Basics :

1. Wavelength : In telecom we specifically describe the pattern of sine waves, the

wavelength is distance between two peaks.


Mathematically, the wavelength () is defined by the speed with which the wave propagates
(c) divided by frequency (f) thereof.
= c / f
wavelength (): is represented by the Greek letter ;
speed (c): Considering that our waves propagate in air, we can consider as the speed of
light in vacuum - c - 300,000,000 m / s (which may be represented by 300M m / s);
frequency (f): frequency of the signal will be using.
For example, on a 900 MHz system, we have: = (300 Mm / s) / (900 MHz) = 0.33333
or 33.33 cm.


2. Polarisation : Polarization (also polarisation) is a property of waves that
can oscillate with more than one orientation. Electromagnetic waves, such as light,
andgravitational waves exhibit polarization whereas this is not a concern with sound
waves in a gas or liquid which have only one possible polarization, namely the
direction in which the wave is travelling.
let's try to explain better.
Electromagnetic waves are composed of two planes - vertical and horizontal. These plans
represent the electric and magnetic fields. These components are always orthogonal,
vectors off by 90 degrees. They vary in phase - or zero - degrees of electrical phase shift.
The propagating speed (also vector) for these two fields in turn spreads in 90 degrees of
the two.
The following figure helps us visualize these vectors.


So depending on how the signal coupling is done - the antenna is oriented - we have a
definition of polarization.
If the transmitter is such that the wave is completely in the vertical plane (Electrical plane E),
then we have Vertical polarization. If the wave is in the horizontal plane (Magnetic plane B),
we have Horizontal polarization. There are other types of polarization, as Cross polarization
and Circular polarization (right and left), that actually are combinations of vertical and
horizontal polarizations, and also the phase differences.
The concept of polarization is very important in antennas, mainly because when a signal is
transmitted in one polarization must be received in the same polarization, otherwise we will
have an attenuation (loss), known as cross-polarization.

In this we highlight only the E component - electric field.
Now, the wave (the electric component E) for Cross polarization - a combination of vertical
and horizontal polarizations, electrically in phase.


Antennas :
An antenna (or aerial) is an electrical device which converts electric power into radio waves,
and vice versa. It is usually used with a radio transmitter or radio receiver. In transmission, a
radio transmitter supplies an oscillating radio frequency electric current to the antenna's
terminals, and the antenna radiates the energy from the current as electromagnetic waves
(radio waves). In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power of an electromagnetic
wave in order to produce a tiny voltage at its terminals that is applied to a receiver to be
amplified.
Or in simple words, an antenna is a device designed to transmit or receive electromagnetic
energy, matching these sources of energy and the space. Also often called radiant systems.
Note that the same device can be used to transmit or receive.

Let's start by looking at a simplified representation of a system for transmission and reception.


The original information is changed, for example through some kind of modulation and
treatment, and still conveyed or guided by a cable to the antenna. The antenna then radiates
this information by the medium (air) until it reaches the other antenna, which in this case will
make receiving the signal, making it still the way the cable to the device that will make such
demodulation (and other treatments), recovering the original information. Note: Just as an
example, we are not considering existing losses.


How does antenna works ?
The antennas are usually made with metallic materials (aluminum / brass). These metals are
formed by atoms. When all the atoms are brought together - to form the metal, then we have a
set of free electrons.
And when this series of free electrons is subjected to an electric voltage (electric field), they
begin to move and vibrate.
When electrons vibrate from one side to another antenna, they create an electromagnetic
radiation in the form of radio waves.

How energy is radiated by the antenna?
The electromagnetic radio waves that leave the transmitting antenna travel through the
medium, eg air, and reach the other antenna - reception. The effect of electromagnetic field
reaching the other antenna is to make the free electrons vibrate in the same - which now
generates an electric current corresponding to what was sent from the transmitting antenna.

So now we can conclude: the transmission antennas convert the electrical current (electrons)
into electromagnetic waves (photons), and the reception do the reverse - convert
electromagnetic waves (photons) into electrical current (electrons).
The information is preserved because the antenna acts as a transducer matching conductors
that generate these fields. For example in the transmission, the electromagnetic field
corresponds to a specific voltage and alternating current. In the reception, the same reference
voltage and alternating current is induced.

