Hafta 4

Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.
Prof
Mak214-E
1
The effects of the alloying elements on
the properties of steels
Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.Prof
Mak214-E
2
The effects of the alloying elements
Carbon (C): decreases the ductility, formability, weldability
increases the strength and hardenability.
Manganese (Mn): increases the strength, shock resistance,
toughness, hardenability, weldebility, hot formability, no change
in ductility. In addition Mn is a strong austenite former by
reducing the eutectoid temperature below to room temperature.
Handfield steel with 1% C and 12% Mn has strong deformation
hardening ability allowing increase in strength in service (helmets,
railway equipments, rock crushers jaws, shovel dippers, etc.)
Silicone (Si): increases strength, decreases the weldability,
magnetic losses, oxide formation affinity, no change in ductility.
In addition Si has higher affinity to O than carbon therefore used as
deoxizing agent (semi-killed steels). It is also austenite former
agent leading the nucleation of austenite grain in many size yielding
finer grain size.
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Chromium (Cr): as the Cr content increases, strength, hardenability,
corrosion resistance, high temperature strength, decreases the oxide
formation tendency. (forms a very coherent oxide layer on the surface
preventing further oxidation-- in stainless steels).
It is also strong carbide former as an essential factor behaving as a strong
second phase particle, therefore, obstructs the dislocation motion
particularly at elevated temperatures. Also nitride former and used in
nitriding steels.
Nickel (Ni): increases the strength, toughness (even at sub zero
temperatures), hardenability, no change in ductility. It is an austenite
former, therefore, widely used in austenitic stainless steels.
Molybdenum (Mo): increases the hardenability, high temperature
strength, decreases the risk for temper embritterment (~0.5 % Mo).
Since the melting point of molybdenum carbide is very high, it provides
high temperature strength which is very useful in some HSS (high speed
steel) tools.
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Vanadium (V) and Tungsten (W): as the V and Wcontent; increases
the strength, high temperature strength, wear resistance, since both
are strong carbide formers widely used in HSS tools.
Copper (Cu): restricted to max. 0.35%. Up to 0.2 % provides some
resistance against to atmospheric corrosion. Not desired in spring steels.
Aluminum (Al): used as a grain refinement agent especially in the
form of AlN particles. It is also deoxidizing agent used in killed steels.
Also increases nitridability (Used in nitriding steels).
Zirconium (Zr), Titanium (Ti), Niobium (Nb) and Tantalum (Ta):
Strong carbide formers even better than Cr. Therefore commonly used
in austenitic stainless steel to free the Cr and thus further increase the
corrosion resistance. Their even small concentration (~0.5 % ) can
forms small carbides at grain boundaries providing very fine grain size
which is the reason to high strength and ductility of low alloy (HSLA)
steel, commonly used in automotive industry.
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Phosphorus (P): decreases the toughness, impact resistance, cold
formability, weldebility increase the corrosion resistance. Its contend
is limited 0.035% max. in quality steels.
Sulfur (S): The excess sulfur reduces the ability for hot (900
o
C)
deformation of steel forming the brittle FeS phase at the grain
boundaries (hot brittleness). The solubility of S is higher than C
therefore it restricts the formation of pearlite in the zones with higher S
contents, leading a banded structure of pearlite and ferrite. (Macroscopy
experiment: flow lines). This causes severe anisotropy in the
mechanical prop of steel therefore S content is limited 0.035%. However,
0.3% S may be added to free cutting steels to increase the chip
formation thus the machinability.
Oxygen (O): Produces iron oxide at grain boundaries leading high
brittleness in steels. Therefore steels are deoxidized with Si and Al to
avoid the risk.
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Hydrogen (H): It is smallest element therefore can penetrate inside
of the steels along their grain boundaries. The formation of H
2
molecules creates pressure at the grain boundaries. When this is
associated with the external stresses acting on the material, brittle
fracture may occur which is called hydrogen embitterment. This
is particularly very harmful for high strength steels.
Nitrogen (N): Increases the tendency of aging and strain aging of
low carbon steels. Thus the distinct yield point becomes apparent
and the strength increase and ductility decrease. The nitrides of Cr,
Al etc. increases high temperature strength of steels. It is used in
PH (precipitation hardening) stainless steels for this purpose.
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Coding system
Turkish and German
American
1. Symbols based on the Processing method:
Carbon Reduction processes
Thomas Process (T)
Basic Oxygen (O)
Simens Martin (M)
Electric arc (E)
Induction Furnace (I)
Solidification Process TS DIN
Rimmed (K) (U)
Semi killed (Si) (SY) (R)
Killed (Si + Al) (S)
Designation Designation - - Coding system Coding system
of Steels of Steels
Symbols based on:
2. Mechanical Properties (Tensile)
(construction steels) FeXX or StXX
