Contents

Articles
Oceania

Melanesia

10

New Caledonia

15

Papua (province)

31

Papua New Guinea

38

Solomon Islands

55

Vanuatu

70

Micronesia

85

Federated States of Micronesia

98

Guam

106

Kiribati

126

Marshall Islands

140

Nauru

152

Northern Mariana Islands

162

Palau

176

Wake Island

189

Polynesia

198

American Samoa

210

Cook Islands

230

Easter Island

239

French Polynesia

261

Hawaii

271

Niue

303

Pitcairn Islands

314

Samoa

326

Tokelau

341

Tonga

351

Tuvalu

364

Wallis and Futuna

386

References
Article Sources and Contributors

394

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

407

Article Licenses
License

417

Oceania

Oceania
"South West Pacific" redirects here. For the World War II theatre, see South West Pacific theatre of World War II.
For the 1943 documentary, see South West Pacific (film).
For other uses, see Oceania (disambiguation).

Oceania

Geopolitical Oceania
Area

8,525,989km2 (3,291,903sqmi)

Population

36,659,000 (2010, 6th)

Pop. density

4.19/km2

Demonym

Oceanian
Oceanic

Countries
Dependencies
Languages
Time zones

UTC+8 (Australian Western Standard Time) to UTC-6 (Easter Island) (West to East)

Largest cities List of cities in Oceania

Sydney
Melbourne
Brisbane
Perth
Auckland
Adelaide
Wellington
Christchurch
Canberra
Port Moresby

Oceania (UK /oni, os-/[1] or US /oini/), also known as Oceanica, is a region centred on the islands
of the tropical Pacific Ocean.[2] Opinions of what constitutes Oceania range from its three subregions of Melanesia,
Micronesia, and Polynesia[3] to, more broadly, the entire insular region between Asia and the Americas, including
Australasia and the Malay Archipelago. The term is often used more specifically to denote a continent comprising
Australia and proximate islands[4][5] or biogeographically as a synonym for either the Australasian ecozone
(Wallacea and Australasia) or the Pacific ecozone (Melanesia, Polynesia, and Micronesia apart either from New
Zealand[6] or from mainland New Guinea).[7]

Oceania

Etymology
The term was coined as Ocanie ca. 1812 by geographer Conrad Malte-Brun. The word Ocanie is a French
language word derived from the Greek word (keans), ocean.

Definitions
See also: List of Oceanian countries by population and List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Oceania
As an ecozone, Oceania includes all of
Micronesia, Fiji, and all of Polynesia except
New Zealand. New Zealand, along with
New Guinea and nearby islands, part of
Philippines islands, Australia, the Solomon
Islands, Vanuatu, and New Caledonia,
constitute the separate Australasian ecozone.
In geopolitical terms, however, New
Zealand, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and
New Caledonia are almost always
considered part of Oceania, and Australia
and Papua New Guinea are usually
considered part of Oceania too. Sometimes
Papua province in Indonesia may be
included, as Puncak Jaya is often considered
the highest peak in Oceania.

Map of Oceania

Physiography
Oceania was originally conceived as the lands of the Pacific Ocean, stretching from the Straits of Malacca to the
coast of the Americas. It comprised four regions: Polynesia, Micronesia, Malaysia (now called the Malay
Archipelago), and Melanesia (now called Australasia). Included are parts of three geological continents, Eurasia,
Australia, and Zealandia, as well the non-continental volcanic islands of the Philippines, Wallacea, and the open
Pacific. It extends to Sumatra in the west, the Bonin Islands in the northwest, the Hawaiian Islands in the northeast,
Rapa Nui and Sala y Gmez Island in the east, and Macquarie Island in the south, but excludes Taiwan, the Japanese
Archipelago (including the Ryukyu Islands), and Aleutian Islands of the margins of Asia.[8][9]
The states that occupy Oceania that are not included in geopolitical Oceania are Indonesia, Malaysia (through
Malaysian Borneo), Brunei, the Philippines, and East Timor. The islands of the geographic extremes are politically
integral parts of Japan (Bonin), the United States (Hawaii), and Chile (Rapa Nui, formerly Easter Island). A smaller
geographic definition also exists, which excludes the land on the Sunda Plate, but includes Indonesian New Guinea
as part of the Australian continent.

Oceania

Biogeography
Biogeographically, Oceania is used as a synonym for either the Australasian
ecozone (Wallacea and Australasia) or the Pacific ecozone (Melanesia,
Polynesia, and Micronesia apart either from New Zealand or from mainland New
Guinea).
Ecogeography
Oceania is one of eight terrestrial ecozones, which constitute the major
ecological regions of the planet. The Oceania ecozone includes all of Micronesia,
Fiji, and all of Polynesia except New Zealand. New Zealand, New Guinea,
Melanesia apart from Fiji, and Australia constitute the separate Australasia
ecozone. The Malay Archipelago is part of the Indomalaya ecozone. Related to
these concepts are Near Oceania, that part of western Island Melanesia which has
been inhabited for tens of millennia, and Remote Oceania which is more recently
settled.[10]

Aoraki / Mount Cook, located on the

South Island of New Zealand

Geopolitics
In the geopolitical conception used by the United Nations, International Olympic Committee, and many atlases,
Oceania includes Australia and the nations of the Pacific from Papua New Guinea east, but not the Malay
Archipelago or Indonesian New Guinea.[11]

Other definitions
The term is often used to denote a continent comprising Australia and proximate islands.
New Zealand forms the south-western corner of the Polynesian Triangle. Its indigenous Mori constitute one of
the major cultures of Polynesia. It is also, however, considered part of Australasia.
The widest definition of Oceania includes the entire region between continental Asia and the Americas, thereby
including islands in the Pacific Rim such as the Japanese Archipelago, Taiwan, and the Aleutian islands.

Satellite image of Oceania

Oceania

Ethno-cultural definition of Oceania

History
Main articles: History of Oceania and History of the Pacific Islands

Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Oceania
Oceania

Wider Geographic Oceania.

Little of the South Pacific is apparent at this scale, though Hawaii is just visible near the eastern horizon.

Area

10,975,600km2 (4,237,700sqmi)

Population

37.8 million (2010)

Time Zones

UTC+7 (Western Indonesian Time) to UTC-6 (Easter Island)

Largest Cities Jakarta

Manila
Sydney
Bandung
Melbourne
Surabaya
Medan

Oceania

Narrower Geographic Oceania.

Island Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia (apart from New Zealand)

Area

183,000km2 (71,000sqmi)

Population

5.2 million (2008)

Time Zones

UTC+9 (Palau) to UTC-6 (Easter Island)

Largest Cities Honolulu

Nouma
Suva
Papeete
Honiara
The demographic table below shows the subregions and countries of geopolitical Oceania. The countries and
territories in this table are categorized according to the scheme for geographic subregions used by the United
Nations. The information shown follows sources in cross-referenced articles; where sources differ, provisos have
been clearly indicated. These territories and regions are subject to various additional categorisations, of course,
depending on the source and purpose of each description.
Name of region, followed by countries
[12]
and their flags

Area
(km)

Population

Population
density
(per km)

Capital

ISO
3166-1

[13]

Australasia
Ashmore and Cartier Islands (Australia)
Australia

7,686,850 23,034,879
[14]

Christmas Island

(Australia)

Cocos (Keeling) Islands (Australia)

Coral Sea Islands (Australia)

New Zealand

199

[15]

Norfolk Island (Australia)

135

1,493

14

628

10

268,680

4,465,900

35

2,302

2.7 Canberra

AU

3.5 Flying Fish Cove

CX

45.1 West Island

CC

16.5 Wellington

NZ

61.9 Kingston

NF

[16]

Melanesia
Fiji

18,270

856,346

46.9 Suva

FJ

New Caledonia (France)

19,060

240,390

12.6 Nouma

NC

319,036

3,486,432

11 Jayapura

PA

462,840

5,172,033

Solomon Islands

28,450

Vanuatu

12,200

Papua (Indonesia)
[17]

Papua New Guinea

11.2 Port Moresby

PG

494,786

17.4 Honiara

SB

240,000

19.7 Port Vila

VU

Oceania

6
Micronesia
Federated States of Micronesia

702

135,869

193.5 Palikir

FM

Guam (United States)

549

160,796

292.9 Hagta

GU

Kiribati

811

96,335

118.8 South Tarawa

KI

Marshall Islands

181

73,630

406.8 Majuro

MH

21

12,329

587.1 Yaren (de facto)

NR

477

77,311

162.1 Saipan

MP

458

19,409

12

Nauru
Northern Mariana Islands (United
States)
Palau

Wake Island (United States)

42.4 Melekeok[18]
Wake Island

PW
UM

Polynesia
American Samoa (United States)

199

68,688

Cook Islands (New Zealand)

240

20,811

Easter Island (Chile)

164

5,761

4,167

257,847

16,636

1,360,301

260

2,134

47

2,944

179,000

10

1,431

143.1 Nukunonu

TK

Tonga

748

106,137

141.9 Nukualofa

TO

Tuvalu

26

11,146

428.7 Funafuti

TV

274

15,585

French Polynesia (France)

Hawaii (United States)
Niue (New Zealand)
Pitcairn Islands (United Kingdom)
Samoa
Tokelau (New Zealand)

Wallis and Futuna (France)

345.2 Pago Pago,

[19]
Fagatogo
86.7 Avarua
31 Hanga Roa

81.8 Honolulu

US

8.2 Alofi

NU

10 Adamstown

PN

63.2 Apia

56.9 Mata-Utu
4.4

Total minus mainland Australia

1,158,175 17,127,699

14.8

view
talk
[20]
edit

CL
PF

8,845,025 39,155,699

This template:

CK

61.9 Papeete

Total

AS

WS

WF

Oceania

7
Map of Nations and territories of Oceania including Australia and New Zealand

Archaeogenetics
Archaeology, linguistics, and existing genetic studies indicate that
Oceania was settled by two major waves of migration. The first
migration took place approximately 40 thousand years ago and these
migrants, Papuans, colonized much of Near Oceania. Approximately
3.5 thousand years ago, a second expansion of Austronesian speakers
arrived in Near Oceania and the descendants of these people spread to
the far corners of the Pacific, colonizing Remote Oceania.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) studies quantify the magnitude of the
Austronesian expansion and demonstrate the homogenizing effect of
this expansion. With regards to Papuan influence, autochthonous
Geographic map of islands of Oceania
haplogroups support the hypothesis of a long history in Near Oceania,
with some lineages suggesting a time depth of 60 thousand years. Santa Cruz, a population located in Remote
Oceania, is an anomaly with extreme frequencies of autochthonous haplogroups of Near Oceanian origin.

Religion
The predominant religion in Oceania is Christianity. Traditional religions are often animist and prevalent among
traditional tribes is the belief in spirits (masalai in Tok Pisin) representing natural forces. In recent Australian and
New Zealand censuses, large proportions of the population say they belong to "No religion" (which includes atheism,
agnosticism, secular humanism, and rationalism). In Tonga, everyday life is heavily influenced by Polynesian
traditions and especially by the Christian faith. The Ahmadiyya mosque in Marshall Islands is the only mosque in
Micronesia. Another one in Tuvalu belongs to the same sect. The Bah' House of Worship in Tiapapata, Samoa is
one of seven designations administered in the Baha'i faith.

Sport
Pacific Games
The Pacific Games (formerly known as the South Pacific Games) is a multi-sport event, much like the Olympics on a
much smaller scale, with participation exclusively from countries around the Pacific. It is held every four years and
began in 1963. Australia and New Zealand do not compete at the Pacific Games.

Association football (soccer)

The Oceania Football Confederation (OFC) is one of six association football confederations under the auspices of
FIFA, the international governing body of the sport. The OFC is the only confederation without an automatic
qualification to the World Cup Finals. Currently the winner of the OFC qualification tournament must play off
against an Asian confederation side to qualify for the World Cup.
Currently, Vanuatu is the only country in Oceania to call football (soccer) its national sport.
Oceania has been represented at four World Cup finals tournaments Australia in 1974, 2006 and 2010, and New
Zealand in 1982 and 2010. In 2006, Australia joined the Asian Football Confederation and qualified for the 2010
World cup as an Asian entrant. New Zealand qualified through the Oceania Confederation, winning its playoff
against Bahrain. 2010 was the first time two countries from Oceania had qualified at the same time, albeit through
different confederations.

Oceania

Australian rules football

Main article: Australian rules football in Oceania
Australian rules football is the national sport in Nauru and is the most popular football code in Australia in terms of
attendance. It has a large following in Papua New Guinea, where it is the second most popular sport after Rugby
League.[21]

Cricket
Cricket is a popular summer sport in Australia and New Zealand.
Australia had ruled International cricket as the number one team for
more than a decade, and have won four Cricket World Cups and have
been runner-up for two times, making them the most successful cricket
team. New Zealand is also considered a strong competitor in the sport,
with the New Zealand Cricket Team, also called the Black Caps,
enjoying success in many competitions. Both Australia and New
Zealand are Full members of the ICC. Fiji, Vanuatu and Papua New
Guinea are some of the Associate/Affiliate members of the ICC from
Oceania that are governed by ICC East Asia-Pacific. Beach Cricket, a
greatly simplified variant of cricket played on a sand beach, is also a
popular recreational sport in Australia.

Fans welcome to the Australian team after

winning 2007 Cricket World Cup

Cricket is culturally a significant sport for summer in Oceania. The Boxing Day Test is very popular in Australia,
conducted every year on 26 December at the Melbourne Cricket Ground, Melbourne.

Rugby League
Rugby league is the national sport of Papua New Guinea (the second most populous country in Oceania after
Australia) and is very popular in Australia and attracts significant attention across New Zealand and the Pacific
Islands.
Australia and New Zealand are two of the most successful sides in the world. Australia has won the Rugby League
World Cup a record ten times (most recently defeating New Zealand 34-2 in 2013) while New Zealand won their
first World Cup in 2008. Australia hosted the second tournament in 1957. Australia and New Zealand jointly hosted
it in 1968 and 1977. New Zealand hosted the final for the first time in 1985 1988 tournament and Australia hosted
the last tournament in 2008.

Rugby Union
Rugby union is one of the region's most prominent sports, and is the
national sport of New Zealand, Samoa, Fiji and Tonga. Fiji's sevens
team is one of the most successful in the world, as is New Zealand's.
New Zealand and Australia have won the Rugby World Cup a record
two times each (tied with South Africa who have also won it two
times). New Zealand won the inaugural Rugby World Cup in 1987
which was hosted by Australia and New Zealand. Australia hosted it in
2003 and New Zealand hosted it in 2011.
Fiji playing the Cook Islands at seven-a-side
rugby

Oceania

Notes
[1] Pronunciation: The New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998) ISBN 0-19-861263-X p.1282 "Oceania /sn, --/".
[2] For a history of the term, see Douglas & Ballard (2008) Foreign bodies: Oceania and the science of race 17501940
[3] "Oceania" (https:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20090210042249/ http:/ / www. bartleby. com/ 65/ oc/ Oceania. html). 2005. The Columbia
Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Columbia University Press.
[4] "Oceania is the smallest of all the continents"
[5] Composition of macro geographical (continental) regions, geographical sub-regions, and selected economic and other groupings (http:/ /
millenniumindicators. un. org/ unsd/ methods/ m49/ m49regin. htm), United Nations Statistics Division. Revised August 28, 2007. Accessed
on line October 11, 2007.
[6] Udvardy. 1975. A classification of the biogeographical provinces of the world
[7] Steadman. 2006. Extinction & biogeography of tropical Pacific birds
[8] MacKay (1864, 1885) Elements of Modern Geography, p 283
[9] Douglas & Ballard (2008) Foreign bodies: Oceania and the science of race 17501940
[10] Ben Finney, The Other One-Third of the Globe, Journal of World History, Vol. 5, No. 2, Fall, 1994.
[11] Current IOC members (http:/ / www. olympic. org/ en/ content/ National-Olympic-Committees/ ).
[12] Regions and constituents as per UN categorisations/map except notes 23, 6. Depending on definitions, various territories cited below (notes
3, 57, 9) may be in one or both of Oceania and Asia or North America.
[13] The use and scope of this term varies. The UN designation for this subregion is "Australia and New Zealand."
[14] Christmas Island and Cocos (Keeling) Islands are Australian external territories in the Indian Ocean southwest of Indonesia.
[15] New Zealand is often considered part of Polynesia rather than Australasia.
[16] Excludes parts of Indonesia, island territories in Southeast Asia (UN region) frequently reckoned in this region.
[17] Papua New Guinea is often considered part of Australasia and Melanesia. It is sometimes included in the Malay Archipelago of Southeast
Asia.
[18] On 7 October 2006, government officials moved their offices in the former capital of Koror to Melekeok, located northeast of Koror on
Babelthuap Island.
[19] Fagatogo is the seat of government of American Samoa.
[20] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Oceania_Labelled_Map& action=edit
[21] http:/ / www. miningfm. com. au/ mining-towns/ overseas/ papua-new-guinea. html

External links
Oceania (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Oceania) at DMOZ
"Australia and Oceania" (http://travel.nationalgeographic.com/travel/continents/australia-oceania/) from
National Geographic (http://travel.nationalgeographic.com/)

Melanesia

10

Melanesia
Melanesia is a subregion of Oceania extending from the
western end of the Pacific Ocean to the Arafura Sea, and
eastward to Fiji. The region comprises the countries of
Vanuatu, Solomon Islands, Fiji and Papua New Guinea;
besides these independent countries, Melanesia also
includes New Caledonia, a special collectivity of France,
and the region of West Papua, which includes two
provinces of Indonesia, Papua and West Papua.
The name Melanesia (from Greek: black; Greek:
islands) was first used by Jules Dumont d'Urville
in 1832 to denote an ethnic and geographical grouping of
islands whose inhabitants he thought were distinct from
those of Polynesia and Micronesia.

European encounter and definition

The concept among Europeans of Melanesia as a distinct
area evolved gradually over time as their expeditions
mapped and explored the Pacific. Early European
explorers noted the physical differences among various
groups of Pacific Islanders. In 1756 Charles de Brosses
theorized that there was an 'old black race' in the Pacific
who were conquered or defeated by the peoples of what is
now called Polynesia, whom he distinguished as having
lighter skin.:189190 By 1825 Jean Baptiste Bory de
Saint-Vincent developed a more elaborate, 15-race model
of human diversity. He described the inhabitants of
modern-day Melanesia as Mlaniens, a distinct racial
group from the Australian and Neptunian (i.e.
Polynesian) races surrounding them.:178.

Ethno-cultural definition of Melanesia.

Melanesia is one of three major cultural areas in the Pacific

Ocean.

In 1832 Dumont D'Urville expanded and simplified much of this earlier work. He classified the peoples of Oceania
into four racial groups: Malaysians, Polynesians, Micronesians, and Melanesians. :165 D'Urville's model differed
from that of Bory de Saint-Vincent as he referred to 'Melanesians' rather than 'Mlaniens.'
Although Bory de Saint-Vincent had distinguished Mlaniens from the indigenous Australians (now known as
Aborigines), Dumont D'Urville combined the two peoples into one group. He thought 'Melanesia' included Australia,
in
addition
to
the
countries
which
today

Melanesia

11

constitute Melanesia. Dumont D'Urville's concept of

Melanesia was not geographic or culturalit was based
on classification according to visible physical
characteristics, which he called "race." He described
Melanesia as "the home of the black race of Oceania."
:165
He wrote,
"all the nations of this major division of
Oceania are more or less black in colour,
with curly, fuzzy or sometimes nearly woolly
hair, flat noses, wide mouths and unpleasant
features, and their limbs are often very frail
and seldom well shaped... Their aptitudes and
their intelligence are also generally largely
inferior to those of the copper-skinned race
[i.e. Polynesians]".:169

Geographic definition of Melanesia, surrounded by a pink line.

Over time Europeans increasingly viewed 'Melanesia' as a distinct cultural, rather than racial, area. Different scholars
and other commentators disagreed on its boundaries, which were fluid. In the nineteenth century Robert Codrington,
a British missionary, produced a series of monographs on 'the Melanesians' based on his long-time residence in the
region. In works including The Melanesian Languages (1885) and The Melanesians: Studies in Their Anthropology
and Folk-lore (1891), Codrington defined Melanesia as including Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands, New Caledonia,
and Fiji. He did not include the islands of New Guinea because only some of its people were Melanesians. Like Bory
de Saint-Vincent, he excluded Australia from Melanesia.:528 It was in these works that Codrington introduced the
cultural concept of mana to the West.
Uncertainty about the delineation of the region continues, related to the basis for definition; the scholarly consensus
now includes the island of New Guinea. Ann Chowning wrote in her 1977 textbook on Melanesia that there is
"no general agreement even among anthropologists about the geographical boundaries of Melanesia.
Many apply the term only to the smaller islands, excluding New Guinea; Fiji has frequently been treated
as an anomalous border region or even assigned wholly to Polynesia; and the people of the Torres Straits
Islands are often simply classified as Australian aborigines".:1
In 1998 Paul Sillitoe wrote of Melanesia: "it is not easy to define precisely, on geographical, cultural, biological, or
any other grounds, where Melanesia ends and the neighbouring regions... begins".:1 He ultimately concludes that the
region is
"a historical category which evolved in the nineteenth century from the discoveries made in the Pacific
and has been legitimated by use and further research in the region. It covers populations that have a
certain linguistic, biological and cultural affinity -- a certain ill-defined sameness, which shades off at its
margins into difference".:1.
Both Sillitoe and Chowning include the island of New Guinea in the definition of Melanesia, and both exclude
Australia.
Most of the peoples in Melanesia have established independent countries, are heading towards independence (in the
case of New Caledonia), or have active independence movements (in the case of west Papua). Many have recently
taken up the term 'Melanesia' as a source of identity and empowerment. Stepahnie Lawson writes that the term
"moved from a term of denigration to one of affirmation, providing a positive basis for contemporary subregional
identity as well as a formal organisation.":14 For instance, the author Bernard Narokobi wrote about the "Melanesian

Melanesia
Way" as a distinct form of culture that could empower the people of this region. The concept is also used in
geopolitics; for instance, the Melanesian Spearhead Group preferential trade agreement is a regional trade treaty
among Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, and Fiji.

People
Main article: Melanesians
The first settlers of Australia, New Guinea, and the large islands just to the east arrived between 50,000 and 30,000
years ago, when Neanderthals still roamed Europe. The original inhabitants of the group of islands now named
Melanesia were likely the ancestors of the present-day Papuan-speaking people. Migrating from Southeast Asia, they
appear to have occupied these islands as far east as the main islands in the Solomon Islands, including Makira and
possibly the smaller islands farther to the east.
Particularly along the north coast of New Guinea and in the islands north and east of New Guinea, the Austronesian
people, who had migrated into the area somewhat more than 3,000 years ago, came into contact with these
pre-existing populations of Papuan-speaking peoples. In the late 20th century, some scholars theorized a long period
of interaction, which resulted in many complex changes in genetics, languages, and culture among the peoples.
Kayser, et al. proposed that, from this area, a very small group of people (speaking an Austronesian language)
departed to the east to become the forebears of the Polynesian people.
But, this theory is contradicted by the findings of a genetic study published by Temple University in 2008; based on
genome scans and evaluation of more than 800 genetic markers among a wide variety of Pacific peoples, it found
that neither Polynesians nor Micronesians have much genetic relation to Melanesians. Both groups are strongly
related genetically to East Asians, particularly Taiwanese Aborigines. It appeared that, having developed their sailing
outrigger canoes, the Polynesian ancestors migrated from East Asia, moved through the Melanesian area quickly on
their way, and kept going to eastern areas, where they settled. They left little genetic evidence in Melanesia.
The study found a high rate of genetic differentiation and diversity among the groups living within the Melanesian
islands, with the peoples distinguished by island, language, topography, and geography among the islands. Such
diversity developed over their tens of thousands of years of settlement before the Polynesian ancestors ever arrived at
the islands. For instance, populations developed differently in coastal areas, as opposed to those in more isolated
mountainous valleys.[]
Additional DNA analysis has taken research into new directions, as more human species have been discovered since
the late 20th century. Based on his genetic studies of the Denisova hominin, an ancient human species discovered in
2010, Svante Paabo claims that ancient human ancestors of the Melanesians interbred in Asia with these humans. He
has found that people of New Guinea share 4%6% of their genome with the Denisovans, indicating this exchange.
The Denisovans are considered cousin to the Neanderthals; both groups are now understood to have migrated out of
Africa, with the Neanderthals going into Europe, and the Denisovans heading east about 400,000 years ago. This is
based on genetic evidence from a fossil found in Siberia. The evidence from Melanesia suggests their territory
extended into south Asia, where ancestors of the Melanesians developed.
Melanesians of some islands are one of the few non-European peoples, and the only dark-skinned group of people
outside Australia, known to have blond hair.

12

Melanesia

Languages
Further information: Melanesian languages
Most of the languages of Melanesia are members of the Austronesian or Papuan language families. By one count,
there are 1,319 languages in Melanesia, scattered across a small amount of land. The proportion of 716 sq.
kilometers per language is by far the most dense rate of languages in relation to land mass in the earth, almost three
times as dense as in Nigeria, a country famous for its high number of languages in a compact area.[1]
In addition to the numerous indigenous vernacular languages, a number of pidgins and creole languages have
developed, often from trade and cultural interaction centuries before European encounter. Most notable among these
are Tok Pisin and Hiri Motu in Papua New Guinea. They are now both considered distinct creole languages, and Tok
Pisin is increasingly widely used and sometimes learned as a first language, especially in multi-cultural families.
Other creoles include Solomon Islands Pijin, Bislama, and Papuan Malay.