A Simple Antenna :
The representation of the simplest type of antenna: a dipole antenna. As the name suggests, is
an antenna with two poles.
It is a model of the antenna easy to make, and consists of two pieces of wire of equal length,
separated from each other by a center insulator and may have an insulator on each end to
attach it to a support.
In the figure below is an example of a dipole antenna (insulators shown in red in figure).

Let's use this example to talk about antennas, but now we're basically with simple question,
but that many people can NOT explain:
"How can there be a current flowing in antenna, if both parts are open? This runs totally
against what we learn, where have current, we need a closed circuit, no?"
To answer this, we again return to the familiar concepts of electrical circuits.
You must remember the concept of capacitance (C), defined through the use of capacitors.
And there is a kind of unavoidable capacitance that arises between compontent always close to
each other on the circuit - and often unwanted: parasitic capacitance.
Only in our case, this capacitance is what allows the antenna to work!

At high frequency, the parasitic capacitance between the two arms of the antenna has a low
impedance, and represents the current return path.
In short: a tuned antenna can be considered as an RLC circuit - with resistance R, inductance
(L) and capacitance (C)!

And in the case of antennas with only one arm?" Do not worry, the antenna will always seek a
reference plane to act as "ground", such as a metal rod next.

From what was shown, we can say that every antenna requires two parts to radiate energy.
And that energy is proportional to the dipole current.

Resonance :
Resonance is the phenomenon that occurs in a particular frequency where we have a maximum
possible transfer of energy.
In the case of antennas, so there to be resonance, its size (physical length) must be a multiple
of its wavelength. In this case, we will have a main frequency where the antenna delivers the
maximum amount of energy possible - resonant. And the larger the size (length) of elements of
the antenna, the lower the resonant frequency.
In more technical terms, we have the resonance frequency where the inductive and capacitive
reactances cancel each other out - we have a purely resistive impedance.


Most antennas are used in its resonance frequency. That's because when we turn from this
resonance frequency, the reactances levels give rise to parameters that may jeopardize the
operation, for example the SWR, the impedance of the antenna ceases to be purely resistive,
with a complex impedance - in both meaning of the word, an unwantd behaviour of antenna is
observed.

It is clear that a non-resonant antenna also works - transmit and receive. But it needs a more
powerful transmitter (because a smaller part of the input energy will be present at the output).
And for the same reason, you need a receiver with a sensitivity much higher. So: the system
efficiency will be much lower.

Wavelength X Length of Antenna :
We should remember what we taught to be the resonance of the antenna physical size must be
multiple of its wavelength.
Let's try to understand why exactly this value? As always, let's remember more concepts...
Remember that an electrical circuit - which we has also mentioned that a tuned antenna acts as
an RLC circuit - the Voltage (Potential Difference):
in a Short Circuit is equal to Zero;
in an Open Circuit is Maximum.
Well, the antenna end, we have an Open Circuit - so the point with the Highest Voltage.
And considering the two ends - one with the maximum positive voltage and one with the
maximum negative voltage - we have the center point with Zero voltage.

This distance between the end and the central point is the distance between the point of
maximum voltage (yellow circle in figure) and point of zero voltage (green circle in figure) -
and is a quarter wavelength!



Types of Antennas :
1. Wire Antennas
Short Dipole Antenna Dipole Antenna Half-Wave Dipole
Broadband Dipoles Monopole Antenna Folded Dipole Antenna
Loop Antenna

2. Travelling Wave Antennas

Helical Antennas Yagi-Uda Antennas Spiral Antennas



3. Reflector Antennas

Corner Reflector Parabolic Reflector (Dish Antenna)

4. Microstrip Antennas

Rectangular Microstrip (Patch) Antennas
Planar Inverted-F Antennas (PIFA)

5. Log-Periodic Antennas

Bow Tie Antennas Log-Periodic Antennas
Log-Periodic Dipole Array

6. Aperture Antennas

Slot Antenna Cavity-Backed Slot Antenna Inverted-F Antenna
Slotted Waveguide Antenna Horn Antenna Vivaldi Antenna
7. Other Antennas

