Mapua Institute Of Technology

School Of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering

Muralla St. Intramuros, Manila




REPORT NO. 2
Temperature Sensing Instrument



Name: TABUGADIR, Virgil Emilson A. Date of performance: 05/06/14
Student No.: 2010104641 Date of submission: 05/13/14
Course & Year: ME - 4



ENGR. IGMEDIO F. ISLA JR.
PROFESSOR




TABLE OF CONTENTS



CONTENTS page number

OBJECTIVES
THEORIES/PRINCIPLES
DISCUSSION
FINAL DATA SHEET
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
REFERENCES
CONCLUSION
RECOMMENDATION
PRELIMINARY DATA SHEET













DISCUSSION

Attempts of standardized temperature measurement have been reported
as early as 170 AD by Claudius Galenus. The modern scientific field has its
origins in the works by Florentine scientists in the 17th century. Early devices to
measure temperature were called thermoscopes. The first sealed thermometer
was constructed in 1641 by the Grand Duke of Toscani, Ferdinand II. The
development of today's thermometers and temperature scales began in the early
18th century, when Gabriel Fahrenheit adapted a thermometer using
mercury and a scale both developed by Ole Christensen Rmer. Fahrenheit's
scale is still in use, alongside the Celsius scale and the Kelvin scale.
Temperature is a measure of the warmth or coldness of an object or
substance with reference to some standard value. The temperature of two
systems is the same when the systems are in thermal equilibrium
If we experiment further with more than two systems, we find that many
systems can be brought into thermal equilibrium with each other; thermal
equilibrium does not depend on the kind of object used. Put more precisely,
The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that, if two systems are separately in
thermal equilibrium with a third, then they must also be in thermal equilibrium
with each other,
It may be restated as follows:
If three or more systems are in thermal contact with each other and all in
equilibrium together, then any two taken separately are in equilibrium with one
another.

Now one of the three systems could be an instrument calibrated to measure the
temperature - i.e. a thermometer. When a calibrated thermometer is put in
thermal contact with a system and reaches thermal equilibrium, we then have a
quantitative measure of the temperature of the system.






THERMOMETER
A thermometer is an instrument that measures the temperature of a system in a
quantitative way. The easiest way to do this is to find a substance having a
property that changes in a regular way with its temperature. The most direct
'regular' way is a linear one:
t(x) = ax + b,
where t is the temperature of the substance and changes as the property x of
the substance changes. The constants a and b depend on the substance used
and may be evaluated by specifying two temperature points on the scale, such
as 32 for the freezing point of water and 212 for its boiling point.
For example, the element mercury is liquid in the temperature range of -38.9 C
to 356.7 C (we'll discuss the Celsius C scale later). As a liquid, mercury
expands as it gets warmer, its expansion rate is linear and can be accurately
calibrated.