Geography
A distinction is often made between the islands of New Guinea and what is known as Island Melanesia, which
consists of "the chain of archipelagos, islands, atolls, and reefs forming the outer bounds of the sheltered oval-shaped
coral sea":5. This includes the Louisiade archipelago (part of Papua New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago (part of
Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands), and the Santa Cruz Islands (part of the country called Solomon Islands).
The country of Vanuatu is composed of the New Hebrides island chain (and in the past 'New Hebrides' has also been
the name of the political unit located on the islands). New Caledonia is composed of a single large island and several
smaller chains, including the Loyalty Islands. The nation of Fiji is composed of two main islands, Viti Levu and
Vanua Levu, as well as series of smaller islands, including the Lau islands.
In general the names of islands in Melanesia can be confusing: they have both indigenous and European names,
national boundaries sometimes cut across archipelagos, and the names of the political units in this area have changed
over time, and sometimes have included geographical terms. For example, the island of Makira was once known as
San Cristobal, the name given to it by Spanish explorers. It exists in the country Solomon Islands, which is a
nation-state and not a contiguous archipelago. The border of Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands separates the
island of Bougainville from nearby islands like Choiseul, although Bougainville is geographically part of the chain
of islands that includes Choiseul and much of the Solomons.
In addition to the islands mentioned here, there are numerous smaller islands and atolls in this area. These include

Amphlett Islands, Papua New Guinea

d'Entrecasteaux Islands, Papua New Guinea
Maluku Islands
Norfolk Island, Australia (geographically only)
Raja Ampat Islands
Rotuma, Fiji
Schouten Islands
Torres Strait Islands, politically divided between Australia and Papua New Guinea
Trobriand Islands, Papua New Guinea
Woodlark Island, Papua New Guinea

Norfolk Island, listed above, has archaeological evidence of East Polynesian rather than Melanesian settlement.
Rotuma in Fiji has strong affinities culturally and ethnologically to Polynesia.
Based on ethnological factors, some of the islands to the west of the Moluccas, such as Flores, Sumba, Timor,
Halmahera, Alor, and Pantar, can also be considered to be part of Melanesia. Most people in this area do not identify
with this term or use it in daily talk.

13

Melanesia

Political geography
The following countries are considered part of Melanesia:

Fiji
Papua New Guinea
Solomon Islands
Vanuatu

Melanesia also includes one dependency of France

New Caledonia
West Papua - The western half of the island of New Guinea (West Papua (region) is politically part of the nation
state of Indonesia. Europeans have always recognized it as geographically part of Melanesia. A strong
independence movement, the Free Papua Movement, is active in this area and has support from the majority of
West Papuans.Wikipedia:Citation needed
South Maluku - A group of islands claim the southern part of the Moluccas (incl. the Aru Islands and the Kai
Islands). Its government is currently in exile in the Netherlands.
Several Melanesian states are members of various intergovernmental organizations. Papua New Guinea, the
Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu are members of the Commonwealth of Nations. Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Solomon
Islands, and Vanuatu are also members of the Melanesian Spearhead Group.

References
[1] M. Lynn Landweer and Peter Unseth. 2012. "An introduction to language use in Melanesia", International Journal of the Sociology of
Language 214:1-3.

External links
Polynesian origins: Insights from the Y chromosome (http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/
PNAS_2000_v97_p8225.pdf)
Independent Histories of Human Y Chromosomes from Melanesia and Australia (http://hpgl.stanford.edu/
publications/AJHG_2001_v68_p173-190.pdf)
A site about West Melanesia (http://westmelanesia.com/)
Bird checklists for Melanesian islands (http://birdsofmelanesia.net/)
New Guinea: Crossing Boundaries and History (http://www.uhpress.hawaii.edu/cart/shopcore/
?db_name=uhpress&page=shop/flypage&product_id=2978&
category_id=b3e6237d1b1b3b8594488ed1c40d0dfb&PHPSESSID=40c869f223f32d8c1b34a69d0fc051d4) - a
general history of New Guinea
Anglican historical texts related to Melanesia (http://anglicanhistory.org/oceania)
Ancient humans, dubbed 'Denisovans', interbred with us (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/
science-environment-12059564) BBC News online (2010-12-22) report (with video) on study that shows that
Denisovans interbred with the ancestors of the present day people of the Melanesian region north and north-east
of Australia. Melanesian DNA comprises between 4% and 6% Denisovan DNA.

14

New Caledonia

15

New Caledonia
This article is about the overseas territory. For other uses, see New Caledonia (disambiguation).
For other uses, see Caledonia.
Coordinates: 21.25S 165.30E [1]

New Caledonia
Nouvelle-Caldonie

Flags of New Caledonia

Emblem

Motto:"Terre de parole, terre de partage"

"Land of speech, land of sharing"
Anthem:Soyons unis, devenons frres

Capital
and largest city

Nouma
Official languages

Recognised regionallanguages

French

Drehu
Nengone
Paic
Aji
Xrc

and 35 other native languages

Demonym
Government
- Presidential Head of State

New Caledonians
Dependent territory
Franois Hollande

- President of the Government of New Caledonia Harold Martin

- High Commissioner
Legislature

Jean-Jacques Brot
Congress

New Caledonia

16
Special collectivity of France
- Annexed by France

1853

- Overseas territory

1946

- Special collectivity

1999
Area

- Total

18,576km2 (154th)
7,172sqmi
Population

- 2012estimate

256,000 (182nd)

- 2009census

245,580

- Density

13.6/km2 (200th)
35.2/sqmi

GDP(nominal)

2011estimate

- Total

US$9.89 billion

- Per capita

US$38,921
Currency

CFP franc (XPF)

Time zone

(UTC+11)

Drives on the

right

Calling code

+687

ISO 3166 code

NC

Internet TLD

.nc

New Caledonia (French: Nouvelle-Caldonie)[2] is a special collectivity of France located in the southwest Pacific
Ocean, 1,210km (750mi) east of Australia and 16,136km (10,026mi) east of Metropolitan France. The
archipelago, part of the Melanesia subregion, includes the main island of Grande Terre, the Loyalty Islands, the
Chesterfield Islands, the Belep archipelago, the Isle of Pines, and a few remote islets. The Chesterfield Islands are in
the Coral Sea. Locals refer to Grande Terre as "Le Caillou" ("the stone").
New Caledonia has a land area of 18,576 km2 (7,172mi2). The population (January 2012 estimate) is 256,000. The
population is a mix of Kanak people (the original inhabitants of New Caledonia), White European people (Caldoches
and Metropolitan Frenchmen), Polynesian people (Wallisians essentially), and Southeast Asian people. The capital
of the territory is Nouma.

New Caledonia

17

History
The earliest traces of human presence in New Caledonia date back to the Lapita period. The Lapita were highly
skilled navigators and agriculturists with influence over a large area of the Pacific.
British explorer Captain James Cook was the first European to sight New
Caledonia, on 4 September 1774, during his second voyage. He named it
"New Caledonia", as the north-east of the island reminded him of
Scotland. The west coast of Grande Terre was approached by
Jean-Franois de Galaup, comte de Laprouse in 1788, shortly before his
disappearance, and the Loyalty Islands were first visited in 1796. From
then until 1840, only a few sporadic contacts with the archipelago were
recorded. Contacts became more frequent after 1840, because of the
interest in sandalwood from New Caledonia.
As trade in sandalwood declined, it was replaced by a new form of trade,
"blackbirding", a euphemism for enslaving people from New Caledonia,
the Loyalty Islands, New Hebrides, New Guinea, and the Solomon
Islands to work in sugarcane plantations in Fiji and Queensland. The
trade ceased at the start of the 20th century. The victims of this trade
were called 'Kanakas' like all the Oceanian people, after the Hawaiian
word for 'man'.
Two Kanak warriors posing with penis gourds
and spears, around 1880

The first missionaries from the London Missionary Society and the
Marist Brothers arrived in the 1840s. In 1849, the crew of the American
ship Cutter was killed and eaten by the Pouma clan. Cannibalism was
widespread throughout New Caledonia.

French dependency
On 24 September 1853, under orders from Napoleon III, Admiral Febvrier Despointes took formal possession of
New Caledonia and Port-de-France (Nouma) was founded 25 June 1854. A few dozen free settlers settled on the
west coast in the following years. New Caledonia became a penal colony, and from the 1860s until the end of the
transportations in 1897, about 22,000 criminals and political prisoners were sent to New Caledonia, among them
many Communards arrested after the failed Paris Commune, including Henri de Rochefort and Louise Michel.
Between 1873 and 1876, 4,200 political prisoners were "relegated" in New Caledonia. Only 40 of them settled in the
colony, the rest returned to France after being granted amnesty in 1879 and 1880.

New Caledonia

18

In 1864, nickel was discovered on the banks of the Diahot River and
with the establishment of the Socit Le Nickel in 1876, mining began
in earnest. The French imported labourers to work in the mines, first
from neighbouring islands, then from Japan, the Dutch East Indies, and
French Indochina. The French government also attempted to encourage
European immigration, without much success.
The indigenous population was excluded from the French economy,
even as workers in the mines, and they were ultimately confined to
reservations. This sparked a violent reaction in 1878 as High Chief
Atal of La Foa managed to unite many of the central tribes and
launched a guerrilla war which cost 200 Frenchmen and 1,000 Kanaks
their lives. The Europeans brought new diseases such as smallpox and
measles. Many people died as a result of these diseases. The Kanak
population declined from around 60,000 in 1878 to 27,100 in 1921,
and their numbers did not increase again until the 1930s.

Chief "King Jacques" and his Queen

In June 1940, after the fall of France, the Conseil General of New Caledonia voted unanimously to support the Free
French government, and in September the pro-Vichy governor was forced to leave for Indochina. In March 1942,
with the assistance of Australia, the territory became an important Allied base, and Nouma the headquarters of the
United States Navy and Army in the South Pacific. The fleet which turned back the Japanese navy in the Battle of
the Coral Sea in May 1942 was based at Nouma. American troops counted up to 50,000 men, the equivalent of the
contemporary population.

French overseas territory

In 1946, New Caledonia became an overseas territory. By 1953, French citizenship had been granted to all New
Caledonians, regardless of ethnicity.
The European and Polynesian populations gradually increased in the years leading to the nickel boom of 196972,
and the Melanesians became a minority, though they were still the largest single ethnic group. Between 1976 and
1988, New Caledonia adopted five different statutes, with each proving to be a source of discontent and, at times,
serious disorder, culminating in 1988 with a bloody hostage-taking in Ouva. The Matignon Agreements, signed on
26 June 1988, ensured a decade of stability. The Noumea Accord signed 5 May 1998, set the groundwork for a
20-year transitional period that will gradually transfer competences to the local government.

New Caledonia

19

Politics
Main article: Politics of New Caledonia
New Caledonia is a sui generis collectivity to which France has
gradually transferred certain powers. It is governed by a 54-member
Territorial Congress, a legislative body composed of members of three
provincial assemblies. The French State is represented in the territory
by a High Commissioner. At a national level, New Caledonia is
represented in the French Parliament by two deputies and two senators.
At the 2012 French presidential election, the voter turnout in New
Caledonia was 61.19%.
For 25 years, the party system in New Caledonia was dominated by the
anti-independence The RallyUMP. This dominance ended with the
Logo of the Territorial Congress
emergence of a new party, Avenir Ensemble, also opposed to
independence, but considered more open to dialogue with the Kanak
movement, which is part of the Kanak and Socialist National Liberation Front, a coalition of several
pro-independence groups.

Customary authority
The Kanak society has several layers of customary authority, from the 4,000-5,000 family-based clans to the eight
customary areas (aires coutumires) that make up the territory.[3] Clans are led by clan chiefs and constitute 341
tribes, each headed by a tribal chief. The tribes are further grouped into 57 customary chiefdoms (chefferies), each
headed by a head chief, and forming the administrative subdivisions of the customary areas.
The Customary Senate is the assembly of the various traditional
councils of the Kanaks, and has jurisdiction over the law proposals
concerning the Kanak identity. The Customary Senate is composed of
16 members appointed by each traditional council, with two
representatives per each customary area. In its advisory role, the
Customary Senate must be consulted on law proposals "concerning the
Kanak identity" as defined in the Nouma Accord. It also has a
deliberative role on law proposals that would affect identity, the civil
customary statute, and the land system. A new president is appointed
each year in August or September, and the presidency rotates between
the eight customary areas.

Jean Lques during a ceremony honoring U.S.

service members who helped ensure the freedom
of New Caledonia during World War II

Kanak people have recourse to customary authorities regarding civil

matters such as marriage, adoption, inheritance, and some land issues. The French administration typically respects
decisions made in the customary system. However, their jurisdiction is sharply limited in penal matters, as some
matters relating to the customary justice system, including the use of corporal punishment, are seen as clashing with
the human rights obligations of France.

Military
The Armed Forces of New Caledonia (French: Forces armes de Nouvelle-Caldonie) include about 2,000 soldiers,
mainly deployed in Koumac, Nandi, Tontouta, Plum, and Noumea. The land forces consist of a regiment of the
Troupes de marine, the Rgiment d'infanterie de marine du Pacifique. The naval forces include two P400 class patrol
vessels, a BATRAL, and a patrol boat of the Maritime Gendarmerie. The air force is made up of three Casa transport
aircraft, four Puma helicopters and a Fennec helicopter, based in Tontouta. In addition, 760 gendarmes are deployed

New Caledonia
on the archipelago.

Status
Since 1986, the United Nations Committee on Decolonization has included New Caledonia on the United Nations
list of Non-Self-Governing Territories.[4] An independence referendum was held the following year, but was rejected
by a large majority.
Under the Noumea Accord, signed in 1998 following a period of secessionist unrest in the 1980s and approved in a
referendum, New Caledonia is to hold a second referendum on independence between 2014 and 2018.
The official name of the territory, Nouvelle-Caldonie, could be changed in the near future due to the accord, which
stated that "a name, a flag, an anthem, a motto, and the design of banknotes will have to be sought by all parties
together, to express the Kanak identity and the future shared by all parties." To date, however, there has been no
consensus on a new name for the territory.
New Caledonia has increasingly adopted its own symbols, choosing an anthem, a motto, and a new design for its
banknotes. In July 2010, New Caledonia adopted the Kanak flag, alongside the existing French tricolor, as a proposal
to become the dual official flags of the territory. The adoption made New Caledonia one of the few countries or
territories in the world with two official national flags. The decision to use two flags has been a constant
battleground between the two sides and led the coalition government to collapse in February 2011.

Administrative divisions
Main article: Administrative divisions of New Caledonia
The institutional organization is the result of the organic law and ordinary law passed by the Parliament on 16
February 1999.
The archipelago is divided into three provinces:
South Province (province Sud). Provincial capital: Nouma. Population: 183,007 inhabitants (2009).
North Province (province Nord). Provincial capital: Kon. Population: 45,137 inhabitants (2009).
Loyalty Islands Province (province des les Loyaut). Provincial capital: Lifou. Population: 17,436 inhabitants
(2009).
New Caledonia is further divided into 33 municipalities: One commune, Poya, is divided between two provinces.
The northern half of Poya, with the main settlement and most of the population, is part of the North Province, while
the southern half of the commune, with only 127 inhabitants in 2009, is part of the South Province.

20

New Caledonia

21

South Province

North Province

Loyalty Islands Province

1. Thio
2. Yat
3. L'le-des-Pins
4. Le Mont-Dore
5. Nouma (national capital)
6. Dumba
7. Pata
8. Bouloupari
9. La Foa
10. Sarrama
11. Farino
12. Moindou
13. Bourail
14. Poya (part north)

1. Poya (part south)

1. Ouva
2. Pouembout
2. Lifou (provincial capital)
3. Kon (provincial capital) 3. Mar
4. Voh
5. Kaala-Gomen
6. Koumac
7. Poum
8. Belep
9. Ougoa
10. Poubo
11. Hienghne
12. Touho
13. Poindimi
14. Ponrihouen
15. Houalou
16. Kouaoua
17. Canala

New Caledonia

22

Geography
Main article: Geography of New Caledonia
New Caledonia is part of Zealandia, a fragment of the ancient
Gondwana super-continent. Zealandia separated from Australia
6085million years ago. It is speculated that New Caledonia separated
from Australia roughly 66 million years ago, subsequently drifting in a
north-easterly direction, reaching its present position about 50 million
years ago.[5]
The mainland is divided in length by a central mountain range whose
highest peak are Mont Pani (1,629 metres (5,344ft)) in the north and
Mont Humboldt (1,618 metres (5,308ft)) in the southeast. The east
coast is covered by a lush vegetation. The west coast, with its large
savannahs and plains suitable for farming, is a drier area. Many
ore-rich massifs are found along this coast.
New Caledonia from space

The Diahot River is the longest river of New Caledonia, flowing for
some 100 kilometres (62mi). It has a catchment area of 620 square
kilometres (240sqmi) and opens north-westward into the Baie d'Harcourt, flowing towards the northern point of the
island along the western escarpment of the Mount Pani. Most of the island is covered by wet evergreen forests,
while savannahs dominate the lower elevations. The New Caledonian lagoon, with a total area of 24,000 square
kilometres (9,300sqmi) is one of the largest lagoons in the world. It is surrounded by the New Caledonia Barrier
Reef.

Climate
The climate is tropical, with a hot and humid period from November to March with temperatures between 27C and
30C, and a cooler, dry period from June to August with temperatures between 20C and 23C, linked by two short
transition periods. The tropical climate is strongly moderated by the oceanic influence and the trade winds that
attenuates humidity, which can be close to 80%. The average annual temperature is 23C, with historical extremes of
2.3C and 39.1C.
The rainfall records show that precipitations differ greatly within the island. The 3,000 millimetres (120in) of
rainfall recorded in Galarino are three times the average of the west coast. There are also dry periods, because of the
effects of El Nio. Between December and April, tropical depressions and cyclones can cause winds to exceed a
speed of 100 kilometres per hour (62mph) with gusts of 250 kilometres per hour (160mph) and very abundant
rainfall. The last cyclone affecting New Caledonia was Cyclone Vania, in January 2011.

New Caledonia

23

Environment
See also: Biodiversity of New Caledonia
New Caledonia has many unique taxa, especially birds
and plants. It has the richest diversity in the world per
square kilometre. In its botany not only species but
entire genera and even families are unique to the island,
and survive nowhere else. The biodiversity is caused by
Grande Terre's central mountain range, which has
created a variety of niches, landforms and
micro-climates where endemic species thrive.
Bruno Van Peteghem was in 2001 awarded the
Goldman Environmental Prize for his efforts on behalf
Landscape, south of New Caledonia
of the Caledonian ecological protection movement in
the face of "serious challenges" from Jacques Lafleur's
RPCR party.[6] Progress has been made in a few areas in addressing the protection of New Caledonia's ecological
diversity from fire, industrial and residential development, unrestricted agricultural activity and mining (such as the
judicial revocation of INCO's mining license in June 2006 owing to claimed abuses).[7]

Flora
New Caledonia's fauna and flora derive from ancestral
species isolated in the region when it broke away from
Gondwana many tens of millions of years ago. Not
only endemic species have evolved here, but entire
genera and even families are unique to the islands.
More tropical gymnosperm species are endemic to New
Caledonia than to any similar region on Earth. Of the
44 indigenous species of gymnosperms, 43 are
endemic, including the only known parasitic
gymnosperm (Parasitaxus usta). Again, of the 35
known species of Araucaria, 13 are endemic to New
Caledonia. New Caledonia also has the world's oldest
flowering plant, Amborella trichopoda which is at or
near the base of the lineage of all flowering plants.

Amborella, the world's oldest living flowering

plant

The world's largest extant species of fern, Cyathea

intermedia, also is endemic to New Caledonia. It is
very common on acid ground, and grows about one
metre per year on the east coast, usually on fallow
ground or in forest clearings. There also are other
species of Cyathea, notably Cyathea novae-caledoniae.
New Caledonia also is one of five regions on the planet
where species of southern beeches (Nothofagus) are
indigenous; five species are known to occur here.
Araucaria columnaris New Caledonia

New Caledonia

24

New Caledonia has its own version of maquis (maquis minier) occurring on metalliferous soils, mostly in the south.
The soils of ultramafic rocks (mining terrains) have been a refuge for many native flora species because they are
toxic and their mineral content is poorly suited to most foreign species of plants.

Fauna
Main article: List of birds of New Caledonia
New Caledonia is home to the New Caledonian crow, a bird noted for
its tool-making abilities, which rival those of primates. These crows
are renowned for their extraordinary intelligence and ability to fashion
tools to solve problems, and make the most complex tools of any
animal yet studied apart from humans.
The endemic Kagu, agile and able to run fast, is a flightless bird, but it
is able to use its wings to climb branches or glide. It is the surviving
member of monotypic family Rhynochetidae, order Gruiformes.
The endemic Kagu bird

There are 11 endemic fish species and 14 endemic species of decapod

crustaceans in the rivers and lakes of New Caledonia. Some, such as
Neogalaxias, exist only in small areas. The nautilus, considered a living fossil and related to the ammonites which
became extinct at the end of the Mesozoic era, occurs in Pacific waters around New Caledonia. There is a large
diversity of marine fish in the surrounding waters, which are within the extents of the Coral Sea.
Several species of New Caledonia are remarkable for their size: Ducula goliath is the largest extant species of
pigeon; Rhacodactylus leachianus, the largest gecko in the world; Phoboscincus bocourti the largest skink in the
world, thought to be extinct but rediscovered in 2003.

Demographics
Main article: Demographics of New Caledonia

Historical
populations
Year

Pop. % p.a.

1956

68,480

1963

86,519

+3.40%

1969 100,579

+2.54%

1976 133,233

+4.10%

1983 145,368

+1.25%

1989 164,173

+2.05%

1996 196,836

+2.63%

2009 245,580

+1.72%

2012 256,000

+1.39%

ISEE

At the last census in 2009 New Caledonia had a population of 245,580. Of these, 17,436 live in the Loyalty Islands
Province, 45,137 in the North Province, and 183,007 in the South Province. Population growth has slowed down
since the 1990s, but remains strong with a yearly increase of 1.7% between 1996 and 2009.

New Caledonia

25

Natural growth is responsible for 85% of the population growth, while the remaining 15% is attributable to net
migration. The population growth is strong in the Southern province (2.3% per year between 1996 and 2009),
moderate in the Northern Province (0.7%), but negative in the Loyalty Islands, which are losing inhabitants (1.3%).
Over 40% of the population is under 20, although the ratio of older people on the total population is increasing. Two
residents of New Caledonia out of three live in Greater Nouma. Three out of four were born in New Caledonia. The
total fertility rate went from 3.2 children per woman in 1990 to 2.2 in 2007.

Ethnic groups
[8][9]

Communities, 2009
Kanak

99,078

40.34%

European

71,721

29.20%

Wallisian, Futunan

21,262

8.66%

Multiple communities and mixed people 20,398

8.31%

"Caledonian"

12,177

4.96%

Tahitian

4,985

2.03%

Indonesian

3,985

1.62%

Vietnamese

2,357

0.96%

Ni-Vanuatu

2,327

0.95%

Other Asian

1,857

0.76%

Other

2,566

1.04%

Not declared

2,867

1.17%

Total

245,580 100.00%

In 2009, 40.3% of the population reported belonging to the Kanak community, 29.2% to the European community
and 8.7% to the community originating from Wallis and Futuna. The remaining identified communities represented
7.3% of the population, and included Tahitians (2.0%), Javanese Indonesian (1.6%), Vietnamese (1.0%), Ni-Vanuatu
(0.9%) other Asian (0.8%) and other (1.0%). 8.3% belonged to multiple communities, 5% declared their community
as "Caledonian", and 1.2% did not respond. The question on community belonging, which had been left out of the
2004 census, was reintroduced in 2009 under a new formulation, different from the 1996 census, allowing multiple
choices and the possibility to clarify the choice "other". Most of the people who self-identified as "Caledonian" are
thought to be ethnically European.
The Kanak people, part of the Melanesian group, are indigenous to
New Caledonia.[10] Their social organization is traditionally based
around clans, which identify as either "land" or "sea" clans, depending
on their original location and the occupation of their ancestors.
According to the 2009 census, the Kanak constitute 94% of the
population in the Loyalty Islands Province, 74% in the North Province
and 27% in the South Province. The Kanak tend to be of lower
socio-economic status than the Europeans and other settlers.
Kanak women.

Europeans first settled in New Caledonia when France established a

penal colony on the archipelago. Once the prisoners had completed

New Caledonia
their sentences, they were given land to settle. According to the 2009 census, of the 71,721 Europeans in New
Caledonia 32,354 were native-born, 33,551 were born in other parts of France, and 5,816 were born abroad. The
Europeans are divided into several groups: the Caldoches are usually defined as those born in New Caledonia who
have ancestral ties that span back to the early French settlers. They often settled in the rural areas of the western
coast of Grande Terre, where many continue to run large cattle properties.
Distinct from the Caldoches are those were born in New Caledonia from families that had settled more recently, and
are called simply Caledonians. The French-born migrants who come to New Caledonia are called mtros, indicating
their origins in metropolitan France. There is also a community of about 2,000 pieds noirs, descended from European
settlers in France's former North African colonies; some of them are prominent in anti-independence politics,
including Pierre Maresca, a leader of the RPCR.

Languages
Main article: Languages of New Caledonia
The French language began to spread with the establishment of French settlements, and French is now spoken even
in the most secluded villages. The level of fluency, however, varies significantly across the population as a whole,
primarily due to the absence of universal access to public education before 1953, but also due to immigration and
ethnic diversity. At the 2009 census, 97.3% of people aged 15 or older reported that they could speak, read and write
French, whereas only 1.1% reported that they had no knowledge of French.[11] Other significant language
communities among immigrant populations are those of Wallisian and Javanese language speakers.
The 28 Kanak languages spoken in New Caledonia are part of the Oceanic group of the Austronesian family.[12]
Kanak languages are taught from kindergarten (4 languages are taught up to the bachelor's degree) and an academy
is responsible for their promotion. The four most widely spoken indigenous languages are Drehu (spoken in Lifou),
Nengone (spoken on Mar) and Paic (northern part of Grande Terre). Others include Iaai (spoken on Ouva). At the
2009 census, 35.8% of people aged 15 or older reported that they could speak (but not necessarily read or write) one
of the indigenous Melanesian languages, whereas 58.7% reported that they had no knowledge of any of them.

Religion
Half of the population is Roman Catholic, including most of the Europeans, Uveans, and Vietnamese and half of the
Melanesian and Tahitian minorities. Of the Protestant churches, the Free Evangelical Church and the Evangelical
Church in New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands have the largest number of adherents; their memberships are
almost entirely Melanesian. There are also numerous other Christian groups and small numbers of Muslims. See
Islam in New Caledonia and Bah' Faith in New Caledonia.