3. Chemical Composition
a. Plain carbon (C35)
b. Low alloy (15CrMo5)
c. Free Cutting (22S20)
d. Alloy steels (X 50 CrMoW 9 11)
American Standards
Carbon and Low alloy (1040)
Stainless steel (316)
Tool steels (T1)
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2. Construction Steels
Fe XX
Constructional
Steel
Minimum tensile
strength in Kgf/mm
2
St 37 (Tensile strength: minimum 37 kgf/mm
2
)
(a) Plain carbon steels
C35
Plain Carbon steel
C % content
x 100
C 35 Plain Carbon Steel (S and P: lower than 0.050%)
Ck 35 Quality Steel (S and P: lower than 0.035%)
Cf 35 Surface Hardening grade Steel
Cq 35 Cold Forming grade Steel
(or St XX)
Fe14 ???
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(b) Low alloy steels
Alloying element
ordered with
respect to amount
C % content
x 100
Elements Multiplication Factor
Cr, Mn, Ni, Si, Al, Mo, Nb, W, etc 4
V, Zr 10
C, P, S, N, Ce 100
B 1000
No number if concentration is <1%
% of the highest
content element
x MF
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15 CrMo 5
Cr and Mo: Principal alloying
elements
0.15 % C
1.25 % Cr
content
M S Ck45
Killed Steel
Simens
Martin
0.45 % C
Quality C
Steel
O Sy C20
Semi Killed
Basic
Oxygen
0.20 % C
Carbon
Steel
T K St42
Rimmed
Steel
Thomas
42
Kgf/mm
2
Constructional
Steel
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(c) Free cutting steels
Alloying element
other than C and S
C % content
x 100 S % multiplied
by 100
S
Free cutting
Steel
22 S MnPb 36
Free
Cutting
Steel
0.36 % S
Mn and Pb other
than C ranked order
0.22 % C
22 S 20
0.22 % C
Free Cutting
Steel
0.2 % S
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C % Content
x 100
Simens
Martin
% Alloying
elements
without factors
Alloying
elements
other than C
3. Alloy steel: If total alloying element content is higer
than 5%.
X
0.5 % C
High
Alloy
Steel
9 % Cr
1% Mo
1% W
Main Alloying
elements Cr,
Mo, W
X 50 CrMoW9 1 1
0.05 % C
High
Alloy
Steel
18 % Cr
9% Ni
<1% Ti
Cr, Mo, Ti
X 5 CrNiTi 18 9
No number if concentration <1%
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American Standards
Carbon and Low alloy Steels
1xxx Plain Carbon St.
11xx Free Cutting St (resulfurized)
12xx Free Cutting St. (Si added)
13xx Plain Carbon St (Mn added)
2xxx Nickel steels
3xxx Nickel+Chromium St.
X X X X
First 2 digit:
Main Alloying elements
Second 2 digids: C
content X100
4xxx Molibdenum St
41xx Mo + Cr St
43xx Mo + Cr + Ni St
5xxx Chromium St
6xxx Vanadium St
7xxx Tungsten St
86xx Ni + Cr + Mo Steels
92xx Si steels
Stainless Steels
Three digit designation
3xx Austenitic stainless steel 304, 316, 321, etc.
4xx Ferritic and/or Martensitic Stainless steel, 410, 430 (ferritic),
440 (martensitic),
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Tool Steels
Code Type of Tool Steel
M1 Molybdenum HSS
T1 Tungsten HSS
H10 Chromium Hot work tool steel
H21 Tungsten Hot work tool steel
H42 Molibdenum Hot work tool steel
A2 Air Hardening Medium Alloy Cold work tool steel
D2 High C High Cr Cold work tool steel
O1 Oil Hardening Cold work tool steel
S1 Shock resistant steel
L2 Low alloy special purpose tool steel
P2 Low C mold steel
W1 Water hardening tool steel
Letter: Alloying elements,
working cond., heat
treatment, etc.
Digits: Designation
the Composition
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Constructional steels:
Profiles ( Fe37, Fe 42, Fe 50, 1010, 1020, 1040, etc.),
Sheet or plates -deep drawing quality ( low carbon, fine grain), thin plate, galvanize, plates for ship
buildings.
Heat treatable steels (for combination of strength and ductility)
Carbon steels
Low Alloy steels (alloyed less than 5%)
Carburizing steels (low carbon steels for case hardening)
Nitriding steels (alloyed with nitride formers such as Al and Cr)
Free cutting steels: (To be easiliy cut by tools: high machinability, high S content)
Spring steels (0.5-0.6 C and good hardenability and elastic properties)
Bolt steels (Good cold formability for thread rolling)
High temperature steels: For boilers and pipes
Sub zero steels (shows no DBTT, generally austenitic steels)
Valve steels (high strength, good toughness and ductility)
Stainless steel (Ferritic, Martensitic, Austenitic, Precipitation Hardening)
Tools steels (Hot work and Cold work Tool steel, High speed steels)
Ball bearing steels
Electrical steels Extra low C with Si up to 3%.
Non-magnetizable steels -austenitic steels
High strength low alloy steels (HSLA) micro alloyed with V or Nb etc. Common in automotive industry.
Dual phase steels (contains martensite in ferrite matrix, obtained with inter-critical range annealing and
quenching, widely demanded for transport vehicles)
Maraging steels ( ultra high strength as a result of martensitic transformation and following aging
treatment)
Cast steels:
Types of Steels
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Coding system
Turkish and German
American
1. Symbols based on the Processing method:
Carbon Reduction processes
Thomas Process (T)
Basic Oxygen (O)
Simens Martin (M)
Electric arc (E)
Induction Furnace (I)
Solidification Process TS DIN
Rimmed (K) (U)
Semi killed (Si) (SY) (R)
Killed (Si + Al) (S)
Designation Designation - - Coding system Coding system
of Steels of Steels
Symbols based on:
2. Mechanical Properties (Tensile)
(construction steels) FeXX or StXX
a. Plain carbon (C35)
b. Low alloy (15CrMo5)
c. Free Cutting (22S20)
d. Alloy steels (X 50 CrMoW 9 11)
American Standards
Carbon and Low alloy (1040)
Stainless steel (316)
Tool steels (T1)