Thermometers may be described as empirical or absolute. Absolute
thermometers are calibrated numerically by the thermodynamic absolute
temperature scale. Empirical thermometers are not in general necessarily in
exact agreement with absolute thermometers as to their numerical scale
readings, but to qualify as thermometers at all they must agree with absolute
thermometers and with each other in the following way: given any two bodies
isolated in their separate respective thermodynamic equilibrium states, all
thermometers agree as to which of the two has the higher temperature, or that
the two have equal temperatures. For any two empirical thermometers, this does
not require that the relation between their numerical scale readings be linear,
but it does require that relation to be strictly monotonic. This is a fundamental
character of temperature and thermometers.
As it is customarily stated in textbooks, taken alone, the so-called "zeroth law of
thermodynamics" fails to deliver this information, but the statement of the zeroth
law of thermodynamics by James Serrin in 1977, though rather mathematically
abstract, is more informative for thermometry: "Zeroth Law There exists a
topological line which serves as a coordinate manifold of material behaviour.
The points of the manifold are called 'hotness levels', and is called the
'universal hotness manifold'."To this information there needs to be added a
sense of greater hotness; this sense can be had, independently of calorimetry,
of thermodynamics, and of properties of particular materials, from Wien's
displacement law of thermal radiation: the temperature of a bath of thermal
radiation is proportional, by a universal constant, to the frequency of the
maximum of its frequency spectrum; this frequency is always positive, but can
have values that tend to zero. Another way of identifying hotter as opposed to
colder conditions is supplied by Planck's principle, that when a process of
isochoric adiabatic work is the sole means of change of internal energy of a
closed system, the final state of the system is never colder than the initial state;
except for phase changes with latent heat, it is hotter than the initial state.
There are several principles on which empirical thermometers are built, as listed
in the section of this article entitled "Primary and secondary thermometers".
Several such principles are essentially based on the constitutive relation between
the state of a suitably selected particular material and its temperature. Only
some materials are suitable for this purpose, and they may be considered as
"thermometric materials". Radiometric thermometry, in contrast, can be only
very slightly dependent on the constitutive relations of materials. In a sense
then, radiometric thermometry might be thought of as "universal". This is
because it rests mainly on a universality character of thermodynamic equilibrium,
that it has the universal property of producing blackbody radiation.
Thermometers can be divided into two separate groups according to the level of
knowledge about the physical basis of the underlying thermodynamic laws and
quantities. For primary thermometers the measured property of matter is known
so well that temperature can be calculated without any unknown quantities.
Examples of these are thermometers based on the equation of state of a gas, on
the velocity of sound in a gas, on the thermal noise,voltage or current of an
electrical resistor, on blackbody radiation, and on the
angular anisotropy of gamma ray emission of certain radioactive nuclei in
a magnetic field. Primary thermometers are relatively complex.
Secondary thermometers are most widely used because of their convenience.
Also, they are often much more sensitive than primary ones. For secondary
thermometers knowledge of the measured property is not sufficient to allow
direct calculation of temperature. They have to be calibrated against a primary
thermometer at least at one temperature or at a number of fixed temperatures.
Such fixed points, for example, triple points and superconducting transitions,
occur reproducibly at the same temperature.


INFRARED THERMOMETER
An infrared thermometer is a thermometer which infers temperature from
a portion of the thermal radiation sometimes called blackbody radiation emitted
by the object being measured. They are sometimes called laser thermometers if
a laser is used to help aim the thermometer, or non-contact
thermometers or temperature guns, to describe the device's ability to measure
temperature from a distance. By knowing the amount of infrared energy emitted
by the object and its emissivity, the object's temperature can often be
determined. Infrared thermometers are a subset of devices known as "thermal
radiation thermometers".

Infrared thermometers can be used to serve a wide variety of temperature
monitoring functions. A few examples provided to this article include:
Detecting clouds for remote telescope operation
Checking mechanical equipment or electrical circuit breaker boxes or outlets
for hot spots
Checking heater or oven temperature, for calibration and control purposes
Detecting hot spots / performing diagnostics in electrical circuit board
manufacturing
Checking for hot spots in firefighting situations
Monitoring materials in process of heating and cooling, for research and
development or manufacturing quality control situations
There are many varieties of infrared temperature sensing devices available
today, including configurations designed for flexible and portable handheld use,
as well many designed for mounting in a fixed position to serve a dedicated
purpose for long periods.
The most common infrared thermometers are the:
Spot Infrared Thermometer or Infrared Pyrometer, which measures the
temperature at a spot on a surface (actually a relatively small area
determined by the D:S ratio).


Related equipment, although not strictly thermometers, includes:
Infrared Scanning Systems scan a larger area, typically by using what is
essentially a spot thermometer pointed at a rotating mirror. These devices
are widely used in manufacturing involving conveyors or "web" processes,
such as large sheets of glass or metal exiting an oven, fabric and paper, or
continuous piles of material along a conveyor belt.
Infrared Thermal Imaging Cameras or Infrared Cameras are essentially
infrared radiation thermometers that measure the temperature at many
points over a relatively large area to generate a two-dimensional image,
called a thermogram, with each pixel representing a temperature. This
technology is more processor- and software-intensive than spot or scanning
thermometers, and is used for monitoring large areas. Typical applications
include perimeter monitoring used by military or security personnel,
inspection / process quality monitoring of manufacturing processes, and
equipment or enclosed space hot or cold spot monitoring for safety and
efficiency maintenance purposes.

