HSCI 100 HSCI 100

Human Biology Human Biology

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Human Biology Human Biology
Gut reactions Gut reactions
Organ systems of the Organ systems of the
human body human body Part 2 Part 2
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Transit map of the GI tract Transit map of the GI tract
Where are nutrients
mainly absorbed?
A. stomach
B. liver
C. pancreas
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C. pancreas
D. small intestine
E. large intestine
What are the main steps in the What are the main steps in the
digestive process? digestive process?
Ingestion intake of food via the mouth
Digestion mechanically or chemically breaking down
food into their subunits
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Movement food must be moved along the GI tract in
order to fulfill all functions
Absorption movement of nutrients across the GI tract
wall to be delivered to cells/tissues via the blood
Elimination removal of indigestible molecules
The overall goal is to breakdown food to usable units and eliminate the rest
http://www.medbroadcast.com/humanatlas_info.asp
An overview of An overview of
the digestive system the digestive system
Foods pathway
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Visualizing the layers of Visualizing the layers of
the GI tract the GI tract
Mucosa innermost layer
of epithelial cells that
produces mucus that
protect the lining and also
produce digestive enzymes
Submucosa layer of loose
connective tissue that
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connective tissue that
contains blood vessels,
lymphatic vessels and
nerves
Muscularis layer made of
2 orthogonal layers of
smooth muscle that move
food along the GI tract
Serosa outer lining that is
part of the peritoneum that
covers abdominal organs
The mouth The mouth
3 pairs of salivary glands secrete
salivary amylase (an enzyme) that
begins carbohydrate digestion
Tonsils (2
o
lymph organ) at the
back of the mouth and other
lymphatic tissues are important in
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lymphatic tissues are important in
fighting infection
The tongue (skeletal muscle) is
covered in taste buds and also
assists in the mechanical
breakdown and movement of food
The tongue forms a bolus (mass
of chewed food) and moves it
toward the pharynx (throat)
How do we swallow food? How do we swallow food?
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http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/anatomyvideos/000097.htm
The movement is governed by autonomic nervous system
control of smooth muscles = involuntary
Anatomy of the stomach Anatomy of the stomach
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Anatomy of the stomach Anatomy of the stomach
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The stomach The stomach
Functions to store food, start digestion of proteins and controls
movement of chyme into the small intestine
There are 3 layers of muscle in the muscularis layer of the stomach wall
helping in mechanical digestion and allowing it to stretch
The mucosa layer has deep folds called rugae and gastric pits that lead
into gastric glands that secretes gastric juice
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Gastric juice contains pepsin, an enzyme that breaks down proteins,
and hydrochloric acid (HCl) and mucus. Gastric juice + food = chyme.
HCl gives the stomach a pH of 2 (very acidic!) which activates pepsin
and helps kill bacteria found in food.
A bacterium, Helicobacter pylori, lives in the mucus and can cause
gastric ulcers
The stomach empties chyme into the small intestine after
Regulation of digestion and food Regulation of digestion and food
intake intake
There are many hormones that regulate the
activity of the GI tract and produce feelings of
hunger, appetite and satiety
Some originate in the gut (e.g. food present or
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Some originate in the gut (e.g. food present or
not), some are triggered by the nervous system
(seeing or smelling food), some arise from fat
cells (gauge of energy reserves), and more
Homeostatic controls try to keep a balance, but
with so many inputs there are many
opportunities to disrupt the balance
Cell types of Cell types of
the digestive the digestive
tract epithelium tract epithelium
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What is heartburn? What is heartburn?
Occurs when acid from the stomach pass into the esophagus (acid
reflux)
Burning sensation in the esophagus
Chronic heartburn is called gastroesophageal reflux disease
(GERD)
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Some drugs, such as antacids, neutralize the stomach acid, while
others such as Nexium, prevent HCl secretion by oxyntic cells
Tips for decreasing heartburn:
Avoid high fat meals fat takes longer to break down
Dont overeat
Eat several small meals rather than the standard 3 larger meals
each day
Exercise lightly
What is an ulcer? What is an ulcer?
Erosion of GI tissue
Loss of protective mucus barrier
Acid/pepsin destruction of mucosal epithelium and
possibly beyond
Irritation by certain foods/medicines (caffeine, cigarettes,
alchohol, NSAIDs, aspirin)
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alchohol, NSAIDs, aspirin)
High acid/peptic content and/or low mucus levels
Infection by Helicobacter pylori
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/anatomyvideos/000133.htm
The small intestine The small intestine
Averages 6m (18 ft) in length
First section is called duodenum, and
is where liver/gallbladder/pancreas connect
Enzymes secreted by the pancreas into
the small intestine digest carbohydrates,
proteins and fats
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Bile is secreted by the gallbladder into
the small intestine to emulsify fats
Digested food is absorbed through very
large surface area (~250 m
2
) of the mucosal
epithelium that is created by numerous
villi (finger-like projections) and microvilli (small
membrane projections from each cell)
Amino acids and sugars enter the capillaries while fatty acids enter the
lacteals (small lymph vessels)
Anatomy of the small intestine Anatomy of the small intestine
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(Peyers patch)
Anatomy of the small intestine Anatomy of the small intestine
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How are nutrients digested and How are nutrients digested and
transported out of the small intestine? transported out of the small intestine?