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2. Construction Steels
Fe XX
Constructional
Steel
Minimum tensile
strength in Kgf/mm
2
St 37 (Tensile strength: minimum 37 kgf/mm
2
)
(a) Plain carbon steels
C35
Plain Carbon steel
C % content
x 100
C 35 Plain Carbon Steel (S and P: lower than 0.050%)
Ck 35 Quality Steel (S and P: lower than 0.035%)
Cf 35 Surface Hardening grade Steel
Cq 35 Cold Forming grade Steel
(or St XX)
Fe14 ???
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(b) Low alloy steels
Alloying element
ordered with
respect to amount
C % content
x 100
Elements Multiplication Factor
Cr, Mn, Ni, Si, Al, Mo, Nb, W, etc 4
V, Zr 10
C, P, S, N, Ce 100
B 1000
No number if concentration is <1%
% of the highest
content element
x MF
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15 CrMo 5
Cr and Mo: Principal alloying
elements
0.15 % C
1.25 % Cr
content
M S Ck45
Killed Steel
Simens
Martin
0.45 % C
Quality C
Steel
O Sy C20
Semi Killed
Basic
Oxygen
0.20 % C
Carbon
Steel
T K St42
Rimmed
Steel
Thomas
42
Kgf/mm
2
Constructional
Steel
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(c) Free cutting steels
Alloying element
other than C and S
C % content
x 100 S % multiplied
by 100
S
Free cutting
Steel
22 S MnPb 36
Free
Cutting
Steel
0.36 % S
Mn and Pb other
than C ranked order
0.22 % C
22 S 20
0.22 % C
Free Cutting
Steel
0.2 % S
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C % Content
x 100
Simens
Martin
% Alloying
elements
without factors
Alloying
elements
other than C
3. Alloy steel: If total alloying element content is higer
than 5%.
X
0.5 % C
High
Alloy
Steel
9 % Cr
1% Mo
1% W
Main Alloying
elements Cr,
Mo, W
X 50 CrMoW9 1 1
0.05 % C
High
Alloy
Steel
18 % Cr
9% Ni
<1% Ti
Cr, Mo, Ti
X 5 CrNiTi 18 9
No number if concentration <1%
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American Standards
Carbon and Low alloy Steels
1xxx Plain Carbon St.
11xx Free Cutting St (resulfurized)
12xx Free Cutting St. (Si added)
13xx Plain Carbon St (Mn added)
2xxx Nickel steels
3xxx Nickel+Chromium St.
X X X X
First 2 digit:
Main Alloying elements
Second 2 digids: C
content X100
4xxx Molibdenum St
41xx Mo + Cr St
43xx Mo + Cr + Ni St
5xxx Chromium St
6xxx Vanadium St
7xxx Tungsten St
86xx Ni + Cr + Mo Steels
92xx Si steels
Stainless Steels
Three digit designation
3xx Austenitic stainless steel 304, 316, 321, etc.
4xx Ferritic and/or Martensitic Stainless steel, 410, 430 (ferritic),
440 (martensitic),
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Tool Steels
Code Type of Tool Steel
M1 Molybdenum HSS
T1 Tungsten HSS
H10 Chromium Hot work tool steel
H21 Tungsten Hot work tool steel
H42 Molibdenum Hot work tool steel
A2 Air Hardening Medium Alloy Cold work tool steel
D2 High C High Cr Cold work tool steel
O1 Oil Hardening Cold work tool steel
S1 Shock resistant steel
L2 Low alloy special purpose tool steel
P2 Low C mold steel
W1 Water hardening tool steel
Letter: Alloying elements,
working cond., heat
treatment, etc.
Digits: Designation
the Composition
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Types of Steels
1. Constructional steels
2. Heat treatable steels
3. Carburizing steels
4. Nitriding steels
5. Free cutting steels
6. Spring steels
7. Bolt steels
8. High temperature steels
9. Sub-zero steels
10. Valve steels
11. Stainless steels
12. Tool steels
13. Bolt steels
14. Electrical steels
15. Non-magnetizable steels
16. HSLA steels
17. Dual phase steels
18. Maraging steels
19. Cast steels
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Coding systems of Steels
What should be the
characteristic feartures
of heat treatable steels?
Why a steel becomes a
heat treatable steel?
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Describe the difference
between carburizing and
nitriding steels?
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Why subzero?
Which elements
are improtant?
What would be the
mechanism to make a
steel appropriate for
high T applications?
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Which elements
should be dominant?
Which elements are
needed for martensitic
stainless steels? Why?
Which elements
should be dominant?
How can a PH SS be
strenghtened?
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Materials Type Application
Ck45
X50CrNiMo8 5 1
Fe14
Fe37 or St37
15CrMo4
AISI 304
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How the properties of steels can be
changed based on the properties
desired for specific engineering
application?
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Heat treatments!!!!
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Heat Treatments of Steel
A Simple Heat Treatments
Full Annealing
Normalizing
Spheroidizing
Process Annealing
Stress Releif Annealing
Homogenizing
Isothermal Heat treatments
Austempering
Isothermal Annealing
Diffusionless Transformation Treatments
Quenching
Tempering
Martempering
Ausforming
Surface Hardenning Treatments
Carburizing
Nitriding
Carbonitriding
Induction or Flame Hardening
Age Hardening Treatments
Precipitation Hardening Treatment
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The mechanical properties are strongly dependent on both the carbon content and on the type of
heat treatment. Steels and cast iron can therefore be used in a very wide range of applications.
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A Basic Heat Treatment Cycle
0
200
400
600
800
0 1 2 3
Time (day, hr, min, sec, etc.)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
,