Economy
Main article: Economy of New Caledonia

26

New Caledonia

27

Region

Total GDP in 2011

(nominal) (billion US$)

GDP per capita in

2011
(nominal) (US$)

1,490.52

66,289

New Zealand

161.84

36,688

Hawaii

70.01

50,798

Papua New Guinea

12.92

1,939

New Caledonia

9.89

38,921

Fiji

3.75

4,196

Solomon Islands

0.87

1,573

Vanuatu

0.79

3,211

Samoa

0.64

3,520

Tonga

0.44

4,221

Kiribati

0.16

1,594

Tuvalu

0.04

3,202

Australia

New Caledonia has one of the largest economies in the South Pacific, with a GDP of US$9.89 billion in 2011. The
nominal GDP per capita was US$38,921 (at market exchange rates) in 2011. It is thus higher than New Zealand's,
though there is significant inequality in income distribution, and long-standing structural imbalances between the
economically dominant South Province and the less developed North Province and Loyalty Islands. The currency in
use in New Caledonia is the CFP franc, pegged to the euro at a rate of 1,000 CFP to 8.38 euros. It is issued by the
Institut d'Emission d'Outre-Mer.
Real GDP grew by 3.8% in 2010 and 3.2% in 2011, boosted by rising worldwide nickel prices and an increase in
domestic demand due to rising employment, as well as strong business investments. In 2011, exports of goods and
services from New Caledonia amounted to 2.11billion US dollars, 75.6% of which were mineral products and alloys
(essentially nickel ore and ferronickel). Imports of goods and services amounted to 5.22billion US dollars. 22.1% of
the imports of goods came from Metropolitan France and its overseas departments, 16.1% from other countries in the
European Union, 14.6% from Singapore (essentially fuel), 9.6% from Australia, 4.5% from the United States, 4.2%
from New Zealand, 2.0% from Japan, and 27.0% from other countries. The trade deficit in goods and services stood
at 3.11 billion US dollars in 2011.
Financial support from France is substantial, representing more than 15% of the GDP, and contributes to the health
of the economy. Tourism is underdeveloped, with 100,000 visitors a year, compared to 400,000 in the Cook Islands
and 200,000 in Vanuatu. Much of the land is unsuitable for agriculture, and food accounts for about 20% of imports.
According to FAOSTAT, New Caledonia is one of world's largest producers of: yams (33rd); taro (44th); plantains
(50th); coconuts (52nd). The exclusive economic zone of New Caledonia covers 1.4 million square kilometres. The
construction sector accounts for roughly 12% of GDP, employing 9.9% of the salaried population in 2010.
Manufacturing is largely confined to small-scale activities such as the transformation of foodstuffs, textiles and
plastics.

New Caledonia

28

Nickel sector
Main article: Nickel mining in New Caledonia
New Caledonian soils contain about 25% of the world's nickel
resources.[13] The late-2000s recession has gravely affected the nickel
industry, as the sector faced a significant drop in nickel prices (-31.0%
year-on-year in 2009) for the second consecutive year. The fall in
prices has led a number of producers to reduce or stop altogether their
activity, resulting in a reduction of the global supply of nickel by 6%
compared to 2008.
This context, combined with bad weather has forced the operators in
A creek in southern New Caledonia. Red colours
the sector to revise downwards their production target. Thus, the
reveal the richness of the ground in iron oxides
and nickel.
activity of mineral extraction has declined by 8% in volume year on
year. The share of the nickel sector as a percentage of GDP fell 3%, to
5% in 2009 compared with 8% in 2008. A trend reversal and a recovery in demand, have been recorded early in the
second half of 2009, allowing a 2.0% increase in the local metal production.
Historically, nickel was transported by wire ropeway to ships waiting off shore.

Culture
Wood carving, especially of the houp (Montrouziera cauliflora), is a
contemporary reflection of the beliefs of the traditional tribal society,
and includes totems, masks, chambranles, or flche fatire, a kind of
arrow which adorns the roofs of Kanak houses. Basketry is a craft
widely practiced by tribal women, creating objects of daily use.
The Jean-Marie Tjibaou Cultural Centre, designed by Italian architect
Renzo Piano and opened in 1998, is the icon of the Kanak culture.

Caldoche, white people born in New Caledonia

The Kaneka is a form of local music, inspired by reggae and

originating in the 1980s.
The Mw Ka is a 12m totem pole commemorating the French annexation of New Caledonia, and was inaugurated in
2005.

Media
Les Nouvelles Caldoniennes is the only daily newspaper in the archipelago. A monthly publication, Le chien bleu,
parodies the news from New Caledonia.
There are five radio stations: the public service broadcaster RFO radio Nouvelle-Caldonie, Ocane FM, Radio
Djido (established by Jean-Marie Tjibaou), NRJ and Radio Rythmes Bleus.
As for television, the public service broadcaster RFO Nouvelle-Caldonie has two channels: Tl
Nouvelle-Caldonie, dedicated partly to local programming and newscasts and Tempo, which retransmits French
programmes. Canal+ relays the programming of Canal + France, and CanalSat proposes 17 digital channels in
French. Analogue television broadcasts ended in September 2011, completing the digital television transition in New
Caledonia.[14] The French broadcasting authorities are considering bids for two new local television stations, NCTV
and NC9, planned to be launched in 2012.
The media are considered to be able to operate freely, but Reporters Without Borders raised concerns in 2006 about
"threats and intimidation" of RFO staff by members of a pro-independence group.

New Caledonia

Sports
The largest sporting event to be held in New Caledonia is a round of the FIA Asia Pacific Rally Championship
(APRC).
The New Caledonia football team began playing in 1951, and was admitted into FIFA, the international association
of football leagues, in 2004. Prior to joining FIFA, New Caledonia held observer status with the Oceania Football
Confederation, and became an official member of the OFC with its FIFA membership. They have won the South
Pacific Games five times, most recently in 2007, and have placed third on two occasions in the OFC Nations Cup.
Christian Karembeu is a prominent New Caledonian former footballer.
Horse racing is also very popular in New Caledonia, as are women's cricket matches.
The Rugby league team participated in the Pacific Cup in 2004. Marie Ezoe Canel is the captain of the New
Caledonia Women's rugby team.
New Caledonia also has a national synchronised swimming team which tours abroad.
The "Tour Cycliste du Nouvelle Caledonie" is a multi-day cycling stage race that is held usually in October. The race
is organised by the Comite Cycliste New Caledonia. The race attracts riders from Australia, New Zealand, France,
Reunion, Europe and Tahiti. Australian Brendan Washington has finished last three times in the race between
2005-2009, and is known in New Caledonia as "The Lanterne Rouge".

Transport
Main article: Transport in New Caledonia
Tontouta International Airport is located 50km north of Nouma, and connects New Caledonia with the airports of
Paris, Tokyo, Sydney, Auckland, Brisbane, Melbourne(from 6 June 2014), Osaka, Papeete, Fiji, Wallis, Port Vila,
Seoul, and St. Denis. Most internal air services are operated by the International carrier Aircalin.[15] Cruise ships
dock at the Gare Maritime in Nouma. The passenger and cargo boat Havannah sails to Port Vila, Malicolo and
Santo in Vanuatu once a month.
New Caledonia's road network consists of:

Route territoriale 1, going from the exit from Noumea to the Nhou river, north of Koumac;
Route territoriale 2, located on Lifou Island and from the Wanaham airport to the south of W;
Route territoriale 3, from the junction with the RT1 in Nandi up to Tiwaka;
Route territoriale 4, from the junction with the RT1 near Muo to the power plant.[16]

In popular culture
The television series McHale's Navy was set in the islands in the area, with fleet headquarters being in New
Caledonia; and so were the episodes "New Blood" and "Cruel Sea" of the 1999 BBC television show Walking with
Dinosaurs.
Rebellion (French: L'Ordre et la Morale) was released in 2011 and is based on the massacre by French military
during the 1988 Ouva cave hostage taking in New Caledonia as seen from the perspective of then GIGN leader
Capt. Philippe Legorjus.

29

New Caledonia

Notes
[1] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=New_Caledonia& params=-21. 25_N_165. 30_E_dim:200km
[2] Previously known officially as the "Territory of New Caledonia and Dependencies" (), then simply as the "Territory of New Caledonia"
(French: Territoire de la Nouvelle-Caldonie), the official French name is now only Nouvelle-Caldonie (Organic Law of 19 March 1999,
article 222 IV see (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070614081856/ http:/ / www. legifrance. gouv. fr/ imagesJOALL/ 1999/ 041/
JO199904197ALL. pdf)). The French courts often continue to use the appellation Territoire de la Nouvelle-Caldonie.
[3] The situation of Kanak people in New Caledonia, France. - Country Reports - UNSR James Anaya (http:/ / unsr. jamesanaya. org/ docs/
countries/ 2011-newcaledonia-a-hrc-18-35-add6_en. pdf), page 8
[4] Trust and Non-Self-Governing Territories (1945-1999) (http:/ / www. un. org/ en/ decolonization/ nonselfgov. shtml#1) United Nations
[5] Boyer & Giribet 2007: 355
[6] Bruno Van Peteghem (http:/ / www. goldmanprize. org/ node/ 169), Goldman Environmental Prize website
[7] "Indigenous Kanaks Take On Inco in New Caledonia" (http:/ / www. miningwatch. ca/ index. php?/ New_Caledonia/
Goro_Licence_Revoked), MiningWatch Canada, 19 July 2006
[8] DONNEES DE CADRAGE (http:/ / www. isee. nc/ population/ telecharxls/ don. cadrage-rp-09. xls). isee.nc
[9] Donnes du graphique 2 : Pyramides des ges de Nouvelle-Caldonie en 1996 et 2009 (http:/ / www. insee. fr/ fr/ ffc/ ipweb/ ip1338/ ip1338.
xls) (XLS). Institut National de la Statistique et des tudes conomiques. insee.fr
[10] The situation of Kanak people in New Caledonia, France. - Country Reports - UNSR James Anaya (http:/ / unsr. jamesanaya. org/ docs/
countries/ 2011-newcaledonia-a-hrc-18-35-add6_en. pdf), page 5
[11] Principales caractristiques des individus de 15 ans et plus, par province de rsidence et sexe (http:/ / www. isee. nc/ population/ telecharxls/
don. cadrage-rp-09. xls). isee.nc. Retrieved on 2013-02-28.
[12] Acadmie des Langues Kanak - Langues (http:/ / www. alk. gouv. nc/ portal/ page/ portal/ alk/ langues). alk.gouv.nc
[13] "Nickel gleams again in New Caledonia" (http:/ / www. metalbulletin. com/ Article/ 1446693/ Nickel-gleams-again-in-New-Caledonia.
html), Metal Bulletin, 3 December 2001
[14] L'Outre-mer dit adieu l'analogique - AUDIOVISUEL - Info - Nouvelle-Caldonie - La 1re (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/
20110930124824/ http:/ / nouvellecaledonie. la1ere. fr/ infos/ actualites/ loutre-mer-dit-adieu-a-lanalogique_64703. html).
nouvellecaledonie.la1ere.fr.
[15] Transport (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20111113170544/ http:/ / www. isee. nc/ anglais/ teca/ productivesystem/ telechargements/
25-06-transport. pdf). isee.nc
[16] Site de la DITTT Infrastructures routires (http:/ / www. dittt. gouv. nc/ portal/ page/ portal/ dittt/ infrastructures_routieres)

References
Further reading
Di Giorgio Wladimir, member of the Pontifical Academy, in "Francs et Kanaks" (Purpose of the n 51495
rsolution).2009.
Boyer, S.L. & Giribet, G. (2007): A new model Gondwanan taxon: systematics and biogeography of the
harvestman family Pettalidae (Arachnida, Opiliones, Cyphophthalmi), with a taxonomic revision of genera from
Australia and New Zealand. Cladistics 23(4): 337361. doi: 10.1111/j.1096-0031.2007.00149.x (http://dx.doi.
org/10.1111/j.1096-0031.2007.00149.x)

External links
Government of New Caledonia (http://www.gouv.nc/) (French)
New Caledonia : picture post card beautiful (http://www.france.fr/en/regions-and-cities/
new-caledonia-picture-post-card-beautiful) - Official Government of France website (in English)
Tourism New Caledonia (http://www.visitnewcaledonia.com/)
New Caledonia (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Oceania/New_Caledonia) at DMOZ
Biodiversit No-Caldonienne (http://www.endemia.nc/)

30

Papua (province)

31

Papua (province)
Province of Papua
Provinsi Papua

Flag
Seal
Motto: Karya Swadaya (Sanskrit)
(Work with one's own might)

Location of Province of Papua in Indonesia

Coordinates (Jayapura): 232S 14043E
Country
Capital

[1]

Coordinates: 232S 14043E [1]

Indonesia
Jayapura

Government
Governor

Lukas Enembe

Area
Total

319,036.05km2 (123,180.51sqmi)

Population (2014)
Total

3,486,432

Density

11/km2 (28/sqmi)
Health Ministry 2014 Estimate

Demographics
Ethnic groups

Papuan, Melanesian (including Aitinyo, Aefak, Asmat, Agast, Dani, Ayamaru, Mandacan Biak, Serui), Javanese, Bugis,
Mandar, Minangkabau, Batak, Minahasan, Chinese.

Religion

Protestantism (65.48%), Roman Catholicism (17.67%), Islam (15.89%), Hinduism (0.09%), Buddhism (0.05%)

Languages

Indonesian (official), 269indigenous Papuan and Austronesian languages

Time zone

EIT (UTC+09)

Website

www.Papua.go.id

[2]

Papua (Indonesian: Provinsi Papua) is a province of Indonesia. It comprises most of the western half of the island of
New Guinea and nearby islands. Its capital is Jayapura. It is the largest and easternmost province of Indonesia.
The province originally covered the entire western half of New Guinea. In 2003, the Indonesian government declared
the westernmost part of the island, around Bird's Head Peninsula, a separate province; its name was first West Irian

Papua (province)

32

Jaya and is now West Papua: the remaining part retained the name, Province of Papua. It is bordered by the nation of
Papua New Guinea to the east.

Naming
"Papua" is the official Indonesian and internationally recognised name for the province.
During the Dutch colonial era the region was known as part of "Dutch New Guinea" or "Netherlands New Guinea".
Since its annexation in 1969, it became known as "West Irian" or "Irian Barat" until 1973, and thereafter renamed
"Irian Jaya" (roughly translated, "Glorious Irian") by the Suharto administration. This was the official name until the
name "Papua" was adopted in 2002. Today, natives of this province prefer to call themselves Papuans.
The name "West Papua" was adopted in 1961 by the New Guinea Council until the United Nations Temporary
Executive Authority (UNTEA) transferred administration to the Republic of Indonesia in 1963. "West Papua" has
since been used by Papuans as a self-identifying term, especially by those demanding self-determination, and usually
refers to the whole of the Indonesian portion of New Guinea. The other Indonesian province that shares New Guinea,
West Irian Jaya, has been officially renamed as "West Papua".
Within Indonesia and West Papua itself, 'Papua' usually refers to the entire western half of New Guinea despite its
division into separate provinces.Wikipedia:Citation needed Western New Guinea is generally referred to as 'West
Papua' internationally especially among networks of international solidarity with the West Papuan independence
movement.Wikipedia:Citation needed

Government
The province of Papua is governed by a directly elected governor (currently
Lukas Enembe) and a regional legislature, DPRP (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat
Papua).Wikipedia:Citation needed A government organisation that only exists in
Papua is the MRP (Majelis Rakyat Papua / Papuan People's Council), which was
formed by the Indonesian Government in 2005 as a coalition of Papuan tribal
chiefs, tasked with arbitration and speaking on behalf of Papuan tribal customs.
Indonesian sovereignty over Papua dates back to 1969, when Indonesia
conducted a referendum on the self-determination of the peoples of Papua under
an agreement with the United Nations to respect any result. Instead of conducting
a democratic referendum amongst the general population, Indonesian security
forces forcibly coerced a small number of tribal elders to vote to join Indonesia;
A building in Timika labelled as the
some elders were not even made aware that a referendum was to be conducted
office of the governor of Central
beforehand. Nevertheless, the agreement with the UN was nominally upheld, and
Papua Province
was recognised by the international community in spite of protests. This
intensified the independence movement among indigenous West Papuans,
deepening the Papua conflict, which began when the Dutch withdrew from the East Indies in 1963. The conflict has
continued to the present, with Indonesian security forces being accused of numerous human rights abuses in their
suppression of the independence movement. The Indonesian government maintains tight control over the region,
barring foreign journalists or rights monitors from entering; those who do must do so covertly.
In 1999 it was proposed to split the province into three government-controlled sectors, sparking Papuan protests.[3]
In January 2003 President Megawati Sukarnoputri signed an order dividing Papua into three provinces: Central Irian
Jaya (Irian Jaya Tengah), Papua (or East Irian Jaya, Irian Jaya Timur), and West Papua (Irian Jaya Barat). The
formality of installing a local government for Jaraka in Irian Jaya Barat (West) took place in February 2003 and a
governor was appointed in November; a government for Irian Jaya Tengah (central) was delayed from August 2003
due to violent local protests. The creation of this separate central province was blocked by Indonesian courts, who

Papua (province)

33

declared it to be unconstitutional and in contravention of the Papua's special autonomy agreement. The previous
division into two provinces was allowed to stand as an established fact.[4]

Administrative divisions
As of 2010 (following the separation of West Papua Province in 2003), the residual Papua Province consisted of 28
regencies (kabupaten) and one autonomous city (kotamadya); these regencies are subdivided into 117 subdistricts
(kecamatan), 66 kelurahan, and 830 villages (desa).
The regencies ("kabupaten") and the city are listed below with their (provisional) populations at the 2010 Census.
Name

Area (km2)

Merauke Regency

43,979.31

154,310

195,577 Merauke

Jayawijaya Regency

12,680.06

207,480

199,557 Wamena

Jayapura Regency

15,309.23

90,972

114,515 Sentani

940.00

197,396

261,776 Jayapura City

16,312.00

159,548

130,314 Nabire

Yapen Islands Regency

(Kepulauan Yapen)

3,130.72

70,201

83,593 Serui

Biak Numfor Regency

2,360.44

99,204

126,125 Biak

Paniai Regency

14,214.81

111,412

149,093 Enarotali

Puncak Jaya Regency

10,852.05

111,488

101,906 Kotamulia

Mimika Regency

20,039.83

126,344

183,633 Timika

Boven Digoel Regency

28,470.68

Mappi Regency

27,632.35

65,219

81,781 Kepi

Asmat Regency

18,976.16

61,642

77,053 Agats

Yahukimo Regency

15,770.56

134,702

166,716 Sumohai

Bintang Mountain Regency

(Pegunungan Bintang)

16,908.40

86,979

65,399 Oksibil

8,816.34

44,100

114,240 Karubaga

25,901.73

31,500

33,263 Sarmi

Keerom Regency

9,364.53

37,048

48,527 Waris

Waropen Regency

24,628.32

21,181

24,988 Botawa

774.56

12,152

15,861 Sorendiweri

Mamberamo Raya Regency

18,424 Burmeso

Nduga Regency

79,520 Kenyam

Lanny Jaya Regency

Central Mamberamo
Regency
(Mamberamo Tengah)

43,266 Kobakma

Yalimo Regency

51,137 Elelim

Puncak Regency

93,363 Ilaga

Dogiyai Regency

83,324 Kigamani

Jayapura (city)
Nabire Regency

Tolikara Regency
Sarmi Regency

Supiori Regency

Population
Population
Estimate 2005 Census 2010

Capital

55,822 Tanah Merah

151,384 Tiom

Papua (province)

34
Intan Jaya Regency

38,844 Sugapa

Deiyai Regency

62,998 Tigi

* The 2005 estimated population of Boven Digoel Regency is included in the figure quoted for Merauke
Regency, from which Boven Digoel was divided.
# The area and 2005 estimated population of this regency are included in the figures quoted for the existing
regency from which the newer regency was divided in 2007.
On 12 November 2002, Keerom and Sarmi regencies were split from Jayapura Regency; Bintang Mountain, Tolikara
and Yahukimo regencies were split from Jayawijaya Regency; Asmat, Boven Digoel and Mappi regencies were split
from Merauke Regency; and Yapen Waropen Regency was split into Yapen Islands Regency (Kepulauan Yapen)
and Waropen Regency. Supiori Regency was split from Biak Numfor Regency on 8 January 2004.
Reports suggest that the formation of three new provinces have recently been approved by Indonesia's House of
Representatives: South Papua, Central Papua and Southwest Papua.[5]
In Papua province, the new regions created are the districts of Gili Menawa, Moyo, Balin Senter, Bogogha, Puncak
Trikora, Muara Digul, Admi Korbay, Katengban, Okika, Northwest Yapen, East Yapen, Numfor Island, Yalimek,
Mambera Hulu, Southwest Yahukimo, East Yahukimo and Gondumisisare, and municipalities of Merauke City and
Baliem Valley.
The city of Jayapura also has the status of an autonomous city, equal to a regency. It was founded on 7 March 1910
as Hollandia and is the capital. Since Indonesian administration the name of the city has been changed to Kotabaru,
then to Sukarnopura before its current name, Jayapura.Wikipedia:Citation needed Jayapura is also the largest city of
Papua Province, with a small but active tourism industry.Wikipedia:Please clarify It is built on a slope overlooking
the bay. Cenderawasih University (UNCEN) campus at Abepura houses the University Museum where some of the
Asmat artifacts collected by Michael Rockefeller is stored.[6] Both Tanjung Ria beach, near the market at Hamadi
site of the 22 April 1944 Allied invasion during World War II and the site of General Douglas MacArthur's World
War II headquarters at Ifar Gunung have monuments commemorating the events.Wikipedia:Citation needed

Geography
A central east-west mountain range dominates the geography of the island of New Guinea, over 1,600km (994mi)
in total length. The western section is around 600km (373mi) long and 100km (62mi) across.Wikipedia:Citation
needed The province contains the highest mountains between the Himalayas and the Andes, rising up to 4884 m
high, and ensuring a steady supply of rain from the tropical atmosphere.Wikipedia:Citation needed The tree line is
around 4000 m elevation and the tallest peaks contain permanent equatorial glaciers,Wikipedia:Citation needed
increasingly melting due to a changing climate.Wikipedia:Citation needed Various other smaller mountain ranges
occur both north and west of the central ranges.Wikipedia:Citation needed Except in high elevations, most areas
possess a hot humid climate throughout the year, with some seasonal variation associated with the northeast
monsoon season.
The southern and northern lowlands stretch for hundreds of kilometres and include lowland rainforests, extensive
wetlands, savanna grasslands, and expanses of mangrove forest.Wikipedia:Citation needed The southern lowlands
are the site of Lorentz National Park, also a UNESCO World Heritage Site.Wikipedia:Citation needed
The province's largest river is the Mamberamo located in the northern part of the province.Wikipedia:Citation
needed The result is a large area of lakes and rivers known as the Lakes Plains region.Wikipedia:Citation needed The
Baliem Valley, home of the Dani people, is a tableland 1600 m above sea level in the midst of the central mountain
range.Wikipedia:Citation needed Puncak Jaya, also known by its Dutch colonial name, Carstensz Pyramid, is a
limestone mountain peak 4884 m above sea level.Wikipedia:Citation needed It is the highest peak of
Oceania.Wikipedia:Citation needed

Papua (province)

35

Ethnic groups
The following are some of the most well-known ethnic groups of
Papua:

Amungme
Asmat
Bauzi
Dani
Kamoro
Kombai
Korowai
Mee
Sentani
Yali
Yei
Yei People:Papuan(Tribe)of DamaL

Papuan dance from Yapen

The Yei (pronounced Yay) are sometimes known as the Jei, Je,
Yei-nan people.
There are approximately 2,500 speakers of the Yei language. 40%
Ethno Religionists- animistic tribal religion 60% Catholics and other
Yali people
Christians (blended with animistic beliefs & customs): The Yei
language is believed to have two dialects observed by a Wycliffe, SIL language survey in 2001. At home the Yei
people speak their own language but use Indonesian for trade, wider communication and at school. Most Yei are
literate in Indonesian.
There are elementary schools in each village. About 10-30% of children continue in middle school. Very few go to
high school. The nearest high school is in Merauke city. They live primarily by hunting, fishing, and gardening short
and long term crops in the lowlands. The Yei diet mainly consists of rice, vegetables, fish and roasted sago. With
their land at an altitude of less than 100 meters above sea level, the Yei people can best be accessed by vehicle on the
road from Merauke or by motorized canoe up the Maro River. There is no airstrip or airplane access other than float
plane which is currently available from Merauke through MAF by about a 15-minute flight to Toray. The Poo and
Bupul villages have a clinic but people still use traditional medicines. There is very little infrastructure in the area:
no telephones or toilets. At night electricity is run from a generator. There are (SSBs) Single side-band radios in
Bupul, Tanas, Poo, and Erambu villages, mainly used by the police and military force. Most villages get their
drinking water from the Maro River, but some get it from wells or by collecting rain.Wikipedia:Citation needed

Demographics
The population of Papua province has a fertility rate of 2.9 children per
woman Wikipedia:Citation needed The population grew from the 1.9
million recorded in the 2000 Indonesia Census, to 2.9 million as
recorded by the 2010 Census[7] Since the early 1990s Papua has had
the highest population growth rate of all Indonesian provinces at over
3% annually.Wikipedia:Citation needed This is partly a result of birth
rates, but mainly due to migration from other parts of
Indonesia.Wikipedia:Citation needed While indigenous Papuans

1995 ABC news report on the impact of

transmigration and development on the Dani

Papua (province)

36

formed the near-totality of the population in 1961, they are now roughly 50% of the population,Wikipedia:Citation
needed the other half being composed of non-Papuan migrants coming from other parts of Indonesia. An
overwhelming percentage of these migrants came as part of a government-sponsored transmigration
program.Wikipedia:Citation needed
According to the 2010 census, 83.15% of the Papuans identified themselves as Christian with 65.48% being
Protestant and 17.67% being Roman Catholic. 15.89% of the population was Muslim and less than 1% were
Buddhist or Hindu.[8] There is also substantial practice of animism by Papuans.
The densest population center, other than the large coastal cities that house Indonesian bureaucratic and commercial
apparatus, is located in and around the town of Wamena in the Baliem Valley of the Central
Highlands.Wikipedia:Citation needed

Historical population
Year

Pop.

1971

923,440

1980

1,173,875

+27.1%

1990

1,648,708

+40.5%

1995

1,942,627

+17.8%

2000

2,220,934

+14.3%

2010

2,833,381

+27.6%

2014

3,486,482

+23.1%

Source: Badan Pusat Statistik 2010, 2014 Health Ministry

[9]
Estimate

Economy
One of Papua's potential industries is timber, as forests cover 42 million hectares with an estimated worth of Rp.700
trillion ($78 billion). "If the forests are managed properly and sustainably, they can produce over 500 million cubic
meters of logs per annum."
The Grasberg Mine, the world's largest gold mine and third largest copper mine,[10] is located in the highlands near
Puncak Jaya, the highest mountain in Papua.