NFC Antennas Fractal Antennas Wearable Antennas
MHD Antennas


Waveguides :
A waveguide is a structure that guides waves, such as electromagnetic waves or sound waves.
There are different types of waveguides for each type of wave. The original and most common
meaning is a hollow conductive metal pipe used to carry high frequency radio waves,
particularly microwaves.
The geometry of a waveguide reflects its function. Slab waveguides confine energy to travel
only in one dimension, fiber or channel waveguides for two dimensions. The frequency of the
transmitted wave also dictates the shape of a waveguide: an optical fiber guiding high-
frequency light will not guide microwaves of a much lower frequency. As a rule of thumb, the
width of a waveguide needs to be of the same order of magnitude as the wavelength of the
guided wave.
Some naturally occurring structures can also act as waveguides. The SOFAR channel layer in
the ocean can guide the sound of whale song across enormous distances.

Or in simple words, Waveguide is the type of transmission line which carries microwave
frequencies from source to load. The energy is in the form of electric field and magnetic field
which are perpendicular to each other the electric field and magnetic field inside. The
waveguide is also perpendicular to the direction of propagation as the energy is in the form of
electric/magnetic field. Therefore, it is capable to handle the high power of micro wave length
of frequencies.

Types of Wave guide:
There are the basic two types of the wave guide.
Circular wave guide
Rectangular wave guide



Construction:
1. Circular wave Guide:
As shown in the given diagram the circular waveguide is designed
from a conducting pipe which is hollow from the center and polished
from interior portion. The outer surface of the wave guide is coded
with the insulated paint in order to avoid dust and rust. These types of
wave guide are available in different lengths and sizes in order to
fulfill the requirement of the circuit.
2. Rectangular Wave Guide:
As shown in the given diagram, the rectangular wave guide is
designed from conducting material in rectangular shape which is
hollow from the center and fully polished from interior. The outer
surface of the wave guide is coded with insulating material or
paint in order to avoid dust and rust. These types of wave guides
are available in different lengths and sizes in order to fulfill the
requirements of the circuit.






Direction of Propagation:


As shown in the given diagram, there are two dimensions of the rectangular waveguide where
one is the broad dimension and the second is the narrow dimension. The broad dimension is
denoted by a and the narrow is by b. In the wave guide the electric-field and the magnetic-
field carry the signal from source to load. In this case electric-filed and the magnetic-field is
perpendicular to each other and at the same time. These fields are perpendicular to the
direction of propagation. Inside side the wave guide horizontal field is perpendicular to a
and Vertical field is perpendicular to b according to the frequency both Horizontal and
Vertical fields changes its amplitudes and direction as shown in the diagram.

Flexible Waveguide :



It is the type of waveguide which can be easily turn and twisted in circuits to connect the
source with the load. This type of wave guide is designed in such a way that internal portion is
made of conducting material in spring shape. The external portion is covered with the rubber
to avoid dust, rust and humidity.

Higher Mode
It is the mode of operation which deals with the high range of frequency. The higher mode is
from 30 MHz to 300 MHz in the higher mode the transmission or propagation is carried out
through the waveguide in form of electromagnetic and horizontal field. TE mode and TM
mode are higher modes.

Lower Mode
The mode of operation which deals with the frequency less than 3 MHz is called the lower
mode. In this case the transmission is carried out through the micro strip coaxial cable. The
movement of electrons for the flow of current is taken in the lower mode of operation to carry
the energy from the source to load.


Circular Waveguide:


1. TE Modes of Circular Waveguide :








The Maxwells equations can be expanded in the cylindrical coordinate as



The and components can be expressed in terms of and as


For TE waves, , and satisfies the equation
(1)

or

where .To solve this equation, we make use of the separation-of-variables
technique, namely,
, and substitute into (1) to have

The general solution has the form


Thus,


The boundary condition at = a requires that the tangential component of be zero, namely,

or


Where,

.

Note that . The first few roots of are listed in the following
Table.











The allowed values of are expressed as , and the associated modes are
designated as TE
n,m
modes. Explicitly














2. TM Modes of Circular Waveguide :








Field patterns in circular waveguide in different modes of operation: