AP Chemistry

Chapter 4 Outline
4.1 General Properties of Aqueous Solutions
4.1.1 Solution = a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
4.1.1.1 Solent = substance present in greatest quantit!
4.1.1." Solute = the other substance#s$ present in a solution
4.1.1.% Aqueous solution = a solution in which the &issoling me&ium is water
4.1." 'lectrol!tic Properties(teste& using )con&uctiit! probe* #Animation$
4.1.".1 'lectrol!te = a substance whose aqueous solutions contain ions+ ionic substances
4.1.".1.1 ,onic substances )&issociate* into its component ions as it &issoles
4.1.".1.1.1 -ater is an effectie solent for ionic compoun&s because the O is . an& the /
atoms are 0
4.1.".1.1." )solation* process preents &issociate& cations an& anions from recombining1 an&
ions become uniforml! &isperse&
4.1."." Strong electrol!tes = solutes that in solution1 exist completel! or nearl! completel! as
ions+ reactions woul& be written using a single arrow
4.1.".% -ea2 electrol!tes = solutes that mostl! remain as molecules1 with onl! a small fraction
ioni3ing
4.1.".4 4onelectrol!te = a substance that &oes not form ions in solution+ molecular substances
4.1.".4.1 Solution consists of intact molecules uniforml! &isperse& in solent
4.1.".4." Some molecular species 5O ioni3e in solution6 especiall! AC,5S
4.1.".4.".1 -ea2 aci&s form an )equilibrium* between ions an& un&issociate& molecules+ use a
&ouble hea&e& arrow when writing reactions
4." Precipitation 7eactions
4.".1 Precipitate = an insoluble soli& forme& b! a reaction in solution
4."." Occur when certain pairs of oppositel! charge& ions attract each other er! strongl!
4.".% Solubilit! = the amount of a substance that can be &issole& in a gien quantit! of solent
at a certain temperature
4.".%.1 8emori3e the 2e! solubilit! rules #separate sheet$(base& on experimental obserations
4.".4 'xchange #8etathesis$ 7eactions(#also calle& )&ouble &isplacement*$ eActiit!
4.".4.1 General form6 A9 0 :; A; 0 :9
4.".< ,onic 'quations
4.".<.1 8olecular equation6 shows complete chemical formulas of reactants an& pro&ucts
4.".<." Complete ionic equation6 shows all soluble strong electrol!tes as ions
4.".<.".1 Spectator ion6 ion that appears in i&entical forms on both si&es of equation+ present1
but pla!s no &irect role
4.".<.% 4et ionic equation6 omits all spectator ions+ onl! shows ions = molecules &irectl!
inole& in reaction >'7; ,8PO7?A4? O4 AP '9A8 eActiit!
4.% Aci&.:ase 7eactions
4.%.1 Aci& = substances that ioni3e in aqueous solutions to form h!&rogen ions
4.%.1.1 )proton &onor*
4.%.1." h!&ronium ion1 /
%
O
0
4.%.1.% monoprotic s. &iprotic aci&s
4.%.1.%.1 in &iprotic aci&s1 onl! the loss of the first proton results in extensie ioni3ation
4.%." :ase = substances that accept #react with$ h!&rogen ions+ pro&uce O/. ions when
&issole& in water
4.%.".1 @ormulas ma! not alwa!s contain h!&roxi&e ions
4.%.% Strong aci&sAbases6 strong electrol!tes+ wea2 aci&sAbases6 wea2 electrol!tes
eAnimations
4.%.%.1 8emori3e the formulas of common strong aci&s = bases
/!&rochloric aci& /Cl
/!&robromic aci& /:r
/!&rio&ic aci& /,
Chloric aci& /ClO
%
Perchloric aci& /ClO
4
4itric aci& /4O
%
Sulfuric aci& /
"
SO4
Group 1 metal h!&roxi&es BiO/1 4aO/1 CO/1 7bO/1 CsO/
/ea! Group " metal h!&roxi&es Ca#O/$
"
1 Sr#O/$
"
1 :a#O/$
"
4.%.4 4eutrali3ation 7eactions = Salts
4.%.4.1 Operational 5efinitions
4.%.4.1.1 Aci&s6 sour taste1 turn litmus paper re&1 react with metals to release /
"
#g$1
4.%.4.1." :ases6 bitter taste1 turn litmus paper blue1 turn phenolphthalein pin2
4.%.4." 4eutrali3ation reaction = when solution of an aci& an& a solution of a base are mixe& =
4.%.4.".1 Aci& 0 metal h!&roxi&e water 0 salt
4.%.4."." Salt = an! ionic compoun& whose cation comes from a base an& whose anion comes
from an aci& = an! ionic compoun& that is neither an aci& nor a base
4.%.4.% Aci&.base reactions with gas formation
4.%.4.%.1 Sulfi&e ion h!&rogen sulfi&e gas #/"S$
4.%.4.%." Carbonates1 h!&rogen carbonates carbon &ioxi&e #because carbonic aci& is
unstable an& &ecomposes$
:' A:B' ?O -7,?' ?/'S' AS 4'? ,O4,C 'DEA?,O4SF
4.4 Oxi&ation.7e&uction 7eactions = reactions in which electrons are transferre& between
reactants = 7'5O9 eAnimations
4.4.1 Oxi&ation = loss of electrons
4.4." 7e&uction = gain of electrons
4.4.% Ceep trac2 of oxi&ationAre&uction b! using oxi&ation numbers eActiit!
4.4.%.1 ?he oxi&ation number of uncombine& elements is 3ero.
4.4.%." @or monatomic ions1 the oxi&ation number equals the charge on the ion.
4.4.%.% ?he oxi&ation number of ox!gen is usuall! ." in compoun&s+ the maGor exception is the
peroxi&e ion1 which has an oxi&ation number of .1.
4.4.%.4 ?he oxi&ation number of h!&rogen in compoun&s is 011 except in metal h!&ri&es when it
is .1.
4.4.%.< ?he oxi&ation number of fluorine is .1 in all compoun&s. ?he other halogens hae an
oxi&ation number of .1 in binar! compoun&s but ma! hae other oxi&ation numbers
when ox!gen is present.
4.4.%.H ?he sum of all the oxi&ation numbers in a neutral molecule is 3ero.
4.4.%.I ?he sum of all the oxi&ation numbers in a pol!atomic ion is the charge of the pol!atomic
ion.
4.4.4 Single 5isplacement 7eactions6 A 0 :9 A9 0 : :e able to write these as net ionic
equationsF eActiit!
4.4.4.1 Actiit! Series can be use& to pre&ict if a single &isplacement reaction will occur
4.4.4.1.1 Actie metals #at top of series$ are easil! oxi&i3e&+ the )noble metals* at the bottom
of the series hae low reactiit!
4.4.4.1." A metal can replace an! metal below it in the series in a single &isplacement reaction
4.4.4.1.% A similar series exists for halogen replacements
4.< Concentrations of Solutions = amount of solute &issole& in a gien amount of solent
4.<.1 8olarit!
solution of L
solute moles
M =
critical calculation+ be able to
interconert
4.<." -hen ionic compoun&s &issole1 the relatie concentration of the ions &epen&s on the
chemical formula #SE:SC7,P?S$+ so concentration of a particular ion in solution ma!
equal or be greater than the solution concentration
4.<.% 5ilution from a concentrate& stoc2 solution
dil dil stock stock
V M V M =
#Animation$
Proe to !ourself that moles solute ta2en from the stoc2 solution = moles solute present
in &ilute& solutionF ?hese are critical calculations+ ma2e sure !ou can &o them reliabl!
4.H Solution Stoichiometr! = Chemical Anal!sis
4.H.1 ?hese comparisons must be &one on a mole6 mole basis+ aoi& incorrect use of the
&ilution formula
4.H." ?itration = combining a sample of the solution with a reagent solution of 2nown
concentration #stan&ar& solution$
4.H.".1 'quialence point = when stoichiometricall! correct number of moles of each reagent is
present
4.H."." 'n& point = point where the in&icator changes
4.H.".% ,n&icator = wea2 aci& or base that un&ergoes color change+ choose in&icator so that
en&point is close to equialence point
4.H.".4 Aci&.base1 precipitation an& re&ox titrations are common eAnimation1 eActiit!
4.H.".< Problem soling is the 2e!F
"J.1 Oxi&ation States as )electronic boo22eeping*
"J.1.1 Oxi&ation = increase in oxi&ation number B'O the lion sa!s G'7
"J.1." 7e&uction = &ecrease in oxi&ation number O,B 7,G
"J.1.".1 Oxi&ation states of atoms in compoun&s &o not necessaril! show the actual charge
of the atom in the compoun& #,tKs more along the lines ofL*,f this were an ionic
compoun&1 what woul& the ion charges beM*$
"J.1."." ?he substance that is oxi&i3e& is also calle& the re&ucing agent #or re&uctant$
"J.1.".% ?he substance that is re&uce& is also calle& the oxi&i3ing agent #or oxi&ant$
"J." :alancing Oxi&ation.7e&uction 'quations
"J.".1 /alf.reactions6 showing oxi&ation an& re&uction alone1 but we 2now that the! alwa!s
occur togetherF
"J."." ?o balance re&ox reactions1 the number of electrons lost = the number of electrons gaine&
"J.".% :alancing in aci&ic con&itions6
"J.".%.1 Ese oxi&ation numbers to i&entif! the substances oxi&i3e& an& re&uce&.
"J.".%." -rite an incomplete1 unbalance& half.reaction for each process.
"J.".%.% :alance the elements other than / an& O.
"J.".%.4 :alance the O atoms b! a&&ing /
"
O as nee&e&.
"J.".%.< :alance the / atoms b! a&&ing /
0
as nee&e&.
"J.".%.H :alance the charge b! a&&ing electrons as nee&e&.
"J.".%.I 8ultipl! the half.reactions b! integers so that electrons lost = electrons gaine&.
"J.".%.N A&& the two half reactions an& simplif!.
"J.".4 :alancing in basic con&itions6
"J.".4.1 Start as aboe1 then a&& O/
.
to neutrali3e the /
0
ions. ;ou will ma2e /
"
O
molecules1 then simplif!.