Papua (province)

37

Ecology
The island has an estimated 16,000 species of plant, 124 genera of which are
endemic.Wikipedia:Citation needed Papua's known forest fauna includes;
marsupials (including possums, wallabies, tree-kangaroos, cuscuses); other
mammals (including the endangered Long-beaked Echidna); bird species such as
birds of paradise, cassowaries, parrots, and cockatoos; the world's longest lizards
(Papua monitor); and the world's largest butterflies.Wikipedia:Citation needed
The waterways and wetlands of Papua are also home to salt and freshwater
crocodile, tree monitors, flying foxes, osprey, bats and other
animals;Wikipedia:Citation needed while the equatorial glacier fields remain
largely unexplored.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Protected areas within Papua province include the World Heritage Lorentz
National Park, and the Wasur National Park, a RAMSAR wetland of
international importance.Wikipedia:Citation needed
In February 2006, a team of scientists exploring the Foja Mountains, Sarmi,
discovered new species of birds, butterflies, amphibians, and plants, including
possibly the largest-flowered species of rhododendron.

Paradisaea apoda, native to Papua,

displaying its feathers

Ecological threats include logging-induced deforestation, forest conversion for plantation agriculture (including oil
palm), smallholder agricultural conversion, the introduction and potential spread of alien species such as the
Crab-eating Macaque which preys on and competes with indigenous species, the illegal species trade, and water
pollution from oil and mining operations.Wikipedia:Citation needed

References
King, Peter, West Papua Since Suharto: Independence, Autonomy, or Chaos?. University of New South Wales
Press, 2004, ISBN 0-86840-676-7.
[1] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Papua_%28province%29&
params=2_32_S_140_43_E_region:ID_type:adm1st
[2] http:/ / www. papua. go. id/
[3] external article (http:/ / www. worldevangelical. org/ persec_papua_21nov03. html)
[4] King, 2004, p.91
[5] http:/ / www. thejakartaglobe. com/ news/ new-provinces-receive-the-nod/
[6] http:/ / www. papua. us/ 2013/ 04/ museum-loka-budaya-simpan-jejak. html
[7] http:/ / www. thejakartapost. com/ news/ 2010/ 08/ 23/ population-growth-%E2%80%98good-papua%E2%80%99. html
[8] Papua province - Population by Region and Religion (http:/ / sp2010. bps. go. id/ index. php/ site/ tabel?tid=321& wid=9400000000)
[9] http:/ / www. depkes. go. id/ downloads/ Penduduk%20Kab%20Kota%20Umur%20Tunggal%202014. pdf Estimasi Penduduk Menurut
Umur Tunggal Dan Jenis Kelamin 2014 Kementerian Kesehatan
[10] Jane Perlez and Raymond Bonner (2005): Below a Mountain of Wealth, a River of Waste. The New York Times, 27 December 2005. (http:/ /
www. nytimes. com/ 2005/ 12/ 27/ international/ asia/ 27gold. html?pagewanted=2) Accessed 6 December 2011.

External links
Official website (http://www.papua.go.id/)
Languages and ethnic groups of Papua Province, SIL Ethnologue (http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.
asp?name=IDP)

Papua New Guinea

38

Papua New Guinea

This article is about the country. For the single by The Future Sound of London, see Papua New Guinea (song).

Independent State of
Papua New Guinea
Independen Stet bilong Papua
Niugini
Papua Niu Gini

Flag

National emblem

Motto:"Unity in diversity"
Anthem:
O Arise, All You Sons

Capital
and largest city

Port Moresby
[1]
930S 14707E

Official languages

Demonym
Government

Hiri Motu
Tok Pisin
English

Papua New Guinean

Unitary parliamentary
constitutional monarchy

- Monarch

Queen Elizabeth II

- Governor General

Michael Ogio

- Prime Minister

Peter O'Neill

Legislature

National Parliament

Independencefrom Australia

Papua New Guinea

39
- Administrative union of
Papua & New Guinea

25 March 1949

- Declared & recognised

16 September 1975
Area

- Total

462,840km2 (56th)
178,703sqmi

- Water(%)

2
Population

- 2011 census preliminaryestimate 7,059,653[2] (102nd)

- 2000census

5,190,783

- Density

15/km2 (201st)
34.62/sqmi

GDP(PPP)

2013estimate

- Total

$20.268 billion

- Per capita

$2,897

GDP(nominal)

2013estimate

- Total

$17.430 billion

- Per capita

$2,491

Gini(1996)

50.9
high

HDI (2011)

0.466
low 153rd
Currency

Papua New Guinean kina (PGK)

Time zone

AEST (UTC+10)

- Summer(DST)

notobserved(UTC+10)
(as of 2005)

Drives on the

left

Calling code

+675

ISO 3166 code

PG

Internet TLD

.pg

Papua New Guinea (PNG; /ppHelp:IPA for English#KeynjuHelp:IPA for English#Keyni/

PAP-p-new-GHIN-ee; Tok Pisin: Papua Niugini; Hiri Motu: Papua Niu Gini), officially the Independent State of
Papua New Guinea, is an Oceanian country that occupies the eastern half of the island of New Guinea and its
offshore islands in Melanesia, a region of the southwestern Pacific Ocean north of Australia. Its capital, located
along its southeastern coast, is Port Moresby. The western half of New Guinea forms the Indonesian provinces of
Papua and West Papua.
Papua New Guinea is one of the most culturally diverse countries in the world. According to recent data, 848
different languages are listed for the country, of which 12 have no known living speakers.[3] Most of the population
of over 7 million people live in customary communities, which are as diverse as the languages. It is also one of the
most rural, as only 18 per cent of its people live in urban centres. The country is one of the world's least explored,
culturally and geographically, and many undiscovered species of plants and animals are thought to exist in the
interior.

Papua New Guinea

40

Strong growth in Papua New Guinea's mining and resource sector has led to the country's becoming the sixth
fastest-growing economy in the world as of 2011. Despite this, many people live in extreme poverty, with about
one-third of the population living on less than US$1.25 per day.[4]
At the local level, the majority of the population still live in strong customary societies and - while social life is
overlaid with traditional religious cosmologies (including, most importantly, Christianity) and modern practices,
including conventional primary education - customary subsistence-based agriculture remains fundamental. These
societies and clans are explicitly acknowledged within the nation's constitutional framework. The Papua New Guinea
Constitution expresses the wish for "traditional villages and communities to remain as viable units of Papua New
Guinean society" and for active steps to be taken in their continuing importance to local and national community life.
At the national level, after being ruled by three external powers since 1884, Papua New Guinea established its
sovereignty in 1975 following 70 years of Australian administration. It became a separate Commonwealth realm
with Queen Elizabeth II as its head of state and became a member of the Commonwealth of Nations in its own right.

History
Main article: History of Papua New Guinea
Human remains have been found which have been dated to about 50,000 BC although this is an
estimate.Wikipedia:Citation needed These ancient inhabitants probably migrated from Southeast Asia, from people
whose ancestors had originated in Africa 50,000 to 70,000 years ago.Wikipedia:Citation needed New Guinea was
first populated by modern humans at approximately the same time as Australia.Wikipedia:Citation needed

Kerepunu villagers, British New Guinea, 1885.

Agriculture was independently developed in the New Guinea highlands

around 7000 BC, making it one of the few areas in the world where
people independently domesticated plants.[5] A major migration of
Austronesian speaking peoples to coastal regions of New Guinea took
place around 500 BC. This has been correlated with the introduction of
pottery, pigs, and certain fishing techniques. More recently, in the 18th
century, the sweet potato was brought to New Guinea, having been
introduced to the Moluccas by Portuguese traders.[6] The far higher
crop yields from sweet potato gardens radically transformed traditional
agriculture; sweet potato largely supplanted the previous staple, taro,
and gave rise to a significant increase in population in the highlands.

Although headhunting and cannibalism have been practically eradicated, in the past they occurred in many parts of
the country as part of ritual practices.[7][8] For example, in 1901, on Goaribari Island in the Gulf of Papua, a
missionary, Harry Dauncey, found 10,000 skulls in the island's Long Houses.[9] According to the writer Marianna
Torgovnick, "The most fully documented instances of cannibalism as a social institution come from New Guinea,
where head-hunting and ritual cannibalism survived, in certain isolated areas, into the Fifties, Sixties, and Seventies,
and still leave traces within certain social groups."[10]
Little was known in Europe about the island until the 19th century, although Portuguese and Spanish explorers, such
as Dom Jorge de Meneses and Yigo Ortiz de Retez, had encountered it as early as the 16th century. Traders from
Southeast Asia had visited New Guinea beginning 5,000 years ago to collect bird of paradise plumes.[11] The
country's dual name results from its complex administrative history before independence. The word papua is derived
from an old local term of uncertain origin, and "New Guinea" (Nueva Guinea) was the name coined by the Spanish
explorer Yigo Ortiz de Retez. In 1545, he noted the resemblance of the people to those he had earlier seen along the
Guinea coast of Africa. The northern half of the country was ruled as a colony for some decades by Germany,
beginning in 1884, as German New Guinea. The southern half was colonised in the same year by the United
Kingdom as British New Guinea, but in 1904 with the passage of the Papua Act, 1905, was transferred to the newly

Papua New Guinea

41

formed Commonwealth of Australia which took on its administration. Additionally from 1905, British New Guinea
was renamed the Territory of Papua.
During World War I, German New Guinea was occupied by Australia,
which after the war was given a League of Nations Mandate to
administer it. Papua, by contrast, was deemed to be an External
Territory of the Australian Commonwealth, though as a matter of law
it remained a British possession. This was significant for the country's
post-independence legal system. The difference in legal status meant
that up until 1949, Papua and New Guinea had entirely separate
administrations, both controlled by Australia.
The New Guinea campaign (19421945) was one of the major military
campaigns of World War II. Approximately 216,000 Japanese,
Australian and U.S. soldiers, sailors and airmen died during the New
Guinea Campaign.[12] After World War II the two territories were
combined into the Territory of Papua and New Guinea, which later was simply referred to as "Papua New Guinea".
Australian forces attack Japanese positions during
the Battle of BunaGona. 7 January 1943.

However, certain statutes[13] continued to have application only in one

of the two territories. This territorial difference of law was complicated
further by the adjustment of the former boundary among contiguous
provinces with respect to road access and language groups. Some of
the statutes apply only on one side of a boundary which no longer
exists.Wikipedia:Citation needed
The administration of Papua became open to United Nations oversight;
a peaceful independence from Australia occurred on 16 September
1975, and close ties remain (Australia continues as the largest aid
donor to Papua New Guinea). Papua New Guinea was admitted to
membership in the United Nations on 10 October 1975.[14]

Australian patrol officer in 1964.

A secessionist revolt in 197576 on Bougainville Island resulted in an eleventh-hour modification of the draft
Constitution of Papua New Guinea to allow for Bougainville and the other eighteen districts to have quasi-federal
status as provinces. A renewed uprising started in 1988 and claimed 20,000 lives until it was resolved in 1997.
Following the revolt, the autonomous Bougainville elected Joseph Kabui as president. He was succeeded by his
deputy John Tabinaman, who continued to be re-elected as leader until the election of December 2008, which James
Tanis won.
Anti-Chinese rioting involving tens of thousands of people broke out in May 2009. The initial spark was a fight
between Chinese and Papua New Guinean workers at a nickel factory under construction by a Chinese company.
Native resentment against the numerous small businesses being run by Chinese led to the rioting.[15][16]

Politics
Main article: Politics of Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea is a Commonwealth realm; as such Queen Elizabeth II acts as its Sovereign and Head of State. It
was expected by the constitutional convention, which prepared the draft constitution, and by Australia, the outgoing
metropolitan power, that Papua New Guinea would choose not to retain its link with the Commonwealth monarchy.
The founders, however, considered that imperial honours had a cachet that the newly independent state would not be
able to confer with a purely indigenous honours system, so the monarchy was retained. The Queen is represented by
the Governor-General of Papua New Guinea, currently Sir Michael Ogio. Papua New Guinea and the Solomon
Islands are unusual among Commonwealth realms in that Governors-General are selected by the legislature rather

Papua New Guinea

than by the executive branch.
Actual executive power lies with the Prime Minister, who heads the cabinet of 31 MPs from the ruling Coalition,
which make up the government. The current Prime Minister is Peter O'Neill. The unicameral National Parliament
has 111 seats, of which 22 are occupied by the governors of the 21 provinces (2 new ones were approved by
Parliament in 2012) and the National Capital District (NCD). Candidates for members of parliament are voted upon
when the prime minister asks the Governor-General to call a national election, a maximum of five years after the
previous national election.
In the early years of independence, the instability of the party system led to frequent votes of no confidence in
Parliament with resulting changes of the government of the day, but with referral to the electorate, through national
elections only occurring every five years. In recent years, successive governments have passed legislation preventing
such votes sooner than 18 months after a national election and within 12-month of the next election, and in
December 2012 the first 2 (of 3) readings were passed to prevent votes of no confidence occurring within the first 30
months. This restriction on votes of no confidence has arguably resulted in greater stability, although perhaps at a
cost of reducing the accountability of the executive branch of government.
Elections in PNG attract large numbers of candidates. After independence in 1975, members were elected by the first
past the post system, with winners frequently gaining less than 15% of the vote. Electoral reforms in 2001 introduced
the Limited Preferential Vote system (LPV), a version of the Alternative Vote. The 2007 general election was the
first to be conducted using LPV.
In foreign policy, Papua New Guinea is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, Pacific Islands Forum and the
Melanesian Spearhead Group (MSG) of countries and was accorded Observer status within ASEAN in 1976,
followed later by Special Observer status in 1981. It is also a member of APEC and an ACP country, associated with
the European Union.
Since Aug-2011, there was a political crisis between the parliament-elect Prime
Minister, Peter O'Neill (voted into office by a large majority of MPs) and Sir
Michael Somare, who was deemed by the Supreme Court (in a December
Opinion, 3:2) to retain office. The stand-off between Parliament and the Supreme
Court continued until the July 2012 National Elections, with legislation passed
effectively removing the Chief Justice and subjecting the Supreme Court
members to greater control by the Legislature, as well as a series of other laws
passed, for example limiting the age for a Prime Minister. The confrontation
reached a peak, with the Deputy Prime Minister entering the Supreme Court,
during a hearing, escorted by some police, ostensibly to 'arrest' the Chief Justice.
There was strong pressure amongst some MPs to defer the National Elections for
a further six months-1-year, although their powers to do that were highly
questionable. The Parliament-elect 'Prime Minister' and other cooler-headed MPs
Prime Minister Peter O'Neill with
carried the votes for the writs for the new Election to be issued, slightly late, but
Hillary Clinton
for the Election itself to occur on time, thereby avoiding a continuation of the
Constitutional Crisis. The crisis was tense at times, but largely restricted to the
political and legal fraternity, plus some police factions, but the public and public service (including most police and
military) standing back. It was a period when, with increased telecommunication access and use of social media
(notably Facebook and mobile phones) the public and students played some part in helping maintain restraint and
demanding the leadership to adhere to Constitutional processes and not to defer the Elections and the people's say in
who should be their legitimate representatives for the next five years.
Under an Amendment of 2002 the leader of the party winning the largest number of seats in the Election is invited
by the Governor-General to form the Government, if he can muster the necessary majority in Parliament. The
process of forming such a coalition in PNG, where there is little ideologically binding parties together, involves

42

Papua New Guinea

43

considerable horsetrading right up until the last moment. Peter O'Neil emerged Papua New Guinea's Prime Minister
after the July 2012 Election, and formed a Government with the former Governor of East New Britain Province,
Leon Dion as Deputy Prime Minister.

Law
Main article: Law of Papua New Guinea
The unicameral Parliament enacts legislation in the same manner as in other
jurisdictions that have "cabinet," "responsible government," or "parliamentary
democracy": it is introduced by the executive government to the legislature,
debated and, if passed, becomes law when it receives royal assent by the
Governor-General. Most legislation is actually regulation implemented by the
bureaucracy under enabling legislation previously passed by Parliament.
All ordinary statutes enacted by Parliament must be consistent with the
Constitution. The courts have jurisdiction to rule on the constitutionality of
statutes, both in disputes before them and on a reference where there is no
dispute but only an abstract question of law. Unusual among developing
countries, the judicial branch of government in Papua New Guinea has remained
remarkably independent, and successive executive governments have continued
to respect its authority.

The Parliament building of Papua

New Guinea in Port Moresby

The "underlying law" (Papua New Guinea's common law) consists of principles
and rules of common law and equity in England[17] common law as it stood on 16 September 1975 (the date of
Independence), and thereafter the decisions of PNG's own courts. The courts are directed by the Constitution and,
latterly, the Underlying Law Act, to take note of the "custom" of traditional communities, with a view to determining
which customs are common to the whole country and may be declared also to be part of the underlying law. In
practice, this has proved extremely difficult and has been largely neglected. Statutes are largely adapted from
overseas jurisdictions, primarily Australia and England. Advocacy in the courts follows the adversarial pattern of
other common law countries.
This national court system used in towns and cities is supported by a village court system in the more remote areas.
The law underpinning the village courts is 'customary law' and these courts are discussed further on the Law of
Papua New Guinea page.

Human rights
Main article: Human rights in Papua New Guinea
See also: Sexual violence in Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea is often labelled as potentially the worst place in the world for gender violence. A 2013 study in
The Lancet found that 41% of men on Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea, reported having raped a non-partner
while 14.1% reported having committed gang rape. According to UNICEF, nearly half of reported rape victims are
under 15 years of age and 13% are under 7 years of age while a report by ChildFund Australia citing former
Parliamentarian Dame Carol Kidu claimed 50% of those seeking medical help after rape are under 16, 25% are under
10 and 10% are under 8.

Papua New Guinea

44

Administrative divisions
Main articles: Regions of Papua New Guinea, Provinces of Papua New Guinea and Districts and LLGs of Papua
New Guinea
Papua New Guinea is divided into four regions, which are not the primary administrative divisions but are quite
significant in many aspects of government, commercial, sporting and other activities.
The nation has 22 province-level divisions: twenty provinces, the Autonomous Region of Bougainville and the
National Capital District. Each province is divided into one or more districts, which in turn are divided into one or
more Local Level Government areas.
Provinces[18] are the primary administrative divisions of the country. Provincial governments are branches of the
national government Papua New Guinea is not a federation of provinces. The province-level divisions are as
follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Central
Chimbu (Simbu)
Eastern Highlands
East New Britain
East Sepik
Enga
Gulf

8. Madang
9. Manus
10. Milne Bay
11. Morobe

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

New Ireland
Northern (Oro Province)
Bougainville (autonomous region)
Southern Highlands
Western Province (Fly)
Western Highlands
West New Britain

8. West Sepik (Sandaun)

9. National Capital District
10. Hela
11. Jiwaka

In 2009, Parliament approved the creation of two additional provinces: Hela Province, consisting of part of the
existing Southern Highlands Province, and Jiwaka Province, formed by dividing Western Highlands Province.
Jiwaka and Hela officially became separate provinces on 17 May 2012.

Geography
Main article: Geography of Papua New Guinea
At 462,840km2 (178,704sqmi), Papua New Guinea is the world's
fifty-fourth largest country. Including all its islands, it lies between
latitudes 0 and 12S, and longitudes 140 and 160E.
The country's geography is diverse and, in places, extremely rugged. A
spine of mountains, the New Guinea Highlands, runs the length of the
island of New Guinea, forming a populous highlands region mostly
covered with tropical rainforest, and the long Papuan Peninsula, known
as the 'Bird's Tail'. Dense rainforests can be found in the lowland and
coastal areas as well as very large wetland areas surrounding the Sepik
and Fly rivers. This terrain has made it difficult for the country to
develop transportation infrastructure. Some areas are accessible only
on foot or by airplane.Wikipedia:Citation needed The highest peak is
Mount Wilhelm at 4,509 metres (14,793ft). Papua New Guinea is
surrounded by coral reefs which are under close watch, in the interests
of preservation.

Map of Papua New Guinea

Papua New Guinea

45

The country is situated on the Pacific Ring of Fire, at the point of collision of several tectonic plates. There are a
number of active volcanoes, and eruptions are frequent. Earthquakes are relatively common, sometimes
accompanied by tsunamis.
The mainland of the country is the eastern half of New Guinea island, where the largest towns are also located,
including Port Moresby (capital) and Lae; other major islands within Papua New Guinea include New Ireland, New
Britain, Manus and Bougainville.
Papua New Guinea is one of the few regions close to the equator that experience snowfall, which occurs in the most
elevated parts of the mainland.

Ecology
See also: Conservation in Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea is part of the Australasia ecozone, which also includes Australia, New Zealand, eastern
Indonesia, and several Pacific island groups, including the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu.
Geologically, the island of New Guinea is a northern extension of the
Indo-Australian tectonic plate, forming part of a single land mass
which is Australia-New Guinea (also called Sahul or Meganesia). It is
connected to the Australian segment by a shallow continental shelf
across the Torres Strait, which in former ages had lain exposed as a
land bridge, particularly during ice ages when sea levels were lower
than at present.
Consequently, many species of birds and mammals found on New
Guinea have close genetic links with corresponding species found in
Australia. One notable feature in common for the two landmasses is
the existence of several species of marsupial mammals, including some kangaroos and possums, which are not found
elsewhere.
Mount Tavurvur.

Many of the other islands within PNG territory, including New Britain,
New Ireland, Bougainville, the Admiralty Islands, the Trobriand
Islands, and the Louisiade Archipelago, were never linked to New
Guinea by land bridges. As a consequence, they have their own flora
and fauna; in particular, they lack many of the land mammals and
flightless birds that are common to New Guinea and Australia.
Australia and New Guinea are portions of the ancient supercontinent of
Gondwana, which started to break into smaller continents in the
Papua New Guinea's highlands.
Cretaceous era, 66130million years ago. Australia finally broke free
from Antarctica about 45million years ago. All the Australasian lands
are home to the Antarctic flora, descended from the flora of southern Gondwana, including the coniferous podocarps
and Araucaria pines, and the broadleafed southern beech (Nothofagus). These plant families are still present in
Papua New Guinea.
As the Indo-Australian Plate (which includes landmasses of India, Australia, and the Indian Ocean floor in between)
drifts north, it collides with the Eurasian Plate. The collision of the two plates pushed up the Himalayas, the
Indonesian islands, and New Guinea's Central Range. The Central Range is much younger and higher than the
mountains of Australia, so high that it is home to rare equatorial glaciers. New Guinea is part of the humid tropics,
and many Indomalayan rainforest plants spread across the narrow straits from Asia, mixing together with the old
Australian and Antarctic floras.
PNG includes a number of terrestrial ecoregions:

Papua New Guinea

46

Admiralty Islands lowland rain forests forested islands to the north of the mainland, home to a distinct flora.
Central Range montane rain forests
Huon Peninsula montane rain forests
Louisiade Archipelago rain forests

New Britain-New Ireland lowland rain forests

New Britain-New Ireland montane rain forests
New Guinea mangroves
Northern New Guinea lowland rain and freshwater swamp forests
Northern New Guinea montane rain forests
Solomon Islands rain forests (includes Bougainville Island and
Buka)

Southeastern Papuan rain forests

Southern New Guinea freshwater swamp forests
Southern New Guinea lowland rain forests
Trobriand Islands rain forests

The green jungle of Papua New Guinea bears a

sharp contrast to the nearby desert of Australia.

Trans Fly savanna and grasslands

Central Range sub-alpine grasslands
At current rates of deforestation, more than half of the country's forests could be lost or seriously degraded by 2021,
according to a new satellite study of the region.[19] Nearly one-quarter of Papua New Guinea's rainforests were
damaged or destroyed between 1972 and 2002.[20]

Economy
Main article: Economy of Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea is richly endowed with natural resources, including mineral
and renewable resources, such as forests, marine (including a large portion of the
world's major remaining tuna stocks), and in some parts for agriculture. The
rugged terrain, including high mountain ranges and valleys, swamps and islands,
and high cost of developing infrastructure, combined with other factors,
including serious law and order problems in some centres, and the system of
customary land title makes it difficult for outside developers, whilst local
developers are also handicapped by years of deficient investment in education,
health, ICT and access to finance. Agriculture, both for subsistence and cash
crops provides a livelihood for 85% of the population and continues to provide
Port Moresby
some 30% of GDP. Mineral deposits, including gold, oil, and copper, account for
72% of export earnings. Oil palm production has grown steadily over recent
years (largely from estates, but with extensive outgrower output), with palm oil now the main agricultural export, but
in terms of households participating coffee remains the major export crop (produced largely in the Highlands
provinces), followed by cocoa and coconut oil/copra from the coastal areas, each largely produced by smallholders
and tea, produced on estates and rubber. The Iagifu/Hedinia Field was discovered in 1986 in the Papuan fold and
thrust belt.[21]:471

Papua New Guinea

Former Prime Minister Sir Mekere Morauta tried to restore integrity to

state institutions, stabilize the kina, restore stability to the national
budget, privatize public enterprises where appropriate, and ensure
ongoing peace on Bougainville following the 1997 agreement which
ended Bougainville's secessionist unrest. The Morauta government had
considerable success in attracting international support, specifically
gaining the backing of the IMF and the World Bank in securing
development assistance loans. Significant challenges face the current
Prime Minister Sir Michael Somare, including gaining further investor
confidence, continuing efforts to privatize government assets, and
maintaining the support of members of Parliament.

47

Graphical depiction of Papua New Guinea's

product exports in 28 colour-coded categories.