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Enzymes catalyze the hydrolysis reactions to break down food
Much of the absorption process relies on facilitated transport, i.e. membrane proteins
Blood travels via hepatic portal vein to liver for additional metabolism and storage
Key organs that aid in digestion Key organs that aid in digestion
Pancreas, Liver, Gallbladder Pancreas, Liver, Gallbladder
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The pancreas The pancreas
Fished-shaped, spongy organ behind the stomach
Functions of the pancreas:
1. Secretes enzymes into the small intestine
Trypsin digests proteins
Lipase digests fats
Pancreatic amylase digests carbohydrates
Exocrine
function
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Pancreatic amylase digests carbohydrates
2. Secretes bicarbonate into the small intestine to neutralize
stomach acid (pH adjustment)
3. Secretes insulin into the blood to keep blood sugar levels
under control, when blood glucose (glycemic index) has
risen as a result of the digested food. When blood sugar
is low, e.g. between meals, it secretes glucagon, which
helps to mobilize glucose stored in the body e.g.
glycogen in the liver.
function
Endocrine
function
Overview of the digestive sites, Overview of the digestive sites,
substrates and enzymes substrates and enzymes
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The liver and gallbladder The liver and gallbladder
Large metabolic organ that lies under the diaphragm and is made of ~100,000
lobules
Filters blood from the GI tract thus acting to remove poisons and detoxify the
blood
Removes and stores iron (Fe), vitamins A, D, E, K and B
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from the blood
Stores glucose as glycogen and breaks it down to help maintain steady blood
glucose levels (responds to the insulin and glucagon hormone signals)
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Makes plasma proteins
Makes bile that is then stored in the gallbladder to be secreted into the small
intestine
Bile is used to emulsify fats, i.e. make them soluble in water and easier for absorption
& digestion
Gallstones that block gallbladder are dangerous
Breaks down hemoglobin bilirubin, which is part of bile. HDL, high density
lipoprotein that contains cholesterol, is also used to make bile. This is why HDL
is called the good cholesterol
Liver disorders Liver disorders
Jaundice
Bile pigments (bilirubin) build up and leak into the blood (producing yellow color)
In newborns, it is partly due to the change in hemoglobin forms there is a
switch from a fetal form to an adult form. Fetal hemoglobin has to be broken
down.
It is also sometimes a result of the hemolytic disease where Rh-negative
mothers antibodies attack an Rh-positive babys RBC. Babys liver has to
process a lot of dead RBC.
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Hepatitis:
Inflammation of the liver
Caused by Hepatitis A, B and C viruses
This can lead to liver damage, cancer and death
Cirrhosis:
The liver becomes fatty and eventually this tissue is replaced by fibrous scar
tissue (collagen-rich connective tissue)
Seen in alcoholics and obese people (excessive alcohol and lipid metabolism
leads to liver cell injury)
This can lead to liver failure in which the liver cannot regenerate as fast as it is
being damaged
The large intestine The large intestine
Includes the cecum, colon,
rectum and anal canal
Larger in diameter but shorter
than the small intestine
The cecum has a projection
known as the appendix that
may play a minor role in
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may play a minor role in
fighting infections
Vestigial organ
Functions to:
Absorb water to prevent
dehydration
Absorbs vitamins (B complex
and K) produced by intestinal
flora (bacteria in your GI tract)
Forms and rids the body of
feces through the anus
Disorders of the colon and rectum Disorders of the colon and rectum
Diarrhea increased peristalsis and water is not reabsorbed due to
either an infection or nervous stimulation
Constipation condition when feces are dry and hard that may be
controlled with water and fiber
Hemorrhoids enlarged and inflamed blood vessels of the anus due to
chronic constipation, pregnancy, aging and anal intercourse
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Diverticulosis occurrence of pouches of mucosa from weak spots in the
muscularis layer that can become infected often in the colon
Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) muscularis layer contracts with power
but without its normal coordination and is characterized by chronic
diarrhea and abdominal pain
Inflammatory bowel disease/colitis (IBD) a group of inflammatory
disorders such as ulcerative colitis or Crohns disease
Polyps and cancer small growths found in the epithelial lining that can
be benign or malignant. Most frequent site in GI tract is in the large
intestine or colon.
FIN FIN
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