THERMOCOUPLE
A thermocouple is a temperature-measuring device consisting of two
dissimilar conductors that contact each other at one or more spots. It produces
a voltage when the temperature of one of the spots differs from the reference
temperature at other parts of the circuit. Thermocouples are a widely used type
of temperature sensor for measurement and control and can also convert a
temperature gradient into electricity. Commercial thermocouples are
inexpensive, interchangeable, are supplied with standard connectors, and can
measure a wide range of temperatures. In contrast to most other methods of
temperature measurement, thermocouples are self-powered and require no
external form of excitation. The main limitation with thermocouples is accuracy;
system errors of less than one degree Celsius (C) can be difficult to achieve.
Thermocouples are suitable for measuring over a large temperature range, up to
2300 C. Applications include temperature measurement for kilns, gas
turbine exhaust, diesel engines, other industrial processes and fog machines.
They are less suitable for applications where smaller temperature differences
need to be measured with high accuracy, for example the range 0100 C with
0.1 C accuracy. For such applications thermistors, silicon band gap temperature
sensors and resistance thermometers are more suitable.


SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1.) If someone says that the temperature will be 303 K today, how can you
express that temperature in C and F?.

Solution:
To convert from Kelvin to Celsius:
TC = TK - 273
TC = 303 - 273 TC = 30C
To convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit:
TF = 9/5(TC) + 32
TF = 9/5(30) + 32
TF = 86F

2.) 1.150 g of sucrose goes through combustion in a bomb calorimeter. If the
temperature rose from 23.42C to 27.64C and the heat capacity of the
calorimeter is 4.90 kJ/C, then determine the heat of combustion of
sucrose in kJ.

Solution:

Qcalorimeter = CcalorimeterT = (4.9kJ/
o
C)(27.64 23.42)
o
C = 4.90x4.22 kJ
Qcalorimeter

= 20.7kJ
Qreaction = -Qcalorimter
Qreaction = -20.7kJ
m = 250 grams



3.) If 150 g of lead at 100C were placed in a calorimeter with 50 g of water
at 28.8C and the resulting temperature of the mixture was 22C, what are
the values of Qlead, Qwater and Qcalorimeter? (Knowing that the specific heat of
water is 4.184 J/g C and the specific heat of lead is 0.128 J/g C)

Solution:
Q = mCT
Qlead = (0.128J/g-
o
C) (150g)(28.8-100)
o
C = -1370 J
Qwater = (4.184J/g-
o
C)(50g)(28.8 22)
o
C = 1420 J
Qcalorimeter = -(Qlead + Qwater) = -(1420J + -1370J)
Qcalorimeter = -50 J




REFERENCES:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature_measurement (Date retrieved, May 11, 2014)
http://eo.ucar.edu/skymath/tmp2.html (Date retrieved, May 11, 2014)
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/temperature (Date retrieved, May 11, 2014)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermometer (Date retrieved, May 11, 2014)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_thermometer (Date retrieved, May 11, 2014)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermocouple (Date retrieved, May 11, 2014)






FINAL DATA SHEET

TRIAL
Thermometer
Infrared
Thermometer
Thermocouple
Boiling Freezing Boiling Freezing Boiling Freezing
1 367 276 359 278.2 370.6 273.2
2 366 275 354.6 278.4 370.5 273.7
3 366 274.5 354.6 278.6 370.7 272.9
4 365 275 355.6 279.6 370.6 273.2
5 365 276 354.6 278.8 370.4 273.2
6 366 276 355.6 278.6 370.5 273
7 367 275 354 278.8 370.4 273.4
8 367 275 354.3 278.8 370.6 272.7
9 366 275 354.1 278.8 370.7 273.1
10 366 275 349 279 370.4 273.2
Ave. 366.1 275.15 353.89 278.66 370.54 273.06
Percent
accuracy
1.85% 0.79% 5.13% 2.07% 0.66% 0.022%


















SET-UP OF APPARATUS

A. Set-up of measuring temperature using thermo couple



B. Set-up of measuring Temperature using Bulb Thermometer








Apparatus for
Boiling
Thermocouple
Bulb
Thermometer
C. Set-up of measuring the temperature using infrared thermometer













Infrared
Thermometer