In March 2006, the United Nations Development Programme Policy called for Papua New Guinea's designation of
developing country to be downgraded to least-developed country because of protracted economic and social
stagnation. However, an evaluation by the International Monetary Fund in late 2008 found that "a combination of
prudent fiscal and monetary policies, and high global prices for mineral commodity exports, have underpinned Papua
New Guinea's recent buoyant economic growth and macroeconomic stability. By 2012 PNG had enjoyed a decade of
positive economic growth, at over 6% since 2007, even during the Global Financial Crisis years of 2008/9. PNG's
Real GDP growth rate as at 2011 was 8.9%., and 9.2% for 2012, according to the Asian Development Bank. This
economic growth has been primarily attributed to strong commodity prices, particularly mineral but also agricultural,
with the high demand for mineral products largely sustained even during the crisis by the buoyant Asian markets a
booming mining sector, and particularly since 2009Wikipedia:Citation needed by a buoyant outlook and the actual
construction phase for natural gas exploration, production, and exportation in liquefied form (Liquefied Natural Gas
or "LNG") by LNG tankers (LNG carrier), all of which will require multi-billion-dollar investments (exploration,
production wells, pipelines, storage, liquefaction plants, port terminals, LNG tanker ships).
The first major gas project is the PNG LNG project of a consortium led by ExxonMobil, scheduled to commence
production in late 2014, for export largely to China, Japan, and Korea as well as other Asian countries. This
ExxonMobil-led consortium includes a PNG company named Oil Search, based in Port Moresby, which has a 29%
share.
A second major project is based on initial rights held by the French oil and gas major Total S.A. and the US
company InterOil Corp. (IOC), which have partly combined their assets after Total agreed in December 2013 to
purchase 61.3% of IOC's Antelope and Elk gas fields rights, with the plan to develop them starting in 2016,
including the construction of a liquefaction plant to allow export of LNG. Total S.A. has separately another joint
operating agreement with the PNG company Oil Search.
The Anglo-Dutch major Royal Dutch Shell has also indicated in 2011 that it is considering the possibility of
investing in gas exploration and production in Papua New Guinea.
Further gas and mineral projects are proposed (including the large Wafi-Golpu copper-gold mine), with extensive
exploration ongoing across the country.
Economic 'development' based on the extractive industries also carries difficult consequences for local communities,
and there has been much contentionWikipedia:Please clarify around river tailings in the vast Fly
River,Wikipedia:Citation needed submarine tailings from the new Ramu-Nickel-cobalt mine, commencing exports in
late 2012 (after a delay from landowner-led court challenges),Wikipedia:Citation needed and from proposed
submarine mining in the Bismarck Sea (by Nautilus Minerals).Wikipedia:Citation needed One major project
conducted through the PNG Department for Community Development suggested that other pathways to sustainable
development should be considered.[22]

Papua New Guinea

The PNG Government's long term Vision 2050 and shorter term policy documents, including the 2013 Budget
emphasise the need for a more diverse economy, based upon sustainable industries and avoiding the effects of Dutch
Disease from major resource extraction projects undermining other industries, as has occurred in many countries
experiencing oil or other mineral booms, notably in Western Africa, undermining much of their agriculture sector,
manufacturing and tourism, and with them broad-based employment prospects. Various measures have been taken to
mitigate these effects, including through the establishment of a sovereign wealth fund, partly to stabilise revenue and
expenditure flows, but much will depend upon the readiness to make real reforms to effective utilisation of revenue,
tackling rampant corruption and empowering households and businesses to access markets, services and develop a
more buoyant economy, with lower costs, especially for small-medium enterprises.

Land tenure
The PNG legislature has enacted various laws in which a type of tenure
called "customary land title" is recognised, meaning that the traditional
lands of the indigenous peoples have some legal basis to inalienable
tenure. This customary land notionally covers most of the usable land
in the country (some 97% of total land area); alienated land is either
held privately under State Lease or is government land. Freehold Title
(also known as fee simple) can only be held by Papua New Guinea
citizens.[23]
Only some 3% of the land of Papua New Guinea is in private hands;
The Ok Tedi Mine in southwestern Papua New
itWikipedia:Please clarify is privately held under 99-year state lease, or
Guinea.
it is held by the State. There is virtually no freehold title; the few
existing freeholds are automatically converted to state lease when they are transferred between vendor and purchaser.
Unalienated land is owned under customary title by traditional landowners. The precise nature of the seisin varies
from one culture to another. Many writers portray land as in the communal ownership of traditional clans; however,
closer studies usually show that the smallest portions of land whose ownership cannot be further divided are held by
the individual heads of extended families and their descendants, or their descendants alone if they have recently
died.Wikipedia:Citation needed
This is a matter of vital importance because a problem of economic development is identifying the membership of
customary landowning groups and the owners. Disputes between mining and forestry companies and landowner
groups often devolve on the issue of whether the companies entered into contractual relations for the use of land with
the true owners. Customary property usually land cannot be devised by will; it can only be inherited according to
the custom of the deceased's people.Wikipedia:Citation needed The Lands Act was amended in 2010 along with the
Land Group Incorporation Act, intended to improve the management of State land, mechanisms for dispute
resolution over land, and to enable customary landowners to be better able to access finance and possible
partnerships over portions of their land, if they seek to develop it for urban or rural economic activities. The Land
Group Incorporation Act requires more specific identification of the customary landowners than hitherto and their
more specific authorisation before any land arrangements are determined; (a major issue in recent years has been a
land grab, using, or rather misusing, the Lease-Leaseback provision under the Land Act, notably using 'Special
Agricultural and Business Leases' SABLs to acquire vast tracts of customary land, purportedly for agricultural
projects, but in an almost all cases as a back-door mechanism for securing tropical forest resources for logging, and
circumventing the more exacting requirements of the Forest Act, for securing Timber Permits (which must comply
with sustainability requirements and be competitively secured, and with the customary landowners approval).
Following a national outcry, these SABLs have been subject to a Commission of Inquiry, established in mid-2011,
for which the report is still awaited for initial presentation to the Prime Minister and Parliament.

48

Papua New Guinea

Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea is one of the most heterogeneous nations in the
world. There are hundreds of ethnic groups indigenous to Papua New
Guinea, the majority being from the group known as Papuans, whose
ancestors arrived in the New Guinea region tens of thousands of years
ago. Many remote Papuan tribes still have only marginal contact with
the outside world.
The others are Austronesians, their ancestors having arrived in the
region less than four thousand years ago. There are also numerous
people from other parts of the world now resident, including
Chinese,[24] Europeans, Australians, Filipinos, Polynesians and
Micronesians (the last three belonging to the Austronesian family). At
the brink of Papuan independence in 1975, there were 40,000
expatriates (mostly Australian and Chinese) in Papua New Guinea.[25]
Papua New Guinea has more languages than any other country, with
over 820 indigenous languages, representing 12% of the world's total,
but most have fewer than 1,000 speakers. The most widely spoken
Huli Wigman from the Southern Highlands.
indigenous language is Enga with about 200,000 speakers, followed by
[26]
Melpa and Huli.
Indigenous languages are classified into two large
groups: Austronesian languages and non-Austronesian (or Papuan languages). There are three official languages for
Papua New Guinea. English is an official language and is the language of government and the education system, but
it is not widely spoken.
The primary lingua franca of the country is Tok Pisin (commonly known in English as New Guinea Pidgin or
Melanesian Pidgin), in which much of the debate in Parliament is conducted, many information campaigns and
advertisements are presented, and until recently a national newspaper, Wantok, was published. The only area where
Tok Pisin is not prevalent is the southern region of Papua, where people often use the third official language, Hiri
Motu.
Although it lies in the Papua region, Port Moresby has a highly diverse population which primarily uses Tok Pisin,
and to a lesser extent English, with Motu spoken as the indigenous language in outlying villages. With an average of
only 7,000 speakers per language, Papua New Guinea has a greater density of languages than any other nation on
earth except Vanuatu.Wikipedia:Citation needed

Health
Public expenditure was at 7.3% of all government expenditure in 2006, whereas private expenditure was at 0.6% of
the GDP.Wikipedia:Citation needed There were five physicians per 100,000 people in the early 2000s. Malaria is the
leading cause of illness and death in New Guinea. In 2003, the most recently reported year, 70,226 cases of
laboratory confirmed malaria were reported, along with 537 deaths. A total of 1,729,697 cases were probable.
Papua New Guinea has the highest incidence of HIV and AIDS in the Pacific region and is the fourth country in the
Asia Pacific region to fit the criteria for a generalised HIV/AIDS epidemic. Lack of HIV/AIDS awareness is a major
problem, especially in rural areas.

49

Papua New Guinea

In June 2011, the United Nations Population Fund released a report on

The State of the World's Midwifery. It contained new data on the
midwifery workforce and policies relating to newborn and maternal
mortality for 58 countries. The 2010 maternal mortality rate per
100,000 births for Papua New Guinea is 250. This is compared with
311.9 in 2008 and 476.3 in 1990. The under 5 mortality rate, per 1,000
births is 69 and the neonatal mortality as a percentage of under 5's
mortality is 37. The aim of this report is to highlight ways in which the
Asaro mudman with his unique clay mask
Millennium Development Goals can be achieved, particularly Goal 4
Reduce child mortality and Goal 5 Improve maternal health. In
Papua New Guinea the number of midwives per 1,000 live births is 1 and the lifetime risk of death for pregnant
women is 1 in 94.

Religion
Main article: Religion in Papua New Guinea
The courts and government practice uphold the constitutional right to freedom of speech, thought, and belief, and no
legislation to curb those rights has been adopted. The 2000 census found that 96% of citizens identified themselves
as members of a Christian church; however, many citizens combine their Christian faith with some traditional
indigenous religious practices. The census percentages were as follows:

Roman Catholic Church (27.0%)

Evangelical Lutheran Church of Papua New Guinea (19.5%)
United Church (11.5%)
Seventh-day Adventist Church (10.0%)
Pentecostal (8.6%)
Evangelical Alliance (5.2%)
Anglican Church of Papua New Guinea (3.2%)
Baptist (0.5%)
Church of Christ (0.4%)
Bah' Faith (0.3%)
Jehovah's Witnesses (0.3%)
Salvation Army (0.2%)
Other Christian (8.0%)

There are also approximately 4,000 Muslims in the country. Non-traditional Christian churches and non-Christian
religious groups are active throughout the country. The Papua New Guinea Council of Churches has stated that both
Muslim and Confucian missionaries are active, and foreign missionary activity in general is high.Wikipedia:Citation
needed
Traditional religions were often animist. Some also tended to have elements of ancestor worship, though
generalisation is suspect given the extreme heterogeneity of Melanesian societies. Prevalent among traditional tribes
is the belief in masalai, or evil spirits, which are blamed for "poisoning" people, causing calamity and death, and the
practice of puripuri (sorcery).[27]

50

Papua New Guinea

51

Culture
Main articles: Culture of Papua New Guinea and Music of Papua New Guinea
It is estimated that more than a thousand cultural groups exist in Papua
New Guinea. Because of this diversity, many styles of cultural
expression have emerged; each group has created its own expressive
forms in art, dance, weaponry, costumes, singing, music, architecture
and much more.
Most of these cultural groups have their own language. People
typically live in villages that rely on subsistence farming. In some
areas people hunt and collect wild plants (such as yam roots) to
supplement their diets. Those who become skilled at hunting, farming
and fishing earn a great deal of respect.
On the Sepik river, there is a tradition of wood carving, often in the
form of plants or animals, representing ancestor spirits.

This rattle is made of leaves, seeds and coconut

shell. The rattle is tied around a dancer's ankle
and makes a sound when the dancer moves.

Sea shells are no longer the currency of Papua New Guinea, as they
were in some regions sea shells were abolished as currency in 1933.
However, this tradition is still present in local customs; in some
cultures, to get a bride, a groom must bring a certain number of
golden-edged clam shells as a bride price. In other regions, the bride
price is paid in lengths of shell money, pigs, cassowaries or cash.
Elsewhere, it is brides who traditionally pay a dowry.
People of the highlands engage in colourful local rituals that are called
"sing sings". They paint themselves and dress up with feathers, pearls
and animal skins to represent birds, trees or mountain spirits.
Sometimes an important event, such as a legendary battle, is enacted at
such a musical festival.

This bilum bag is from Goroka, in the Eastern

Highlands Province of Papua New Guinea.

Sport
Main article: Sport in Papua New Guinea
See also: Rugby league in Papua New Guinea
Sport is an important part of Papua New Guinean culture and rugby
league is by far the most popular sport. In a nation where communities
are far apart and many people live at a minimal subsistence level,
Resident of Boga-Boga, a village on the southeast
coast of mainland Papua New Guinea
rugby league has been described as a replacement for tribal warfare as
a way of explaining the local enthusiasm for the game (a matter of life
and death). Many Papua New Guineans have become instant celebrities by representing their country or playing in
an overseas professional league. Even Australian rugby league players who have played in the annual State of Origin
series, which is celebrated feverishly every year in PNG, are among the most well known people throughout the
nation.

Papua New Guinea

State of Origin is a highlight of the year for most Papua New Guineans, although
the support is so passionate that many people have died over the years in violent
clashes supporting their team. The Papua New Guinea national rugby league
team usually plays against the Australian Prime Minister's XIII (a selection of
NRL players) each year, normally in Port Moresby.
Other major sports which have a part in the Papua New Guinea sporting
landscape are Australian rules football, Association football, rugby union and, in
eastern Papua, cricket. Football is considered a popular sport in Papua New
Guinea.
The capital city Port Moresby will be hosting the Pacific Games in 2015.

Education
Main article: Education in Papua New Guinea
A large proportion of the population is illiterate, with women predominating in
this area. Much of the education in the country is provided by church institutions.
This includes 500 schools of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Papua New
20th century wooden Abelam
ancestor figure (nggwalndu).
Guinea. Papua New Guinea has six universities apart from other major tertiary
institutions. The two founding universities are the University of Papua New
Guinea based in the National Capital District, and the Papua New Guinea University of Technology based outside of
Lae, in Morobe Province.
The four other universities which were once colleges were established recently after gaining government recognition.
These are the University of Goroka in the Eastern Highlands province, Divine Word University (run by the Catholic
Church's Divine Word Missionaries) in Madang Province, Vudal University in East New Britain Province and
Pacific Adventist University (run by the Seventh-day Adventist Church) in the National Capital District.

Transport
Main article: Transport in Papua New Guinea
Transport in Papua New Guinea is heavily limited by the country's mountainous terrain. Port Moresby is not linked
by road to any of the other major towns, and many remote villages can only be reached by light aircraft or on foot.
As a result, air travel is the single most important form of transport for human and high value freight. In addition to
two international airfields, Papua New Guinea has 578 airstrips, most of which are unpaved. Assets are not
maintained to good operating standards and poor transport remains a major impediment to the development of ties of
national unity.

Air travel
Air travel is the single most important form of transport in Papua New Guinea, for the transport of humans and high
density/value freight. Airplanes made it possible to open up the country during its early colonial period. Even today
the two largest cities, Port Moresby and Lae, are only directly connected by planes.
Jacksons International Airport is the major international airport in Papua New Guinea, located 5 miles from Port
Moresby.

52

Papua New Guinea

53

References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]

http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Papua_New_Guinea& params=9_30_S_147_07_E_type:country

Population a concern (http:/ / www. postcourier. com. pg/ 20130625/ tuhome. htm) postcourier.com.pg (25 June 2013).
Papua New Guinea (http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ country/ PG). Ethnologue
Human Development Indices (http:/ / hdr. undp. org/ en/ media/ HDI_2008_EN_Tables. pdf), Table 3: Human and income poverty, p. 35.
Retrieved on 1 June 2009
[5] Diamond, J. (March 1997). Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-03891-2.
[6] Swadling, p. 282
[7] Knauft, Bruce M. (1999) From primitive to postcolonial in Melanesia and anthropology (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=YM18gG16Z7YC& pg=PA103). University of Michigan Press. p. 103. ISBN 0-472-06687-0
[8] " Cannibalism Normal For Early Humans? (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2003/ 04/ 0410_030410_cannibal. html)". National
Geographic News. 10 April 2003.
[9] Goldman, Laurence (1999). The Anthropology of Cannibalism (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=QyiDClqjwSUC& pg=PA19).
Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 19. ISBN 0-89789-596-7
[10] Torgovnick, Marianna (1991). Gone Primitive: Savage Intellects, Modern Lives (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=iShh79cUbJkC),
University of Chicago Press. p. 258 ISBN 0-226-80832-7
[11] Swadling: "Such trade links and the nominal claim of the Sultan of Ceram over New Guinea constituted the legal basis for the Netherlands'
claim over West New Guinea and ultimately that of Indonesia over what is new West Papua."
[12] Fenton, Damien. . Australian War Memorial.
[13] Creditors Remedies Act (Papua), Ch 47 of the Revised Laws of Papua New Guinea.
[14] General Assembly resolution 3368 (XXX) of 10 October 1975 (http:/ / www. un. org/ ga/ search/ view_doc. asp?symbol=A/ RES/
3368(XXX))
[15] "Looters shot dead amid chaos of Papua New Guinea's anti-Chinese riots" (http:/ / www. theaustralian. news. com. au/ story/
0,25197,25524906-2703,00. html), The Australian, 23 May 2009
[16] " Overseas and under siege" (http:/ / www. economist. com/ node/ 14207132), The Economist, 11 August 2009
[17] Papua New Guinea Constitution Schedule 2.2.2
[18] The Constitution of Papua New Guinea sets out the names of the 19 provinces at the time of Independence. Several provinces have changed
their names; such changes are not strictly speaking official without a formal constitutional amendment, though "Oro," for example, is
universally used in reference to that province.
[19] "Satellite images show Papua New Guinea deforestation at critical level" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ environment/ 2008/ jun/ 02/
forests. conservation), Guardian, 2 June 2008.
[20] " Satellite images uncover rapid PNG deforestation (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ news/ stories/ 2008/ 06/ 02/ 2262808. htm)". ABC News. 2
June 2008.
[21] Matzke, R.H., Smith, J.G., and Foo, W.K., 1992, Iagifu/Hedinia Field, In Giant Oil and Gas Fields of the Decade, 1978-1988, AAPG
Memoir 54, Halbouty, M.T., editor, Tulsa: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, ISBN0891813330
[22] James, P.; Nadarajah, Y.; Haive, K. and Stead, V. (2012) Sustainable Communities, Sustainable Development: Other Paths for Papua New
Guinea (http:/ / www. uhpress. hawaii. edu/ p-8630-9780824836405. aspx), Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press.
[23] See footnote 30 which explains that the precise reference in legislation was not found.
[24] " Chinese targeted in PNG riots report (http:/ / www. news. com. au/ story/ 0,27574,25488721-401,00. html)". News.com.au. 15 May
2009.
[25] " Papua New Guinea (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 442191/ Papua-New-Guinea)". Encyclopdia Britannica Online.
[26] . AFP via dawn.com (21 July 2011)
[27] puripuri (http:/ / coombs. anu. edu. au/ SpecialProj/ PNG/ MIHALIC/ M2/ LetterP/ puripuri. htm). coombs.anu.edu.au (26 January 2005)

Further reading
Biskup, Peter, B. Jinks and H. Nelson. A Short History of New Guinea (1970)
Connell, John. Papua New Guinea: The Struggle for Development (1997) online (http://www.questia.com/
read/109054904/papua-new-guinea-the-struggle-for-development)
Gash, Noel. A Pictorial History of New Guinea (1975)
Golson, Jack. 50,000 years of New Guinea history (1966)
Griffin, James. Papua New Guinea: A political history (1979)

James, Paul; Nadarajah, Yaso; Haive, Karen; Stead, Victoria (2012). pdf download Sustainable Communities,
Sustainable Development: Other Paths for Papua New Guinea (https://www.academia.edu/3230875/
Sustainable_Communities_Sustainable_Development_Other_Paths_for_Papua_New_Guinea_author_with_Nadarajah_Stead_and_
Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

Papua New Guinea

Knauft, Bruce M. South Coast New Guinea Cultures: History, Comparison, Dialectic (1993) excerpt and text
search (http://www.amazon.com/South-Coast-New-Guinea-Cultures/dp/0521418828/)
McCosker, Anne. Masked Eden: A History of the Australians in New Guinea (1998)
Mckinnon, Rowan, et al. Papua New Guinea & Solomon Islands (Country Travel Guide) (2008) excerpt and text
search (http://www.amazon.com/Guinea-Solomon-Islands-Country-Travel/dp/1741045800/)
Swadling, Pamela (1996). Plumes from Paradise. Papua New Guinea National Museum. ISBN9980-85-103-1.
Waiko. John. Short History of Papua New Guinea (1993)
Waiko, John Dademo. Papua New Guinea: A History of Our Times (2003)
Zimmer-Tamakoshi, Laura. Modern Papua New Guinea (1998) online (http://www.questia.com/read/
120184994/modern-papua-new-guinea)

Primary sources
Jinks, Brian, ed. Readings in New Guinea history (1973)
Tim Flannery Throwim' Way Leg: Tree-Kangaroos, Possums, and Penis Gourds (2000) memoir excerpt and text
search (http://www.amazon.com/Throwim-Way-Leg-Tree-Kangaroos-Possums/dp/0802136656)
Malinowski, Bronislaw. Argonauts of the Western Pacific: An Account of Native Enterprise and Adventure in the
Archipelagoes of Melanesian New Guinea (2002) famous anthropological account of the Trobriand Islanders;
based on field work in 1910s online (http://www.questia.com/read/109062182/
argonauts-of-the-western-pacific-an-account-of-native)
Visser, Leontine, ed. Governing New Guinea: An Oral History of Papuan Administrators, 19501990 (2012)
Whitaker, J.L. et al. eds. Documents and readings in New Guinea history: Pre-history to 1889 (1975)

External links
Government
Prime Minister of Papua New Guinea (http://www.pm.gov.pg/)
Chief of State and Cabinet Members (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/
world-leaders-p/papua-new-guinea.html)Wikipedia:Link rot
General information
Papua New Guinea (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pp.html) entry at
The World Factbook
Papua New Guinea (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/png.htm) at UCB Libraries GovPubs.
Papua New Guinea (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Oceania/Papua_New_Guinea) at DMOZ

Wikimedia Atlas of Papua New Guinea

Papua New Guinea travel guide from Wikivoyage

Papua New Guinea Business Directory (http://www.pngbd.com/)
PNG Links & Search (http://www.tanorama.com/ttn_png_search.html) incl. GoPNG & NGO links; Who's
Who; Blogs, Forums, Factsheets, etc.
Forecasts for Papua New Guinea Development (http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.
aspx?Country=PG)

54

Solomon Islands

55

Solomon Islands
For the group of islands rather than the state, see Solomon Islands (archipelago).
"Solomons" redirects here. For the town in the eastern United States, see Solomons, Maryland.

Solomon Islands

Flag

Coat of arms

Motto:"To Lead is to Serve"

Anthem:God Save Our Solomon Islands
Royal anthem:God Save the Queen

Capital
and largest city

Honiara
[1]
928S 15949E

Solomon Islands

56
Official languages
Ethnicgroups (1999)

Demonym
Government

English
94.5% Melanesian
3.0% Polynesian
1.2% Micronesian
1.1% others
0.2% unspecified

Solomon Islander
Unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy

- Monarch

Queen Elizabeth II

- Governor-General

Frank Kabui

- Prime Minister

Gordon Darcy Lilo

Legislature

National Parliament
Independence

- from the United Kingdom 7 July 1978

Area
- Total

28,400km (142nd)
10,965sqmi

- Water(%)

3.2%

Population
- 2009estimate

523,000 (170th)

- Density

18.1/km (189th)
46.9/sqmi

GDP(PPP)

2011estimate

- Total

$1.725billion

- Per capita

$3,191

GDP(nominal)

2011estimate

- Total

$840million

- Per capita

$1,553

HDI (2013)

0.530
low 143rd

Currency

Solomon Islands dollar (SBD)

Time zone

(UTC+11)

Drives on the

left

Calling code

+677

ISO 3166 code

SB

Internet TLD

.sb

Solomon Islands is a sovereign country consisting of a large number of islands in Oceania lying to the east of Papua
New Guinea and northwest of Vanuatu and covering a land area of 28,400 square kilometres (11,000sqmi). The
country's capital, Honiara, is located on the island of Guadalcanal. Solomon Islands should not be confused with the
Solomon Islands archipelago, which is a collection of Melanesian islands that includes Solomon Islands and
Bougainville Island.

Solomon Islands

57

The islands have been inhabited for thousands of years. In 1568, the Spanish navigator lvaro de Mendaa was the
first European to visit them, naming them the Islas Salomn. By 1893, the United Kingdom had established a
protectorate over the territory. During the Second World War, the Solomon Islands campaign (19421945) saw
fierce fighting between the United States and the Empire of Japan, such as in the Battle of Guadalcanal.
The official name of the then British territory was changed from "the British Solomon Islands Protectorate" to
"Solomon Islands" in 1975. Self-government was achieved in 1976. Independence was obtained two years later.
Today, Solomon Islands is a constitutional monarchy with the Queen of Solomon Islands, currently Queen Elizabeth
II, as its head of state. Gordon Lilo Darcy is the eleventh and current Prime Minister of Solomon Islands.

Name
In 1568, the Spanish navigator lvaro de Mendaa was the first European to visit the Solomon Islands archipelago,
naming it Islas Salomn ("Solomon Islands") after the wealthy biblical King Solomon. It is said that they were given
this name in the mistaken assumption that they contained great riches.[2] During most of the period of British rule,
the territory was officially named the British Solomon Islands Protectorate.[3] However, on 22 June 1975, the
territory was renamed Solomon Islands. When the country achieved independence a few years later, the country
kept that name. The definite article, the, is not part of the countrys official name but is sometimes used, both
within and outside the country.

History
Main article: History of the Solomon Islands

Early history
It is believed that Papuan-speaking settlers
began to arrive around 30,000BC.[4]
Austronesian speakers arrived c.4000BC
also bringing cultural elements such as the
outrigger canoe. It is between 1200 and
800BC that the ancestors of the
Polynesians, the Lapita people, arrived from
the Bismarck Archipelago with their
characteristic ceramics.[5]

European contact
Solomon Island warriors, armed with spears, aboard an ornamented war canoe
(1895).

The first European to visit the islands was

the Spanish navigator lvaro de Mendaa
de Neira, coming from Peru in 1568. The
people of Solomon Islands were notorious for headhunting and cannibalism before the arrival of the Europeans.[6]
Missionaries began visiting the Solomons in the mid-19th century. They made little progress at first, because
"blackbirding" (the often brutal recruitment or kidnapping of labourers for the sugar plantations in Queensland and
Fiji) led to a series of reprisals and massacres. The evils of the labour trade prompted the United Kingdom to declare
a protectorate over the southern Solomons in June 1893.[7]
In 1898 and 1899, more outlying islands were added to the protectorate; in 1900 the remainder of the archipelago, an
area previously under German jurisdiction, was transferred to British administration apart from the islands of Buka
and Bougainville, which remained under German administration as part of German New Guinea. Traditional trade

Solomon Islands

58

and social intercourse between the western Solomon Islands of Mono and Alu (the Shortlands) and the traditional
societies in the south of Bougainville, however, continued without hindrance.
Under the protectorate, missionaries settled in the Solomons, converting most of the population to Christianity. In the
early 20th century, several British and Australian firms began large-scale coconut planting. Economic growth was
slow, however, and the islanders benefited little.
In 1908, the islands were visited by Jack London, who was cruising the Pacific on his boat, the Snark.