F
,

K
,

e
t
c
.
)
Heating rate
Holding time
Treatment
Temperature
Cooling rate
Important Process
Parameters
Heating rate
Holding temperature
Holding time
Cooling rate
Depending on the Cooling rate:
Slow Cooling rate Diffusional phase transformations.
Fast Cooling rate Diffusionless phase transformations.
(Quenching)
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TTT
(Time temperature transformation)
Diagrams
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TTT diagrams
Fs: Ferrite start temp.
Ps: Pearlite start temp.
Pf: Pearlite finish temp.
Bs: Bainite start temp.
Bf: Bainite finish temp.
Ms: Martensite start temp.
Mf: Martensite finish temp.
Coarse Pearlite
Fine Pearlite
Upper Bainite
Lower Bainite
P
h
a
s
e
a
r
e
a
s
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TTT diagrams: Isothermal heat treatment curves.
Hypoeutectoid steels has a wing for ferrite start temperature whereas
hypereutectoid steels, a wing for cementite start temperatures.
Hypoeutoctoid Steel

Wing for ferrite start
temperatures.
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Hypereutoctoid Steel
+ Fe
3
C
Fe
3
C
Wing for cementite
start temperatures.
TTT diagrams: Isothermal heat treatment curves.
Hypereutectoid steels, a wing for cementite start temperatures.
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Phase transformation
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The cooling rate just
touches the noise is
called Critical
Cooling rate.
TTT Curves
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Kaba perlit nce perlit
Perlit +
Martenzit
Martenzit
Zaman (s)
S
c
a
k
l
k

