di ng, D. A. Landi s,
N. W. Madden, R. H. Pehl , and A. R.
Smi th at LBL.
Bernard Sadoul et of LBLand the Uni versi ty
of Cal i -
f orni a,
Berkel ey has been an i mportant col l aborator on
the dark matter
search. Thi s work was supported i n part
by the U
. S. Department of Energy .
D. O. Cal dwel l /
pp decay and darkmatter searches
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VI .
FUNDAMENTAL
PROPERTI ES