Second World War

Main articles: Solomon Islands campaign and Battle of Guadalcanal
With the outbreak of the Second World
War, most planters and traders were
evacuated to Australia, and most cultivation
ceased. Some of the most intense fighting of
the war occurred in the Solomons. The most
significant of the Allied Forces' operations
against the Japanese Imperial Forces was
launched on 7 August 1942, with
simultaneous naval bombardments and
amphibious landings on the Florida Islands
at Tulagi and Red Beach on Guadalcanal.
The Battle of Guadalcanal became an
important and bloody campaign fought in
the Pacific War as the Allies began to
The aircraft carrier USSEnterprise(CV-6) under aerial attack during the Battle of
repulse Japanese expansion. Of strategic
the Eastern Solomons.
importance during the war were the
coastwatchers operating in remote locations,
often on Japanese held islands, providing early warning and intelligence of Japanese naval, army and aircraft
movements during the campaign.[8]
Sergeant-Major Jacob Vouza was a notable coastwatcher who after capture refused to divulge Allied information in
spite of interrogation and torture by Japanese Imperial forces. He was awarded a Silver Star Medal by the
Americans, which is the United States' third-highest decoration for valor in combat. Islanders Biuku Gasa and Eroni
Kumana would be noted by National Geographic for being the first to find the shipwrecked John F. Kennedy and his
crew of the PT-109. They suggested using a coconut to write a rescue message for delivery by dugout canoe, which
was later kept on his desk when he became the president of the United States.

Solomon Islands

The Solomon Islands was one of the major

staging areas of the South Pacific and was
home to the famous VMF-214 "Black
Sheep" Squadron commanded by Major
Greg "Pappy" Boyington. "The Slot" was a
name for New Georgia Sound, when it was
used by the Tokyo Express to supply the
Japanese garrison on Guadalcanal. Of more
than 36,000 Japanese on Guadalcanal, about
26,000 were killed or missing, 9,000 died of
disease, and 1,000 were captured.[9]

Independence
Local councils were established in the 1950s
as the islands stabilised from the aftermath
American marines rest during the 1942 Guadalcanal Campaign.
of the Second World War. A new
constitution was established in 1970 and elections were held, although the constitution was contested and a new one
was created in 1974. In 1973 the first oil price shock occurred, and the increased cost of running a colony became
apparent to British administrators.
Following the independence of neighbouring Papua New Guinea from Australia in 1975, the Solomon Islands gained
self-government in 1976. Independence was granted on 7 July 1978. The first Prime Minister was Sir Peter
Kenilorea, and Solomon Islands retained the Monarchy.

Civil war
Commonly referred to as the tensions or the ethnic tension, the initial civil unrest was mainly characterised by
fighting between the Isatabu Freedom Movement (also known as the Guadalcanal Revolutionary Army) and the
Malaita Eagle Force (as well as the Marau Eagle Force). (Although much of the conflict was between Guales and
Malaitans, Kabutaulaka (2001) and Dinnen (2002) argue that the 'ethnic conflict' label is an oversimplification.)
In late 1998, militants on the island of Guadalcanal began a campaign of intimidation and violence towards Malaitan
settlers. During the next year, thousands of Malaitans fled back to Malaita or to the capital, Honiara (which, although
situated on Guadalcanal, is predominantly populated by Malaitans and Solomon Islanders from other provinces). In
1999, the Malaita Eagle Force (MEF) was established in response.
The reformist government of Bartholomew Ulufa'alu struggled to respond to the complexities of this evolving
conflict. In late 1999, the government declared a four-month state of emergency. There were also a number of
attempts at reconciliation but to no avail. Ulufa'alu also requested assistance from Australia and New Zealand in
1999 but his appeal was rejected.
In June 2000, Ulufa'alu was kidnapped by militia members of the MEF who felt that, although he was a Malaitan, he
was not doing enough to protect their interests. Ulufa'alu subsequently resigned in exchange for his release.
Manasseh Sogavare, who had earlier been Finance Minister in Ulufa'alu's government but had subsequently joined
the opposition, was elected as Prime Minister by 2321 over Rev. Leslie Boseto. However Sogavare's election was
immediately shrouded in controversy because six MPs (thought to be supporters of Boseto) were unable to attend
parliament for the crucial vote (Moore 2004, n.5 on p.174).
In October 2000, the Townsville Peace Agreement,[10] was signed by the Malaita Eagle Force, elements of the IFM,
and the Solomon Islands Government. This was closely followed by the Marau Peace agreement in February 2001,
signed by the Marau Eagle Force, the Isatabu Freedom Movement, the Guadalcanal Provincial Government, and the

59

Solomon Islands
Solomon Islands Government. However, a key Guale militant leader, Harold Keke, refused to sign the agreement,
causing a split with the Guale groups. Subsequently, Guale signatories to the agreement led by Andrew Te'e joined
with the Malaitan-dominated police to form the 'Joint Operations Force'. During the next two years the conflict
moved to the Weathercoast of Guadalcanal as the Joint Operations unsuccessfully attempted to capture Keke and his
group.
New elections in December 2001 brought Sir Allan Kemakeza into the Prime Minister's chair with the support of his
People's Alliance Party and the Association of Independent Members. Law and order deteriorated as the nature of the
conflict shifted: there was continuing violence on the Weathercast while militants in Honiara increasingly turned
their attention to crime and extortion. The Department of Finance would often be surrounded by armed men when
funding was due to arrive. In December 2002, Finance Minister Laurie Chan resigned after being forced at gunpoint
to sign a cheque made out to some of the militants. Conflict also broke out in Western Province between locals and
Malaitan settlers. Renegade members of the Bougainville Revolutionary Army (BRA) were invited in as a protection
force but ended up causing as much trouble as they prevented.
The prevailing atmosphere of lawlessness, widespread extortion, and ineffective police prompted a formal request by
the Solomon Islands Government for outside help. With the country bankrupt and the capital in chaos, the request
was unanimously supported in Parliament.
In July 2003, Australian and Pacific Island police and troops arrived in Solomon Islands under the auspices of the
Australian-led Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands (RAMSI). A sizeable international security
contingent of 2,200 police and troops, led by Australia and New Zealand, and with representatives from about 20
other Pacific nations, began arriving the next month under Operation Helpem Fren. Since this time some
commentators have considered the country a failed state.[11] However, other academics argue that rather than being a
'failed state', it is an unformed state: a state that never consolidated even after decades of independence.[12]
In April 2006, allegations that the newly elected Prime Minister Snyder Rini had used bribes from Chinese
businessmen to buy the votes of members of Parliament led to mass rioting in the capital Honiara. A deep underlying
resentment against the minority Chinese business community led to much of Chinatown in the city being destroyed.
Tensions were also increased by the belief that large sums of money were being exported to China. China sent
chartered aircraft to evacuate hundreds of Chinese who fled to avoid the riots. Evacuation of Australian and British
citizens was on a much smaller scale. Additional Australian, New Zealand and Fijian police and troops were
dispatched to try to quell the unrest. Rini eventually resigned before facing a motion of no-confidence in Parliament,
and Parliament elected Manasseh Sogavare as Prime Minister.

Earthquakes
Main articles: 2007 Solomon Islands earthquake and 2013 Solomon Islands earthquake
On 2 April 2007, Solomon Island were struck by a major earthquake followed by a large tsunami. Initial reports
indicated that the tsunami, which mainly affected the small island of Gizo, was several metres high (perhaps as high
as 10metres (33ft) according to some reports, 5metres (161/3ft) according to the Foreign Office). The tsunami
was triggered by an 8.0magnitude earthquake, with a hypocenter 349 kilometres (217 miles) northwest of the
island's capital, Honiara, at Lat 8.453 Long 156.957 and at a depth of 10kilometres (6.2miles).[13]
According to the United States Geological Survey the earthquake struck at 20:39:56 UTC on Sunday, 1 April 2007.
Since the initial event and up until 22:00:00 UTC on Wednesday, 4 April 2007, more than 44 aftershocks of a
magnitude of 5.0 or greater were recorded in the region. The death toll from the resulting tsunami was at least
52people, and the tsunami destroyed more than 900 homes and left thousands of people homeless.[14] Land thrust
from the quake has extended out from the shoreline of one island, Ranongga, by up to 70 metres (230ft) according
to local residents.[15] This has left many once pristine coral reefs exposed on the newly formed beaches.
Another magnitude 8.0 earthquake struck off Santa Cruz Island, Solomon Islands, in the southwest Pacific Ocean on
6 February 2013 at 12:12 p.m local time. The quake triggered a tsunami and numerous earthquakes preceded the

60

Solomon Islands
largest, including a 6.3 and 6.4 late Friday evening and a 6.3 early Wednesday morning. The earthquake struck off
the Santa Cruz Islands and the epicentre was 586km ESE of the capital of Solomon Islands, Honiara. The US
Geological Survey initially put the quake epicentre at a very shallow depth of 5km (three miles) but later revised
this to a greater depth of 28.7km (17.8 miles) which may have prevented a far more destructive tsunami.
A 1.5-metre (4ft 11in) wave rushed inland on Santa Cruz Island, in the eastern Solomons, on Wednesday. The
tsunami was generated by the initial 8.0-magnitude earthquake that struck near the town of Lata, on Santa Cruz in
Temotu, the easternmost province in Solomon Islands. Smaller waves were recorded in Vanuatu and New Caledonia.
Several aftershocks have occurred following the M 8.0 including a 6.4, 7.0 and 6.3 on Wednesday 6 February, and a
6.6 on Thursday 7 February. Following the quakes, several islands were affected and nine persons died. Due to the
remote location and the closure of Honiara's main airport, assistance to the worst-affected areas was delayed.
On 12 April 2014, an earthquake listing 7.6 on the Richter scale was reported to hit the area of the Solomon Islands.
[16]

Politics
Main article: Politics of Solomon Islands
Solomon Islands is a constitutional
monarchy and has a parliamentary system of
government. Queen Elizabeth II is the
Monarch of the Solomon Islands and the
head of state; she is represented by the
Governor-General who is chosen by the
Parliament for a five-year term. There is a
unicameral parliament of 50 members,
elected for four-year terms. However,
Parliament may be dissolved by majority
vote of its members before the completion
of its term.
Parliamentary representation is based on
Solomon Islands' National Parliament building was a gift from the United States.
single-member constituencies. Suffrage is
universal for citizens over age 21.[17] The head of government is the Prime Minister, who is elected by Parliament
and chooses the cabinet. Each ministry is headed by a cabinet member, who is assisted by a permanent secretary, a
career public servant who directs the staff of the ministry.
Solomon Islands governments are characterised by weak political parties (see List of political parties in Solomon
Islands) and highly unstable parliamentary coalitions. They are subject to frequent votes of no confidence, leading to
frequent changes in government leadership and cabinet appointments.
Land ownership is reserved for Solomon Islanders. The law provides that resident expatriates, such as the Chinese
and Kiribati, may obtain citizenship through naturalisation. Land generally is still held on a family or village basis
and may be handed down from mother or father according to local custom. The islanders are reluctant to provide
land for nontraditional economic undertakings, and this has resulted in continual disputes over land ownership.
No military forces are maintained by Solomon Islands although a police force of nearly 500 includes a border
protection unit. The police also are responsible for fire service, disaster relief, and maritime surveillance. The police
force is headed by a commissioner, appointed by the governor-general and responsible to the prime minister. On 27
December 2006, the Solomon Islands Government took steps to prevent the country's Australian police chief from
returning to the Pacific nation. On 12 January 2007, Australia replaced its top diplomat expelled from Solomon
Islands for political interference in a conciliatory move aimed at easing a four-month dispute between the two

61

Solomon Islands
countries.
On 13 December 2007, Prime Minister Manasseh Sogavare was toppled by a vote of no confidence in Parliament,[18]
following the defection of five ministers to the opposition. It was the first time a prime minister had lost office in this
way in Solomon Islands. On 20 December, Parliament elected the opposition's candidate (and former Minister for
Education) Derek Sikua as Prime Minister, in a vote of 32 to 15.[19][20]

Judiciary
Main article: Judiciary of the Solomon Islands
The Governor General appoints the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court on the advice of the Prime Minister and the
Leader of the Opposition. The Governor General appoints the other justices with the advice of a judicial commission.
The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (based in the United Kingdom) serves as the highest appellate court.
The current Chief Justice is Sir Albert Palmer. From March 2014 Justice Edwin Goldsbrough will serve as the
President of the Court of Appeal for the Solomon Islands. Justice Goldsbrough has previously served a five year
terms as a Judge of the High Court of the Solomon Islands (2006-2011). Justice Edwin Goldsbrough then served as
the Chief Justice of the Turks and Caicos Islands.

Provinces
Main article: Provinces of Solomon Islands
For local government, the country is divided into ten administrative areas, of which nine are provinces administered
by elected provincial assemblies and the tenth is the capital Honiara, administered by the Honiara Town Council.
1. Central
2. Choiseul
3. Guadalcanal
4. Isabel
5. Makira-Ulawa
6. Malaita
7. Rennell and Bellona
8. Temotu
9. Western
10. Honiara City

Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Solomon Islands
Solomon Islands is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth, Pacific Islands Forum, South Pacific
Commission, International Monetary Fund, and the European Union/African, Caribbean, and Pacific (ACP)
countries (EEC/ACP) (Lom Convention).
The political stage of Solomon Islands was influenced by its position regarding the Republic of China (ROC) and the
People's Republic of China (PROC). Solomon Islands gave diplomatic recognition to the Republic of China
(Taiwan), recognising it as the sole-legitimate government of all of China, thus giving Taiwan vital votes in the
United Nations. Lucrative investments, political funding and preferential loans from both the Republic of China and
the people Republic of China have increasingly manipulated the political landscape of the Solomon Islands.
Relations with Papua New Guinea, which had become strained because of an influx of refugees from the
Bougainville rebellion and attacks on the northern islands of Solomon Islands by elements pursuing Bougainvillean
rebels, have been repaired. A 1998 peace accord on Bougainville removed the armed threat, and the two nations

62

Solomon Islands
regularised border operations in a 2004 agreement.

Military
Although the locally recruited British Solomon Islands Protectorate Defence Force was part of Allied Forces taking
part in fighting in the Solomons during the Second World War, the country has not had any regular military forces
since independence. The various paramilitary elements of the Royal Solomon Islands Police Force (RSIPF) were
disbanded and disarmed in 2003 following the intervention of the Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands
(RAMSI). RAMSI has a small military detachment headed by an Australian commander with responsibilities for
assisting the police element of RAMSI in internal and external security. The RSIPF still operates two Pacific class
patrol boats (RSIPV Auki and RSIPV Lata), which constitute the de facto navy of Solomon Islands.
In the long term, it is anticipated that the RSIPF will resume the defence role of the country. The police force is
headed by a commissioner, appointed by the governor general and responsible to the Minister of Police, National
Security & Correctional Services.
The police budget of Solomon Islands has been strained due to a four-year civil war. Following Cyclone Zoe's strike
on the islands of Tikopia and Anuta in December 2002, Australia had to provide the Solomon Islands government
with 200,000 Solomon dollars ($50,000 Australian) for fuel and supplies for the patrol boat Lata to sail with relief
supplies. (Part of the work of RAMSI includes assisting the Solomon Islands government to stabilise its budget.)

Geography
Main article: Geography of the Solomon Islands
Solomon Islands is an island nation that lies
east of Papua New Guinea and consists of
many islands: Choiseul, the Shortland
Islands; the New Georgia Islands; Santa
Isabel; the Russell Islands; Nggela (the
Florida Islands); Malaita; Guadalcanal;
Sikaiana; Maramasike; Ulawa; Uki; Makira
(San Cristobal); Santa Ana; Rennell and
Bellona; the Santa Cruz Islands and three
remote, tiny outliers, Tikopia, Anuta, and
Fatutaka.
The country's islands lie between latitudes
Aerial view of the Solomon Islands.
5 and 13S, and longitudes 155 and
169E. The distance between the
westernmost and easternmost islands is about 1,500 kilometres (930mi). The Santa Cruz Islands (of which Tikopia
is part) are situated north of Vanuatu and are especially isolated at more than 200 kilometres (120mi) from the other
islands. Bougainville is geographically part of the Solomon Islands but politically part of Papua New Guinea.
The islands' ocean-equatorial climate is extremely humid throughout the year, with a mean temperature of 26.5C
(79.7F) and few extremes of temperature or weather. June through August is the cooler period. Though seasons are
not pronounced, the northwesterly winds of November through April bring more frequent rainfall and occasional
squalls or cyclones. The annual rainfall is about 3,050 millimetres (120in).
The Solomon Islands archipelago is part of two distinct terrestrial ecoregions. Most of the islands are part of the
Solomon Islands rain forests ecoregion, which also includes the islands of Bougainville and Buka; these forests have
come under pressure from forestry activities. The Santa Cruz Islands are part of the Vanuatu rain forests ecoregion,
together with the neighbouring archipelago of Vanuatu. Soil quality ranges from extremely rich volcanic (there are

63

Solomon Islands

64

volcanoes with varying degrees of activity on some of the larger islands) to relatively infertile limestone. More than
230 varieties of orchids and other tropical flowers brighten the landscape.
The islands contain several active and dormant volcanoes. The Tinakula and Kavachi volcanoes are the most active.

Economy
Main article: Economy of Solomon Islands
Solomon Islands' per-capita GDP of $600 ranks it as a lesser developed
nation, and more than 75% of its labour force is engaged in subsistence
and fishing. Most manufactured goods and petroleum products must be
imported. Until 1998, when world prices for tropical timber fell
steeply, timber was Solomon Islands' main export product, and, in
recent years, Solomon Islands forests were dangerously overexploited.
Other important cash crops and exports include copra and palm oil. In
1998, Ross Mining of Australia began producing gold at Gold Ridge
on Guadalcanal. Minerals exploration in other areas continued.
However, in the wake of the ethnic violence in June 2000, exports of
palm oil and gold ceased while exports of timber fell. The islands are
rich in undeveloped mineral resources such as lead, zinc, nickel, and
gold.

Graphical depiction of Solomon Islands' product

exports in 28 color-coded categories.

Solomon Islands' fisheries also offer prospects for export and domestic economic expansion. However, a Japanese
joint venture, Solomon Taiyo Ltd., which operated the only fish cannery in the country, closed in mid-2000 as a
result of the ethnic disturbances. Though the plant has reopened under local management, the export of tuna has not
resumed. Negotiations are underway that may lead to the eventual reopening of the Gold Ridge mine and the major
oil-palm plantation.
Tourism, particularly diving, is an important service industry for Solomon Islands. Growth in that industry is
hampered, however, by lack of infrastructure and transportation limitations.
Solomon Islands Government was insolvent by 2002. Since the RAMSI intervention in 2003, the government has
recast its budget. It has consolidated and renegotiated its domestic debt and with Australian backing, is now seeking
to renegotiate its foreign obligations. Principal aid donors are Australia, New Zealand, the European Union, Japan,
and the Republic of China.
Recently, Solomon Islands courts have re-approved the export of live dolphins for profit, most recently to Dubai,
United Arab Emirates. This practice was originally stopped by the government in 2004 after international uproar
over a shipment of 28 live dolphins to Mexico. The move resulted in criticism from both Australia and New Zealand
as well as several conservation organisations.

Energy
A team of renewable energy developers working for the Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC)
and funded by the Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership (REEEP), have hatched a scheme that
enables these communities to access renewable energy, such as solar, without raising substantial sums of ready cash.
They also use water and wind power. If the islanders were not able to pay for solar lanterns with cash, reasoned the
project developers, they can pay with crops.[21]

Solomon Islands

Demographics
Main article: Demographics of the Solomon Islands
As of 2006, the majority of the 552,438people in Solomon Islands are ethnically Melanesian (94.5%). Polynesian
(3%) and Micronesian (1.2%) are the two other significant groups.[22] There are a few thousand ethnic Chinese.[]
The number of local languages listed for Solomon Islands is 74, of which 70 are living languages and 4 are extinct,
according to Ethnologue, Languages of the World.[23] On the central islands, Melanesian languages (predominantly
of the Southeast Solomonic group) are spoken. On the outliers, Rennell and Bellona to the south, Tikopia, Anuta and
Fatutaka to the far east, Sikaiana to the north east, and Luaniua to the north (Ontong Java Atoll, also known as Lord
Howe Atoll), Polynesian languages are spoken. The immigrant population of Gilbertese (i-Kiribati) speaks a
Micronesian language. While English is the official language, only 12% of the population speak English; the lingua
franca is Solomons Pijin.
About 10% of the population of Solomon Islands has blond hair, a native trait that is not the result of intermarriage
with Europeans, but due to a variant of the TYRP1 gene which causes blond hair. The allele is absent in the
European genome.

Health
Female life expectancy at birth was at 66.7 years and male life expectancy at birth at 64.9 in 2007.[24] 19901995
fertility rate was at 5.5 births per woman. Government expenditure on health per capita was at US$99 (PPP). Healthy
life expectancy at birth is at 60 years.

Religion
Main article: Religion in the Solomon Islands
The religion of Solomon Islands is mainly Christian (comprising about 92% of the population). The main Christian
denominations are: the Anglican Church of Melanesia 35%, Roman Catholic 19%, South Seas Evangelical Church
17%, United Church in Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands 11% and Seventh-day Adventist 10%. Another
5% adhere to aboriginal beliefs. The remaining adhere to Islam, the Baha'i Faith, Jehovah's Witnesses, the Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), According to the most recent reports, Islam in the Solomon Islands is
made up of approximately 350 Muslims, including members of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community.

65

Solomon Islands

66

Culture
Main article: Culture of the Solomon Islands
In the traditional culture of the Solomon Islands, age-old customs
are handed down from one generation to the next, allegedly from
the ancestral spirits themselves, to form the cultural values of the
Solomon Islands.

Media
Radio
Radio is the most influential type of media in Solomon Islands due
to language differences, illiteracy,[25] and the difficulty of
receiving television signals in some parts of the country. The
Solomon Islands Broadcasting Corporation (SIBC) operates public
radio services, including the national stations Radio Happy Isles
1037 on the dial and Wantok FM 96.3, and the provincial stations
Radio Happy Lagoon and, formerly, Radio Temotu. There are two
commercial FM stations, Z FM at 99.5 in Honiara but receivable
over a large majority of island out from Honiara, and, PAOA FM
at 97.7 in Honiara (also broadcasting on 107.5 in Auki), and, one
community FM radio station, Gold Ridge FM on 88.7.
A Malaitan Chief.

Newspapers
There is one daily newspaper Solomon Star <http://www.solomonstarnews.com> and one daily online news website
Solomon Times Online ( www.solomontimes.com [26]), 2 weekly papers Solomons Voice and Solomon Times, and 2
monthly papers Agrikalsa Nius and the Citizen's Press.
Television
There are no TV services that cover the entire Solomon Islands, but satellite TV stations can be received. However,
in Honiara, there is a free-to-air channel called One Television, and rebroadcast ABC Asia Pacific (from Australia's
ABC) and BBC World News. As of Dec 2010, residents could subscribe to SATSOL [27], a digital pay TV service,
re-transmitting satellite television.

Literature and music

See also: Music of Solomon Islands
Writers from Solomon Islands include the novelists Rexford Orotaloa and John Saunana and the poet Jully Makini.
Traditional Melanesian music in the Solomon Islands includes both group and solo vocals, slit-drum and panpipe
ensembles. In the 1920s, bamboo music gained a following. In the 1950s, Edwin Nanau Sitori composed the song
"Walkabout long Chinatown", which has been referred to by the government as the unofficial "national song" of the
Solomon Islands.[28] Modern Solomon Islander popular music includes various kinds of rock and reggae as well as
island music.

Solomon Islands

Sport
See also: Rugby union in Solomon Islands
Solomon Islands national teams in football and related sports (futsal and beach soccer) have proved among the most
successful in Oceania.
The Solomon Islands national football team became the first team to beat New Zealand in qualifying for a play-off
spot against Australia for qualification to the World Cup 2006. They were defeated 70 in Australia and 21 at
home.
On 14 June 2008, the Solomon Islands national futsal team, the Kurukuru, won the Oceania Futsal Championship in
Fiji to qualify them for the 2008 FIFA Futsal World Cup, which was held in Brazil from 30 September to 19 October
2008. Solomon Islands is the futsal defending champions in the Oceania region. In 2008 and 2009 the Kurukuru won
the Oceania Futsal Championship in Fiji. In 2009 they defeated the host nation Fiji, 80, to claim the title. The
Kurukuru currently hold the world record for the fastest ever goal scored in an official futsal match. It was set by
Kurukuru captain Elliot Ragomo, who scored against New Caledonia three seconds into the game in July 2009.[29]
They also, however, hold the less enviable record for the worst defeat in the history of the Futsal World Cup, when
in 2008 they were beaten by Russia with two goals to thirty-one.[30]
The Solomon Islands' beach soccer team, the Bilikiki Boys, are statistically the most successful team in Oceania.
They have won all three regional championships to date, thereby qualifying on each occasion for the FIFA Beach
Soccer World Cup. The Bilikiki Boys are ranked fourteenth in the world as of 2010, higher than any other team from
Oceania.[31]
The Solomon Islands national rugby union team has been playing internationals since 1969. It took part in the
Oceania qualifying tournament for the 2003 and 2007 Rugby World Cups, but failed to qualify on each occasion.