(
o
C
)
Kritik souma hz
The cooling rate that just misses the nose is called the critical cooling rate (CCR).
If we cool at the critical rate, or faster, the steel will transform to 100% martensite.
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Cooling curves on TTT Diagrams
Isothermal cooling
Because C-curves are determined by quenchholdquench
sequences they can, strictly speaking, only be used to predict the
microstructures that would be produced in a steel subjected to a
quenchholdquench heat treatment. But the curves do give a pretty
good indication of the structures to expect in a steel that has been
cooled continuously.
Continues cooling
For really accurate predictions, however, continuous cooling
diagrams are available (see the literature of the major steel
manufacturers).
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Continuous Cooling curves (CCC) vs. Isothermal Cooling curves
TTT Diagrams
Bainite can only be obtained by isothermal trasnformation
in plain carbon steels without having a bay area!!!
Transformation along
isothermal curve
Transformation along
Continuous cooling curve
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zet
Mechanical Prop vs.
Microstructure
Ferrite
Coarse Pearlite
Fine Pearlite
Upper Bainite
Lower Bainite
Martensite
H
a
r
d
n
e
s
s
Austenite Peartlite (+Fe

3
C)
Yava
Souma
Yaynmal
Austenite Bainite (+Fe
3
C)
zotermal
Dnm
Yaynmal
Austenite Martensite (single)
ok hzl
Souma
Yaynmasz
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1. Increase the hardenability: Alloying elements increase the
hardenability of steel. Martensite can form through the large
thickness of the parts even very slow cooling rates.
2. Change the shape of Fe-Fe
3
C phase diagram: (Mn and Ni,
austenite stabilizer agent ( at room T), Cr; ferrite stabilizer)
3. Introduce a bay area in the TTT Diagram; (Ausforming (austenite
+ forming) becomes possible);
4. Improve the respone toTempering treatment: Alloying elements
reduce the rate of tempering compared with that of a plain-carbon
steel. Secondary hardening becomes possible.
5. Other: solid solution strengthening, alloy carbides, corrosion
resistance, etc. can be obtained.
Effect of Alloying Elements on hardening
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As C content increases in the steel,
The martensite start temperature, Ms
The finish temperatures, Mf decrease.
So, amount of retained austenite (not demanded), the residual stresses due
to the increase in the temperature difference between austenite and Ms
increase, thus the quench cracking risk increases.
Effect of C
on Ms and Mf
Effect of Alloying Elements
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Hardenability Curves and
Jominy Tests
Jominy test - The test used to evaluate
hardenability. An austenitized steel bar is
quenched at one end only, thus producing a
range of cooling rates along the bar.
Hardenability curves - Graphs showing the
effect of the cooling rate on the hardness of as-
quenched steel.
Jominy distance - The distance from the
quenched end of a Jominy bar. The Jominy
distance is related to the cooling rate.
Jomminy distance for various steels can be
seen in the figure. Plain carbon steels have
shallow jomminy distance while alloyed
steels may have very deep. However, C
provides higher surface hardness compared
to the other alloying elements.
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The cooling rates provided by various quenchants
(quenching media)
The cooling rate provided by the
quenchants are represented by a
constant value H.
the relation between the diameter
of the work piece and jomminy
distance in the Figure for a given
H values.
In order to get fast enough quenches,
thin specimens are quenched into baths
of molten salt kept at the various hold
temperatures.
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A Practical Result of Cooling Rate:
Weldability of Steel
Figure 12.29 The
development of the
heat-affected zone
in a weld: (a) the
structure at the
maximum
temperature, (b) the
structure after
cooling in a steel of
low hardenability,
and (c) the
structure after
cooling in a steel of
high hardenability.
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4340
1080
Compare the structures in
the heat-affected zones
of welds in 1080 and
4340 steels if the cooling
rate in the heat-affected
zone is 5
o
C/s.
Example 12.8
Structures of Heat-
Affected Zones
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Example 12.8 SOLUTION
The cooling rate in the weld produces the following
structures:
1080: 100% pearlite
4340: Bainite and martensite
The high hardenability of the alloy steel reduces the
weldability, permitting martensite to form and embrittle
the weld.
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Heat Treatments of Steel
A Simple Heat Treatments
Full Annealing
Normalizing
Spheroidizing
Process Annealing
Stress Releif Annealing
Homogenizing
Isothermal Heat treatments
Austempering
Isothermal Annealing
Diffusionless Transformation Treatments
Quenching
Tempering
Martempering
Ausforming
Surface Hardenning Treatments
Carburizing
Nitriding
Carbonitriding
Induction or Flame Hardening
Age Hardening Treatments
Precipitation Hardening Treatment

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Dr.C.Ergun, Asst.

Austenite Peartlite (+Fe

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