Education
Education in Solomon Islands is not compulsory and only 60 percent
of school-age children have access to primary education.[32]
From 1990 to 1994, the gross primary school enrolment rose from 84.5
percent to 96.6 percent. Primary school attendance rates were
unavailable for Solomon Islands as of 2001. While enrolment rates
indicate a level of commitment to education, they do not always reflect
children's participation in school. Efforts and plans made by the
Department of Education and Human Resource Development to
expand educational facilities and increase enrolment have been
Children at the school in Tuo village, Fenualoa.
hindered by a lack of government funding, misguided teacher training
programs, poor co-ordination of programs, and a failure of the
government to pay teachers. The percentage of the government's budget allocated to education was 9.7 percent in
1998, down from 13.2 percent in 1990.
Male educational attainment tends to be higher than female educational attainment. The University of the South
Pacific has a Campus in Solomon Islands while the University of Papua New Guinea has also established a foothold
in the country at Guadalcanal.[33]

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Solomon Islands

Notes
[1] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Solomon_Islands& params=9_28_S_159_49_E_type:country
[2] Lord GORONWY-ROBERTS, speaking in the House of Lords, HL Deb 27 April 1978 vol 390 cc2003-19 (http:/ / hansard. millbanksystems.
com/ lords/ 1978/ apr/ 27/ solomon-islands-bill-hl)
[3] British Solomon Islands (Name of Territory) Order 1975 (S.I. 1975 No. 808)
[4] Sheppard, Peter J. "Lapita Colonization Across the Near/Remote Boundary" Current Anthropology, Vol 53, No. 6 (Dec 2011), p. 800
[5] Kirch, Patrick Vinton (2002). On the Road of the Winds: An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=qQ0ApgIOPtEC& dq=on+ the+ road+ of+ the+ winds& pg=PP1& ots=Xau5vtVLvU& sig=d68IBljvyU7n45mBsKx8yFjOE0E&
prev=http:/ / www. google. com/ search?hl=en& q=on+ the+ road+ of+ the+ winds& btnG=Google+ Search& sa=X& oi=print&
ct=title#PPP6,M1). Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-23461-8
[6] " From primitive to postcolonial in Melanesia and anthropology (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=YM18gG16Z7YC& pg=PA103&
dq& hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false)". Bruce M. Knauft (1999). University of Michigan Press. p. 103. ISBN 0-472-06687-0
[7] "History of the Solomon Islands" http:/ / motherearthtravel. com/ solomon_islands/ history. htm, accessed 10 Dec 2013
[8] The Battle for Guadalcanal (http:/ / www. npr. org/ programs/ re/ archivesdate/ 2002/ aug/ guadalcanal/ index. html). NPR: National Public
Radio.
[9] Elmer Belmont Potter, Roger Fredland, Henry Hitch Adams (1981) Sea power: a naval history (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=zql2rWh6QAsC& pg=PA310). Naval Institute Press ISBN 0-87021-607-4 p. 310
[10] Untitled Document (http:/ / www. commerce. gov. sb/ Gov/ Peace_Agreement. htm) at www.commerce.gov.sb
[11] Solomon Is: Failed State or Not Failed State? (http:/ / www. pacificislands. cc/ pina/ pinadefault. php?urlpinaid=9609) 29 October 2003.
Pacific Magazine'.' Retrieved 4 May 2006.
[12] Pillars and Shadows: Statebuilding as Peacebuilding in Solomon Islands, J. Braithwaite, S. Dinnen, M.Allen, V. Braithwaite & H.
Charlesworth, Canberra, ANU E Press: 2010.
[13] "Solomon Islands earthquake and tsunami" (http:/ / www. breakinglegalnews. com/ entry/ Solomon-Islands-earthquake-and-tsunami),
Breaking Legal News International, 4 March 2007
[14] "Aid reaches tsunami-hit Solomons" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ asia-pacific/ 6520461. stm), BBC News, 3 April 2007
[15] Quake lifts Solomons island metres from the sea (http:/ / www. physorg. com/ news95163840. html)
[16] Earthquake hits near Solomon Islands (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ world-asia-27006985), BBC News, 13 April 2014
[17] CIA The World Factbook Solomon Islands (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ bp. html)
[18] Sireheti, Joanna., & Joy Basi, "Solomon Islands PM Defeated in No-Confidence Motion" (http:/ / www. solomontimes. com/ news.
aspx?nwID=1090), Solomon Times, 13 December 2007
[19] Tuhaika, Nina., "New Prime Minister for Solomon Islands" (http:/ / www. solomontimes. com:80/ news. aspx?nwID=1130), Solomon
Times, 20 December 2007
[20] "Solomon Islands parliament elects new PM" (http:/ / www. radioaustralia. net. au/ news/ stories/ s2123875. htm), ABC Radio Australia,
20 December 2007
[21] Solomon Islands Solar: A New Microfinance Concept Takes Root (http:/ / www. renewableenergyworld. com/ rea/ news/ article/ 2009/ 04/
solomon-islands-solar-a-new-microfinance-concept-takes-root?cmpid=WNL-Wednesday-April8-2009). Renewable Energy World. Retrieved
on 24 September 2010.
[22] CIA World Factbook. Country profile: Solomon Islands (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ bp. html).
Retrieved 21 October 2006.
[23] Ethnologue report for Solomon Islands (http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ show_country. asp?name=SB). Ethnologue.com. Retrieved on 24
September 2010.
[24] Human Development Report 2009 Solomon Islands (http:/ / hdrstats. undp. org/ en/ countries/ data_sheets/ cty_ds_SLB. html).
Hdrstats.undp.org. Retrieved on 24 September 2010.
[25] BBC News. Country profile: Solomon Islands (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ asia-pacific/ country_profiles/ 1249307. stm).
Retrieved 4 May 2006.
[26] http:/ / www. solomontimes. com
[27] http:/ / www. satsol. tv
[28] "Wakabauti long Chinatown: The song, the composers, the storyline" (http:/ / www. pmc. gov. sb/ content/
wakabauti-long-chinatown-song-composers-storyline), Office of the Prime Minister of Solomon Islands
[29] "RAGOMO BEATS WORLD RECORD....to score the fastest futsal goal" (http:/ / solomonstarnews. com/ index.
php?option=com_content& task=view& id=10142& change=100& changeown=102& Itemid=42), Solomon Star, 15 July 2009
[30] "Russia Beats Kurukuru 312" (http:/ / www. solomontimes. com/ news. aspx?nwID=2758), Solomon Times, 7 October 2008
[31] "Bilikiki ranked fourteenth in the world" (http:/ / www. solomonstarnews. com/ sports/ national/
2347-bilikiki-ranked-fourteenth-in-the-world), Solomon Star, 29 January 2010
[32] "Solomon Islands" (http:/ / www. dol. gov/ ilab/ media/ reports/ iclp/ tda2001/ Solomon-islands. htm). 2001 Findings on the Worst Forms of
Child Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, United States Department of Labor (2002). This article incorporates text from this source,
which is in the public domain.
[33] Home (http:/ / www. usp. ac. fj/ index. php?id=campus). USP. Retrieved on 24 September 2010.

68

Solomon Islands

External links
Government
Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet (http://www.pmc.gov.sb/)
General information
Solomon Islands (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bp.html) entry at The
World Factbook

69

Vanuatu

70

Vanuatu
Republic of Vanuatu
Ripablik blong Vanuatu(Bislama)
Rpublique de Vanuatu(French)

Flag

Coat of arms

Motto:"Long God yumi stanap"(Bislama)

[1][2]
"In God we stand"
Anthem:Yumi, Yumi, Yumi(Bislama)
We, We, We

Capital
and largest city
Official languages

Ethnicgroups (1999)
Demonym
Government

Port Vila
[3]
1745S 16818E

Bislama
French
English

98.5% Ni-Vanuatu
1.5% others

Ni-Vanuatu
Unitary parliamentary republic

- President

Iolu Abil

- Prime Minister

Joe Natuman

Legislature

Parliament
Independence

- from France and the United Kingdom 30 July 1980

Vanuatu

71
Area
- Total

12,190km2 (161st)
4,710sqmi
Population

- July 2011estimate

224,564

- 2009census

243,304

- Density

19.7/km2 (188th)
51/sqmi

GDP(PPP)

2011estimate

- Total

$1.204 billion

- Per capita

$4,916

GDP(nominal)

2011estimate

- Total

$743 million

- Per capita

$3,036

HDI (2013)

0.626
medium 124th
Currency

Vanuatu vatu (VUV)

Time zone

VUT (Vanuatu Time) (UTC+11)

Drives on the

right

Calling code

+678

ISO 3166 code

VU

Internet TLD

.vu

i
Vanuatu (English
/vnutu/ vah-noo-AH-too or /vnwtu/ van-WAH-too; Bislama IPA:[vanuatu]),
officially the Republic of Vanuatu (French: Rpublique de Vanuatu, Bislama: Ripablik blong Vanuatu), is an island
nation located in the South Pacific Ocean. The archipelago, which is of volcanic origin, is some 1,750 kilometres
(1,090mi) east of northern Australia, 500 kilometres (310mi) northeast of New Caledonia, west of Fiji, and
southeast of the Solomon Islands, near New Guinea.

Vanuatu was first inhabited by Melanesian people. The first Europeans to visit the islands were a Spanish expedition
led by Portuguese navigator Fernandes de Queirs, who arrived in Espiritu Santo in 1605; he claimed the
archipelago for Spain and named it Espiritu Santo (Spanish for Holy Spirit). In the 1880s France and the United
Kingdom claimed parts of the country, and in 1906 they agreed on a framework for jointly managing the archipelago
as the New Hebrides through a BritishFrench Condominium. An independence movement arose in the 1970s, and
the Republic of Vanuatu was founded in 1980.
The nation's name was derived from the word vanua ("land" or "home"), which occurs in several Austronesian
languages,[4] and the word tu ("stand"). Together the two words indicated the independent status of the new country.

Vanuatu

History
Main article: History of Vanuatu
The prehistory of Vanuatu is obscure; archaeological evidence supports the commonly held theory that people
speaking Austronesian languages first came to the islands some 4,000 years ago. Pottery fragments have been found
dating to 13001100 BC.[5]
The Vanuatu group of islands first had contact with Europeans in 1606 when the Portuguese explorer Pedro
Fernandes de Queirs, working for the Spanish Crown, arrived on Espiritu Santo and called it La Austrialia del
Espiritu Santo or "The Southern Land of the Holy Spirit." He thought he had arrived in Terra Australis or Australia.
Europeans did not return until 1768, when Louis Antoine de Bougainville rediscovered the islands. In 1774, Captain
Cook named the islands the New Hebrides, a name that would last until independence in 1980.
In 1825, the trader Peter Dillon discovered sandalwood on the island of Erromango, which began a rush of
immigrants that ended in 1830, after a clash between immigrants and Polynesian workers. During the 1860s, planters
in Australia, Fiji, New Spain, and the Samana Islands, in need of labourers, encouraged a long-term indentured
labour trade called "blackbirding". At the height of the labour trade, more than one half of the adult male population
of several of the islands worked abroad. Fragmentary evidence indicates that the current population of Vanuatu is
greatly reduced compared to pre-contact times.
In the 19th century, Catholic and Protestant missionaries from Europe and North America went to the islands to
work with the people. For example, John Geddie (18151872), a Scots-Canadian Presbyterian missionary, arrived at
the island of Aneityum in 1848; he spent the rest of his life there, working to convert the inhabitants to Christianity
and western ways. John Gibson Paton was a Scottish missionary who devoted his life to the region.
Settlers came looking for land on which to establish cotton plantations. When international cotton prices collapsed,
planters switched to coffee, cocoa, bananas, and, most successfully, coconuts. Initially, British subjects from
Australia made up the majority of settlers, but the establishment of the Caledonian Company of the New Hebrides in
1882 attracted more French subjects. By the start of the 20th century, the French outnumbered the British two to one.
The jumbling of French and British interests in the islands brought petitions for one or another of the two powers to
annex the territory. In 1906, France and the United Kingdom agreed to administer the islands jointly. Called the
British-French Condominium, it was a unique form of government. The separate governmental systems came
together only in a joint court. Melanesians were barred from acquiring the citizenship of either power.
Challenges to this form of government began in the early 1940s. The arrival of Americans during World War II, with
their informal habits and relative wealth, contributed to the rise of nationalism in the islands. The belief in a mythical
messianic figure named John Frum was the basis for an indigenous cargo cult (a movement attempting to obtain
industrial goods through magic) promising Melanesian deliverance. Today, John Frum is both a religion and a
political party with a member in Parliament.
The first political party, established in the early 1970s, was called the New Hebrides National Party. One of the
founders was Father Walter Lini, who later became Prime Minister. Renamed the Vanua'aku Pati in 1974, the party
pushed for independence; in 1980, amidst the brief Coconut War, the Republic of Vanuatu was created.
During the 1990s, Vanuatu experienced a period of political instability which resulted in a more decentralised
government. The Vanuatu Mobile Force, a paramilitary group, attempted a coup in 1996 because of a pay dispute.
There were allegations of corruption in the government of Maxime Carlot Korman. New elections have been called
for several times since 1997, most recently in 2004.

72

Vanuatu

73

Geography
Main article: Geography of Vanuatu
Vanuatu is an island archipelago consisting of approximately 82
relatively small, geologically newer islands of volcanic origin (65 of
them inhabited), with about 1,300 kilometres (810mi) north to south
distance between the outermost islands. Two of these islands (Matthew
and Hunter) are also claimed by France as part of the French
collectivity of New Caledonia. Fourteen of Vanuatu's islands have
surface areas of more than 100 square kilometres (39sqmi). The
country lies between latitudes 13 and 21S and longitudes 166 and
171E.

Cinder plain of Mount Yasur on Tanna island.

From largest to smallest, the islands are Espiritu Santo, Malakula, Efate, Erromango, Ambrym, Tanna, Pentecost,
Epi, Ambae or Aoba, Vanua Lava, Gaua, Maewo, Malo, and Anatom or Aneityum. The nation's largest towns are the
capital Port Vila, on Efate, and Luganville on Espiritu Santo. The highest point in Vanuatu is Mount Tabwemasana,
at 1,879 metres (6,165ft), on the island of Espiritu Santo.
Vanuatu's total area is roughly 12,274 square kilometres (4,739sqmi), of which its land surface is very limited
(roughly 4,700 square kilometres (1,800sqmi)). Most of the islands are steep, with unstable soils and little
permanent fresh water. One estimate made in 2005 is that only 9% of land is used for agriculture (7% with
permanent crops, plus 2% considered arable). The shoreline is mostly rocky with fringing reefs and no continental
shelf, dropping rapidly into the ocean depths.
There are several active volcanoes in Vanuatu, including Lopevi and several underwater volcanoes. Volcanic activity
is common, with an ever-present danger of a major eruption; a recent nearby undersea eruption of 6.4 magnitude
occurred in November 2008 with no casualties, and an eruption occurred in 1945. Vanuatu is recognised as a distinct
terrestrial ecoregion, known as the Vanuatu rain forests. It is part of the Australasia ecozone, which includes New
Caledonia, the Solomon Islands, Australia, New Guinea, and New Zealand.
Vanuatu's population (estimated in 2008 as growing 2.4% annually)[6]
is placing increasing pressure on land and resources for agriculture,
grazing, hunting, and fishing. Some 90% of Vanuatu households fish
and consume fish, which has caused intense fishing pressure near
villages and the depletion of near-shore fish species. While well
vegetated, most islands show signs of deforestation. The islands have
been logged, particularly of high-value timber, subjected to wide-scale
slash-and-burn agriculture, and converted to coconut plantations and
cattle ranches, and now show evidence of increased soil erosion and
landslides.

A stream on Efate island

Many upland watersheds are being deforested and degraded, and fresh water is becoming increasingly scarce. Proper
waste disposal, as well as water and air pollution, are becoming troublesome issues around urban areas and large
villages. Additionally, the lack of employment opportunities in industry and inaccessibility to markets have
combined to lock rural families into a subsistence or self-reliance mode, putting tremendous pressure on local
ecosystems.

Vanuatu

74

Flora and fauna

Despite its tropical forests, Vanuatu has a limited number of plant and animal species. There are no indigenous large
mammals. The nineteen species of native reptiles include the flowerpot snake, found only on Efate. The Fiji Banded
Iguana (Brachylophus fasciatus) was introduced as a feral animal in the 1960s. There are eleven species of bats
(three unique to Vanuatu) and sixty-one species of land and water birds. While the small Polynesian rat is thought to
be indigenous, the large species arrived with Europeans, as did domesticated hogs, dogs, and cattle. The ant species
of some of the islands of Vanuatu were catalogued by E. O. Wilson.[7]
The region is rich in sea life, with more than 4,000 species of marine molluscs and a large diversity of marine fishes.
Coneshell and stonefish carry poison fatal to humans. The Giant East African land snail arrived only in the 1970s but
already has spread from the Port-Vila region to Luganville.
There are three or possibly four adult saltwater crocodiles living in Vanuatu's mangroves and no current breeding
population. It is said the crocodiles reached the northern part of the islands after cyclones, given the island chain's
proximity to the Solomon Islands and New Guinea where crocodiles are very common.

Climate
The climate is tropical, with approximately nine months of warm to hot
rainy weather and the possibility of cyclones and three to four months
of cooler, drier weather characterized by winds from the southeast. The
water temperature ranges from 72F (22C) in winter to 82F (28C)
in the summer.[] Cool between April and September, the days become
hotter and more humid starting in October. The daily temperature
ranges from 68 to 90F (20 to 32C). South easterly trade winds occur
from May to October.
Vanuatu has a long rainy season, with significant rainfall almost every
month. The wettest and hottest months are December through April,
which also constitute the cyclone season. The driest months are June
through November. Rainfall averages about 2,360 millimetres (93in)
per year but can be as high as 4,000 millimetres (160in) in the
northern islands.

Earthquakes
Main article: Earthquakes in Vanuatu
Vanuatu has relatively frequent earthquakes. Seven earthquakes were
recorded in 2011, all of which were at least a 6.0 magnitude.

Eratap Beach, Vanuatu

Vanuatu

75

Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Vanuatu

Demographics of Vanuatu, Data of FAO, year 2005; Number of inhabitants in

thousands.

Vanuatu has a population of 221,506. Males

outnumber females; in 1999, according to
the Vanuatu Statistics Office, there were
95,682 males and 90,996 females. Official
statistics show infant mortality declined
during the last half of the twentieth century,
from 123 deaths per 1,000 population in
1967 to 25 per 1,000 in 1999. However, the
CIA states 46.85 infant deaths per 1,000 live
births in their 2011 estimates. The
population is predominantly rural, although
Port Vila and Luganville have populations
in the tens of thousands.

The inhabitants of Vanuatu are called

Ni-Vanuatu in English, using a recent coinage. The Ni-Vanuatu are primarily (98.5%) of Melanesian descent, with
the remainder made up of a mix of Europeans, Asians and other Pacific islanders. Three islands were historically
colonized by Polynesians. About 2,000 Ni-Vanuatu live and work in New Caledonia. In 2006 the New Economics
Foundation and Friends of the Earth environmentalist group published the Happy Planet Index which analysed data
on levels of reported happiness, life expectancy and Ecological Footprint and estimated Vanuatu to be the most
ecologically efficient country in the world in achieving high well-being.

Vanuatu

Government
Administrative divisions
Main article: Provinces of Vanuatu
Vanuatu has been divided into six provinces
since 1994. The names in English of all
provinces are derived from the initial letters
of their constituent islands:
Malampa (Malakula, Ambrym, Paama)
Penama (Pentecost, Ambae, Maewo in
French: Pnama)
Sanma (Santo, Malo)
Shefa (Shepherds group, Efate in
French: Shfa)
Tafea (Tanna, Aniwa, Futuna,
Erromango, Aneityum in French:
Tafa)
Torba (Torres Islands, Banks Islands).
Provinces are autonomous units with their
own popularly elected local parliaments
known officially as provincial councils.
They collect local taxes and make by-laws
in local matters like tourism, the provincial
budget or the provision of some basic
Provinces of Vanuatu
services. They are headed by a chairman
elected from among the members of the
local parliaments and assisted by a secretary appointed by the Public Service Commission.
Their executive arm consists of a provincial government headed by an executive officer who is appointed by the
Prime Minister with the advice of the minister of local government. The provincial government is usually formed by
the party that has the majority in the provincial council and, like the national government, is advised in Ni-Vanuatu
culture and language by the local council of chiefs. The provincial president is constitutionally a member of the
electoral college that elects the President of Vanuatu.
The provinces are in turn divided into municipalities (usually consisting of an individual island) headed by a council
and a mayor elected from among the members of the council.

76

Vanuatu

77

Politics
Main article: Politics of Vanuatu
The Republic of Vanuatu is a parliamentary democracy with a written
constitution, which declares that the "head of the Republic shall be
known as the President and shall symbolise the unity of the nation."
The powers of the President of Vanuatu, who is elected for a five-year
term by a two-thirds majority of an electoral college, are primarily
ceremonial. The electoral college consists of members of Parliament
and the presidents of Regional Councils. The President may be
removed by the electoral college for gross misconduct or incapacity.

The Parliament of Vanuatu

The Prime Minister, who is the head of government, is elected by a

majority vote of a three-quarters quorum of the Parliament. The Prime
Minister, in turn, appoints the Council of Ministers, whose number
may not exceed a quarter of the number of parliamentary
representatives. The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers
constitute the executive government.
The Parliament of Vanuatu is unicameral and has 54 members, who are
elected by popular vote every four years unless earlier dissolved by a
majority vote of a three-quarters quorum or by a directive from the
President on the advice of the Prime Minister. The national Council of
Chiefs, called the Malvatu Mauri and elected by district councils of
chiefs, advises the government on all matters concerning ni-Vanuatu
culture and language.
Besides national authorities and figures, Vanuatu also has high-placed
people at the village level. Chiefs were and are still the leading figures
on village level. It has been reported that even politicians need to
oblige them.[8] One becomes such a figure by holding a number of
lavish feasts (each feast allowing them a higher ceremonial grade) or
alternatively
through
inheritance
(the
latter
only
in
Polynesian-influenced villages). In northern Vanuatu, feasts are graded
through the nimangki-system.
Government and society in Vanuatu tend to divide along linguistic
French and English lines. Forming coalition governments, however,
has proved problematic at times due to differences between English
and French speakers.

Map of Vanuatu

The Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and up to three other judges. Two or more members of this court may
constitute a Court of Appeal. Magistrate courts handle most routine legal matters. The legal system is based on
British common law and French civil law. The constitution also provides for the establishment of village or island
courts presided over by chiefs to deal with questions of customary law.

Vanuatu

Foreign relations and military

Main articles: Foreign relations of Vanuatu and Law enforcement in Vanuatu
Vanuatu has joined the Asian Development Bank, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the Agence de
Coopration Culturelle et Technique, la Francophonie and the Commonwealth of Nations.
Since 1980, Australia, the United Kingdom (UK), France, and New Zealand have provided the bulk of Vanuatu's
development aid. Direct aid from the UK to Vanuatu ceased in 2005 following the decision by the UK to no longer
focus on the Pacific. However, more recently new donors such as the Millennium Challenge Account (MCA) and the
People's Republic of China have been providing increased amounts of aid funding. In 2005 the MCA announced that
Vanuatu was one of the first 15 countries in the world selected to receive supportan amount of US$65million was
given for the provision and upgrading of key pieces of public infrastructure.
Vanuatu retains strong economic and cultural ties to Australia, the European Union (in particular France and UK)
and New Zealand. Australia now provides the bulk of external assistance, including the police force, which has a
paramilitary wing.
There are two police wings: the Vanuatu Police Force (VPF) and the paramilitary wing, the Vanuatu Mobile Force
(VMF).[9] Altogether there were 547 police officers organized into two main police commands: one in Port Vila and
one in Luganville. In addition to the two command stations there were four secondary police stations and eight police
posts. This means that there are many islands with no police presence, and many parts of islands where getting to a
police post can take several days.[10] Total military expenditures are not available.[11]
There is no Vanuatu High Commission or other Vanuatu Government office in Britain, but the British Friends of
Vanuatu,[12] based in London, provides support for Vanuatu visitors to the UK, and can often offer advice and
contacts to persons seeking information about Vanuatu or wishing to visit, and welcomes new members (not
necessarily resident in the UK) interested in Vanuatu. The association's Charitable Trust funds small scale assistance
in the education and training sector.

Economy
Main article: Economy of Vanuatu
The four mainstays of the economy are agriculture, tourism, offshore
financial services, and raising cattle. There is substantial fishing
activity, although this industry does not bring in much foreign
exchange. Exports include copra, kava, beef, cocoa, and timber, and
imports include machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, and fuels. In
contrast, mining activity is unsubstantial. While manganese mining
halted in 1978, there was an agreement in 2006 to export manganese
already mined but not yet exported. The country has no known
petroleum deposits. A small light-industry sector caters to the local
Market hall in Port Vila
market. Tax revenues come mainly from import duties and a 12.5%
VAT on goods and services. Economic development is hindered by
dependence on relatively few commodity exports, vulnerability to natural disasters, and long distances between
constituent islands and from main markets.
Agriculture is used for consumption as well as for export. It provides a living for 65% of the population. In
particular,
production
of
copra
and
kava
create
substantial
revenue.
Many

78

Vanuatu

farmers have been abandoning cultivation of food crops, and use

earnings from kava cultivation to buy food. Kava has also been
used in ceremonial exchanges between clans and villages.[13]
Cocoa is also grown for foreign exchange.[14] In 2007, the number
of households engaged in fishing was 15,758, mainly for
consumption (99%), and the average number of weekly fishing
trips was 3.[15] The tropical climate enables growing of a wide
range of fruits and vegetables and spices, including banana, garlic,
cabbage, peanuts, pineapples, sugarcane, taro, yams, watermelons,
leaf spices, carrots, radishes, eggplants, vanilla (both green and
Graphical depiction of Vanuatu's product exports in 28
cured), pepper, cucumber, and many others.[16] In 2007, the value
color-coded categories.
(in terms of millions of vatu the official currency of Vanuatu),
for agricultural products, was estimated for different products:
kava (341 million vatu), copra (195), cattle (135), crop gardens (93), cocoa (59), forestry (56), fishing (24), coffee
(12).[17]
Tourism brings in much-needed foreign exchange. Vanuatu is widely recognized as one of the premier vacation
destinations for scuba divers wishing to explore coral reefs of the South Pacific region. Tourism increased 17% from
2007 to 2008 to reach 196,134 arrivals, according to one estimate. The 2008 total is a sharp increase from 2000, in
which there were only 57,000 visitors (of these, 37,000 were from Australia, 8,000 from New Zealand, 6,000 from
New Caledonia, 3,000 from Europe, 1,000 from North America, 1,000 from Japan. (Note: figures rounded to the
nearest thousand)). Tourism has been promoted, in part, by Vanuatu being the site of several reality-TV shows. The
ninth season of the reality TV series Survivor was filmed on Vanuatu, entitled Survivor: VanuatuIslands of Fire.
Two years later, Australia's Celebrity Survivor was filmed at the same location used by the U.S. version. In
mid-2002, the government stepped up efforts to boost tourism.
Financial services are an important part of the economy. Vanuatu is a tax haven that until 2008 did not release
account information to other governments or law-enforcement agencies. International pressure, mainly from
Australia, influenced the Vanuatu government to begin adhering to international norms to improve transparency. In
Vanuatu, there is no income tax, withholding tax, capital gains tax, inheritance tax, or exchange control. Many
international ship-management companies choose to flag their ships under the Vanuatu flag, because of the tax
benefits and favourable labour laws (Vanuatu is a full member of the International Maritime Organization and
applies its international conventions). Vanuatu is recognized as a "flag of convenience" country. Several file-sharing
groups, such as the providers of the KaZaA network of Sharman Networks and the developers of WinMX, have
chosen to incorporate in Vanuatu to avoid regulation and legal challenges. In response to foreign concerns the
government has promised to tighten regulation of its offshore financial centre. Vanuatu receives foreign aid mainly
from Australia and New Zealand.

79

Vanuatu

80

Raising cattle leads to beef production for export. One estimate in 2007 for the
total value of cattle heads sold was 135 million vatu; cattle were first introduced
into the area from Australia by British planter James Paddon.[18] On average,
each household has 5 pigs and 16 chickens, and while cattle are the "most
important livestock", pigs and chickens are important for subsistence agriculture
as well as playing a significant role in ceremonies and customs (especially
pigs).[19] There are 30 commercial farms (sole proprietorships (37%),
partnerships (23%), corporations (17%)), with revenues of 533 million vatu and
expenses of 329 million vatu in 2007.[20]
Earthquakes can negatively affect economic activity on the island nation. A
severe earthquake in November 1999, followed by a tsunami, caused extensive
damage to the northern island of Pentecost, leaving thousands homeless. Another
powerful earthquake in January 2002 caused extensive damage in the capital,
Port Vila, and surrounding areas, and was also followed by a tsunami. Another
earthquake of 7.2 struck on 2 August 2007.

Commercial agriculture, North Efate

The Vanuatu National Statistics Office (VNSO) released their 2007 agricultural census in 2008. According to the
study, agricultural exports make up about three-quarters (73%) of all exports; 80% of the population lives in rural
areas where "agriculture is the main source of their livelihood"; and of these households, almost all (99%) engaged
in agriculture, fisheries and forestry.[21] Total annual household income was 1,803 million vatu. Of this income,
agriculture grown for their own household use was valued at 683 million vatu, agriculture for sale at 561, gifts
received at 38, handicrafts at 33, and fisheries (for sale) at 18. The largest expenditure by households was food (300
million vatu), followed by household appliances and other necessities (79 million vatu), transportation (59),
education and services (56), housing (50), alcohol and tobacco (39), clothing and footwear (17).[22] Exports were
valued at 3,038 million vatu, and included copra (485), kava (442), cocoa (221), beef (fresh and chilled) (180),
timber (80), and fish (live fish, aquarium, shell, button) (28).[23] Total imports of 20,472 million vatu included
industrial materials (4,261), food and drink (3,984), machinery (3,087), consumer goods (2,767), transport
equipment (2,125), fuels and lubricants (187) and other imports (4,060).[24] There are substantial numbers of crop
gardens 97,888 in 2007 many on flat land (62%), slightly hilly slope (31%), and even on steep slopes (7%); there
were 33,570 households with at least one crop garden, and of these, 10,788 households sold some of these crops over
a twelve-month period.[25]
The economy grew about 6% in the early 2000s. This is higher than in the 1990s, when GDP rose less than 3%, on
average.
One report from the Manila-based Asian Development Bank about Vanuatu's economy gave mixed reviews. It noted
the economy was "expanding", noting that the economy grew at an impressive 5.9% rate from 2003 to 2007, and
lauded "positive signals regarding reform initiatives from the government in some areas" but described certain
binding constraints such as "poor infrastructure services". Since a private monopoly generates power, "electricity
costs are among the highest in the Pacific" among developing countries. The report also cited "weak governance and
intrusive interventions by the State" which reduced productivity.
Vanuatu was ranked the 173rd safest investment destination in the world in the March 2011 Euromoney Country
Risk rankings.

Vanuatu

81

Communications
Mobile phone service in the islands is provided by TVL and Digicel. A government broadband network has been
constructed, to provide email, telephone, internet and video conferencing facilities to government offices throughout
the country. Vanuatu became the 185th member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) in
December 2011.

Culture and society

Culture
Main article: Culture of Vanuatu
Vanuatu culture retains a strong diversity through local regional variations and
through foreign influence. Vanuatu may be divided into three major cultural
regions. In the north, wealth is established by how much one can give away.
Pigs, particularly those with rounded tusks, are considered a symbol of wealth
throughout Vanuatu. In the centre, more traditional Melanesian cultural systems
dominate. In the south, a system involving grants of title with associated
privileges has developed.
Young men undergo various coming-of-age ceremonies and rituals to initiate
them into manhood, usually including circumcision.
Most villages have a nakamal or village clubhouse which serves as a meeting
point for men and as a place to drink kava. Villages also have male- and
female-only sections. These sections are situated all over the villages; in
nakamals, special spaces are provided for females when they are in their
menstruation period.
There are few prominent ni-Vanuatu authors. Women's rights activist Grace
Mera Molisa, who died in 2002, achieved international notability as a descriptive
poet.

Music
Main article: Music of Vanuatu

Wooden slit drums from Vanuatu,

Bernice P. Bishop Museum

Vanuatu

82
The traditional music of Vanuatu is still
thriving in the rural areas of Vanuatu.
Musical instruments consist mostly of
idiophones: drums of various shape and
size, slit gongs, stamping tubes, as well
as rattles, among others. Another
musical genre that has become widely
popular during the 20th century in all
areas of Vanuatu, is known as string
band music. It combines guitars,
ukulele, and popular songs.

More recently the music of Vanuatu, as

an industry, grew rapidly in the 1990s
A women's dance from Vanuatu, using bamboo stamping tubes.
and several bands have forged a
distinctive ni-Vanuatu identity. Popular
genres of modern commercial music, which are currently being played in the urban areas include zouk music and
reggaeton. Reggaeton, a variation of rap/hip-hop spoken in the Spanish language, played alongside its own
distinctive beat, is especially played in the local nightclubs of Port Vila with, mostly, an audience of Westerners and
tourists.

Languages
Main article: Languages of Vanuatu
The national language of the Republic of Vanuatu is Bislama. The official languages are Bislama, French and
English. The principal languages of education are French and English.
Bislama is a pidgin language, and now a creole in urban areas. Essentially combining a typically Melanesian
grammar with a mostly English vocabulary, Bislama is the only language that can be understood and spoken by the
majority of Vanuatu's population as a second language.
In addition to this lingua franca, 113 indigenous languages are still actively spoken in Vanuatu. The density of
languages, per capita, is the highest of any nation in the world[26] with an average of only 2,000 speakers per
language. All vernacular languages of Vanuatu (i.e., excluding Bislama) belong to the Oceanic branch of the
Austronesian family.
In recent years, the use of Bislama as a first language has considerably encroached on indigenous languages, whose
use in the population has receded from 73.1 to 63.2 percent between 1999 and 2009.[27]

Religion
Main article: Religion in Vanuatu
Christianity is the predominant religion in Vanuatu, consisting of several denominations. The Presbyterian Church in
Vanuatu, adhered to by about one-third of the population, is the largest of them. Roman Catholic and Anglican are
other common denominations, each claiming about 15% of the population. Others are the Seventh-day Adventist
Church, the Church of Christ, Neil Thomas Ministries (NTM), as well as many other religious groups and
denominations.
Because of the modernities that the military in World War II brought with them when they came to the islands,
several cargo cults developed. Many died out, but the John Frum cult on Tanna is still large, and has adherents in the
parliament. Also on Tanna is the Prince Philip Movement, which reveres the United Kingdom's Prince Philip.[28]
Villagers of the Yaohnanen tribe believed in an ancient story about the pale-skinned son of a mountain spirit

Vanuatu
venturing across the seas to look for a powerful woman to marry. Prince Philip, having visited the island with his
new wife Queen Elizabeth, fit the description exactly and is therefore revered and even held as a god around the isle
of Tanna.[29]

Cuisine
Main article: Cuisine of Vanuatu
The cuisine of Vanuatu (aelan kakae) incorporates fish, root vegetables such as taro and yams, fruits, and
vegetables. Most island families grow food in their gardens, and food shortages are rare. Papayas, pineapples,
mangoes, plantains, and sweet potatoes are abundant through much of the year. Coconut milk and cream are used to
flavor many dishes. Most food is cooked using hot stones or through boiling and steaming; very little food is fried.
The national dish of Vanuatu is the lap lap.[30]

Health and education

Vanuatu has a tropical climate and over 80% of the population lives in rural, isolated villages with access to their
own gardens and food supplies. These geographically isolated communities have minimal access to basic health and
education services. Churches and non-government organizations provide a minimal level of support to many rural
villages. Vanuatu government health and education services are hard pressed to deal with the rapid increase of urban
and peri-urban populations in informal and squatter settlements around Port Vila and to a lesser extent in
Luganville.[31] Health services in Port Vila and Luganville provide reasonable health care, often supported and
enhanced by visiting doctors.
Education is not compulsory, and school enrollments and attendance are among the lowest in the Pacific. A 1999
estimate for the literacy rate of people aged 1524 years was about 87% and a 2006 estimate for adult literacy was
78%, although the actual figures are likely to be much lower. The rate of primary school enrolment rose from 74.5%
in 1989 to 78.2% in 1999 and then to 93.0% in 2004 but then fell to 85.4% in 2007. The proportion of pupils
completing a primary education fell from 90% in 1991 to 72% in 2004 and up to 78% in 2012.
Port Vila and three other centres have campuses of the University of the South Pacific, an educational institution
co-owned by twelve Pacific countries. The campus in Port Vila, known as the Emalus Campus, houses the
University's law school.

Sports
Main article: Sport in Vanuatu

References
[1] John Lynch and Fa'afo Pat (eds), Proceedings of the first International Conference on Oceanic Linguistics, Australian National University,
1993, p. 319.
[2] G. W. Trompf, The Gospel Is Not Western: Black Theologies from the Southwest Pacific, Orbis Books, 1987, p. 184.
[3] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Vanuatu& params=17_45_S_168_18_E_type:country
[4] Vanua in turns comes from the Proto-Austronesian banua see Thomas Anton Reuter, Custodians of the Sacred Mountains: Culture and
Society in the Highlands of Bali (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=oP0s2861LqUC& pg=PA29), University of Hawaii Press, 2002, p. 29;
and Thomas Anton Reuter, Sharing the Earth, Dividing the Land: Land and Territory in the Austronesian World (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=Y43gLk8IyeEC& pg=PA326), ANU E Press, 2006, p. 326.
[5] "Background Note: Vanuatu" (http:/ / www. state. gov/ r/ pa/ ei/ bgn/ 2815. htm). U.S. Department of State (April 2008). This article
incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
[6] Asia Development Bank Vanuatu Economic Report 2009
[7] * E. O. Wilson, Naturalist, 1994, Shearwater Books, ISBN 1-55963-288-7
[8] Lonely Planet:Vanuatu
[9] The Vanuatu Police Force (http:/ / epress. anu. edu. au/ kastom/ mobile_devices/ ch05s02. html). Epress.anu.edu.au. Retrieved on 17 April
2012.

83

Vanuatu
[10] Vanuatu Military 2012 (http:/ / www. theodora. com/ wfbcurrent/ vanuatu/ vanuatu_military. html). theodora.com
[11] Vanuatu Military Profile 2012 (http:/ / www. indexmundi. com/ vanuatu/ military_profile. html). Indexmundi.com (12 July 2011). Retrieved
on 17 April 2012.
[12] The British Friends of Vanuatu (http:/ / www. british-friends-of-vanuatu. com/ index. html) website
[13] Census of Agriculture 2007 (page 33 5.2)
[14] Census of Agriculture 2007 (page 49 7.2)
[15] Census of Agriculture 2007 (page 77 13.1)
[16] Census of Agriculture 2007 (page 114 table 4.17)
[17] Census of Agriculture 2007 (various pages)
[18] Census of Agriculture 2007 (page 67 11.1)
[19] Census of Agriculture 2007 (page 73 12.1)
[20] Census of Agriculture 2007 (page 97 15.1)
[21] Census of Agriculture 2007 (page 18)
[22] Census of Agriculture 2007 (page 19 table 2.5)
[23] Census of Agriculture 2007 (page 19 table 2.6)
[24] Census of Agriculture 2007 (page 20 Table 2.7)
[25] Census of Agriculture 2007 (page 27 Table 4.1)
[26] Crowley, Terry. 2000. The language situation in Vanuatu (http:/ / books. google. fr/ books?hl=fr& lr=& id=INhL6k_89QoC& oi=fnd&
pg=PA154& ots=uffi8KMups& sig=uzQu5d61th2c3fSOUnHqXNRnzsc#v=onepage& q& f=false). In Language Planning and Policy in the
Pacific: Fiji, the Philippines and Vanuatu, ed. by Richard B. Baldauf,Robert B. Kaplan.
[27] , p.104.
[28] Fifty facts about the Duke of Edinburgh (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070630224006/ http:/ / www. royal. gov. uk/ output/ page913.
asp). royal.gov.uk (25 January 2002)
[29] Shears, Richard. Is Prince Philip a god? (http:/ / www. mailonsunday. co. uk/ pages/ live/ articles/ news/ news. html?in_article_id=388901&
in_page_id=1770), Mail on Sunday, 3 June 2006, downloaded 15 February 2007.
[30] The secrets of Vanuatu's national dish, the Lap Lap (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ correspondents/ content/ 2008/ s2528790. htm) Retrieved
December 2013
[31] Asian Development Bank. Vanuatu economic report 2009: accelerating reform. Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Asian Development Bank,
2009.

Bibliography
Census of Agriculture 2007 Vanuatu (http://www.phtpacific.org/content/vut-agriculture-census-2007),
Vanuatu National Statistics Office (2008)

Further reading

Atlas du Vanouatou (Vanuatu), 2009, (1re dition), 392 p., by Patricia Simoni, Port-Vila, ditions Go-consulte
Arts of Vanuatu by Jol Bonnemaison et al.
Birds of the Solomons, Vanuatu & New Caledonia by various
Birds of Vanuatu by Heinrich L. Bregulla
Cavorting With Cannibals: An Exploration of Vanuatu by Rick Williamson
Diving and Snorkelling Guide to Vanuatu by various
Ethnology of Vanuatu: An Early Twentieth Century Study by Felix Speiser
Gender, Christianity and Change in Vanuatu: An Analysis of Social Movements in North Ambrym by Annelin
Erikson
Getting Stoned with Savages: A Trip Through the Islands of Fiji and Vanuatu by J. Maarten Troost
House-girls Remember: Domestic Workers in Vanuatu by various
Language Planning and Policy in the Pacific, vol. 1: Fiji, the Philippines, and Vanuatu by various
Lonely Planet Guide: Vanuatu & New Caledonia by Jocelyn Harewood
The Other Side: Ways of Being and Place in Vanuatu by John Patrick Taylor
Pentecost: An island in Vanuatu by Genevieve Mescam

Power of Perspective: Social Ontology and Agency on Ambrym Island, Vanuatu by Knut Mikjel Rio
Unfolding the Moon: Enacting Women's Kastom in Vanuatu by Lissant Bolton

84

Vanuatu
Vanuatu Adventures: Kava and Chaos in the Sth Pacific by Jocelyn Harewood
Women in Vanuatu: Analyzing Challenges to Economic Participation by various
Women of the Place: Kastom, Colonialism and Gender in Vanuatu by Margaret Jolly

External links
Vanuatu (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/nh.html) entry at The World
Factbook
Vanuatu (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/vanuatu.htm) from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Vanuatu (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Oceania/Vanuatu) at DMOZ

Wikimedia Atlas of Vanuatu

Government of Vanuatu (http://www.governmentofvanuatu.gov.vu/)
Vanuatu Tourism Portal, the official website of the Vanuatu National Tourism Office (http://www.vanuatu.
travel/)

Micronesia
This article is about the greater region of Micronesia. For the independent state, see Federated States of Micronesia.
Micronesia (from Greek: , mikrs, "small" +
Greek: , nsos, "island") is a subregion of
Oceania, comprising thousands of small islands in the
western Pacific Ocean. It has a shared cultural history
with two other island regions, Polynesia to the east and
Melanesia to the south.
There are four main archipelagos along with numerous
outlying islands. Micronesia is divided politically into
five sovereign states and three U.S. territories. The
region has a tropical marine climate, and is part of the
Oceania ecozone.
Micronesia began to be settled several millennia ago,
although there are competing theories about the origin
and arrival of the first settlers.[1] The earliest known
contact with Europeans occurred in 1521, when
Map of Micronesia
Ferdinand Magellan reached the Marianas. The coinage
of the term "Micronesia" is usually attributed to Jules
Dumont d'Urville's usage in 1832, however Domeny de Rienzi had used the term a year previously.[2]

85

Micronesia

86

Geography
Micronesia is a region that includes approximately
2100 islands, with a total land area of 2,700 square
kilometres (1,000sqmi), the largest of which is Guam,
which covers 582 square kilometres (225sqmi). The
total ocean area within the perimeter of the islands is
7,400,000 square kilometres (2,900,000sqmi).[3] There
are four main island groups; the Caroline Islands, the
Gilbert Islands, the Mariana Islands, the Marshall
Islands.

Caroline Islands

Micronesia is one of three major cultural areas in the Pacific Ocean,

along with Polynesia and Melanesia.

The Caroline Islands are a widely scattered archipelago

consists of about 500 small coral islands, north of New
Guinea and east of the Philippines. The Carolines consist of two states: the Federated States of Micronesia,
consisting of approximately 600 islands on the eastern side of the chain, and Palau consisting of 250 islands on the
western side.

Gilbert Islands
The Gilbert Islands are a chain of sixteen atolls and coral islands, arranged in an approximate north-to-south line. In
a geographical sense, the equator serves as the dividing line between the northern Gilbert Islands and the southern
Gilbert Islands. The Republic of Kiribati contains all of the Gilberts, as well as the island of Tarawa, the site of the
country's capital.

Mariana Islands
The Mariana Islands are an arc-shaped archipelago made up by the summits of fifteen volcanic mountains. The
island chain arises as a result of the western edge of the Pacific Plate moving westward and plunging downward
below the Mariana plate, a region which is the most volcanically active convergent plate boundary on Earth. The
Marianas are divided politically into two territories of the United States: The Northern Mariana Islands, officially
known as the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, and Guam, located at the southern end of the island
chain. Guam is one of five U.S. territories with an established civilian government.[4][5]

Marshall Islands
The Marshall Islands is an island country, located north of Nauru and
Kiribati, east of the Federated States of Micronesia, and south of the
U.S. territory of Wake Island, to which it lays claim. The country
consists of 29 low-lying atolls and 5 isolated islands, comprising 1,156
individual islands and islets. The atolls and islands form two groups:
the Ratak Chain and the Ralik Chain (meaning "sunrise" and "sunset"
chains). All the islands in the chain are part of the Republic of the
Marshall Islands, a presidential republic in free association with the
United States. Having few natural resources, the islands' wealth is
based on a service economy, as well as some fishing and agriculture.
24 of them are inhabited.

Beach scenery at Laura, Majuro, Marshall Islands

Micronesia

87

Bikini Atoll
Bikini Atoll is an atoll in the Marshall Islands. There are 23 islands in the Bikini Atoll. The islands of Bokonijien,
Aerokojlol, and Nam were vaporized during nuclear tests that occurred there. The islands are composed of low coral
limestone nd sand.[6] The average elevation is only about 7 feet (2.1m) above low tide level.

Image of the Castle Bravo nuclear test,

detonated on March 1, 1954, at Bikini Atoll

An illustration of the Cross Spikes Club

UNIQ-ref-0-3e35b5e04257a8ee-QINU of
the US Navy on Bikini Atoll, one of several
Marshall Islands used for atomic bomb
tests.

Kili Island is one of the smallest islands in the

Marshall Islands.

Nauru
Nauru is an oval-shaped island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, 42 kilometres (26mi) south of the
Equator, listed as the world's smallest republic, covering just 21 square kilometres (8sqmi). With 9,378 residents, it
is the second least-populated country, after Vatican City. The island is surrounded by a coral reef, which is exposed
at low tide and dotted with pinnacles. The presence of the reef has prevented the establishment of a seaport, although
channels in the reef allow small boats access to the island. A fertile coastal strip 150 to 300 metres (490 to 980ft)
wide lies inland from the beach.

Aerial view of Nauru

Nauruan districts of Denigomodu and Nibok

Micronesia

88

Wake Island
Wake Island is a coral atoll with a coastline of 12 miles (19km) just north of the Marshall Islands. It is an
unorganized, unincorporated territory of the United States. Access to the island is restricted, and all activities on the
island are managed by the United States Air Force.

Wake Island as depicted by the United States Exploring

Expedition, drawn by Alfred Thomas Agate

Aerial view Wake Island, looking westward

Geology
The majority of the islands in the area are part of a coral atoll. Coral atolls begin as coral reefs that grow on the
slopes of a central volcano. When the volcano sinks back down into the sea, the coral continues to grow, keeping the
reef at or above water level. One exception is Pohnpei in the Federated States of Micronesia, which still has the
central volcano and coral reefs around it.

Fauna
Main articles: List of mammals of Micronesia and List of birds of Micronesia

Climate
The region has a tropical marine climate moderated by seasonal
northeast trade winds. There is little seasonal temperature variation.
The dry season runs from December or January to June, and the rainy
season from July to November or December. Because of the location
of some islands, the rainy season can sometimes include typhoons.
Spinner Dolphins

History
Pre-history
Micronesia began to be settled several millennia ago, although there are competing theories about the origin and
arrival of the first settlers.[1] There are numerous difficulties with conducting archaeological excavations in the
islands, due to their size, settlement patterns and storm damage. As a result, much evidence is based on linguistic
analysis.[7] The earliest archaeological traces of civilization have been found on the island of Saipan, dated to 1500
BCE or slightly before.[8]
Micronesian colonists gradually settled the Marshall Islands during the 2nd millennium BC, with inter-island
navigation made possible using traditional stick charts.[9]

Micronesia
Construction of Nan Madol, a megalithic complex made from basalt lava logs in Pohnpei began as early as 1200 CE.
The prehistory of many Micronesian islands such as Yap are not known very well.

Early European contact

The earliest known contact with Europans occurred in 1521, when Ferdinand Magellan reached the Marianas This
contact is recorded in Antonio Pigafetta's chronicle of Magellan's voyage, in which he recounts that the Chamarro
people had no apparent knowledge of people outside of their island group.[10] A Portuguese account of the same
voyage suggests that the Chamarro people who greeted the travellers did so "without any shyness as if they were
good acquaintances", raising the possibility that earlier unrecorded contact had occurred.[11]
Further contact was made during the sixteenth century, although often initial encounters were very brief. Documents
relating to the 1525 voyage of Diogo da Rocha suggest that he made the first European contact with inhabitants of
the Caroline Islands, possibly staying on the Ulithi atoll for four months and encountering Yap. Marshall Islanders
were encountered by Alvaro de Saavedra in 1529. More certain recorded contact with the Yap islands occurred in
1625.[12]

Colonisation and conversion

In the early 17th century Spain colonized Guam, the Northern Marianas, and the Caroline Islands (what would later
become the Federated States of Micronesia and the Republic of Palau), creating the Spanish East Indies, which was
governed from the Spanish Philippines.
In 1819, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions - a Protestant group - brought their Puritan
ways to Polynesia. Soon after, the Hawaiian Missionary Society was founded, and sent missionaries into Micronesia.
Conversion was not met with as much opposition, as the local religions were less developed (at least according to
Western ethnographic accounts). In contrast, it took until the end of the 19th/beginning of the 20th centuries for
missionaries to fully covert the inhabitants of Melanesia; however, before a cultural contrast can even be made, one
cannot neglect to take into account the fact that Melanesia has always had deadly strains of malaria present in
various degrees and distributions throughout its history {see: De Rays Expedition} and up to the present; in contrast,
Micronesia does not, and never seems to have had any malarial mosquitos nor pathogens on any of its islands in the
past.

GermanSpanish Treaty of 1899

Main article: GermanSpanish Treaty (1899)
In the SpanishAmerican War, Spain lost many of its remaining
colonies. In the Pacific, the United States took possession of the
Spanish Philippines and Guam. This left Spain with the remainder of
the Spanish East Indies, about 6,000 tiny islands that were sparsely
populated and not very productive. These islands were ungovernable
after the loss of the administrative center of Manila, and undefendable
after the loss of two Spanish fleets in the war. The Spanish government
therefore decided to sell the remaining islanda to a new colonial power:
the German Empire.
German New Guinea before and after the
The treaty was signed on February 12, 1899, by Spanish Prime
German-Spanish treaty of 1899
Minister Francisco Silvela and transferred the Caroline Islands, the
Mariana Islands, Palau and other possessions to Germany. The islands
were then placed under control of German New Guinea. Nauru was annexed and claimed as a colony by Germany in
1888.

89

Micronesia

90

20th century
Full European colonization did not come until the early 20th century,
when the area would be divided between:
the United States, which took control of Guam following the
SpanishAmerican War of 1898, and colonized Wake Island;
Germany, which took Nauru and bought the Marshall, Caroline, and
Northern Mariana Islands from Spain; and
the British Empire, which took the Gilbert Islands (Kiribati).
During World War I, Germany's Pacific island territories were seized
Map from 1961 of the US Trust Territory of the
and became League of Nations mandates in 1923. Nauru became an
Pacific Islands, formerly Japan's South Pacific
Australian mandate, while Germany's other territories in Micronesia
Mandate.
were given as a mandate to Japan and were named the South Pacific
Mandate. During World WarII, Nauru was occupied by Japanese troops, who were bypassed by the Allied advance
across the Pacific. Following Japan's defeat in World War II its mandate became a United Nations Trusteeship ruled
by the United States, the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands.
Today, most of Micronesia are independent states, except for Guam and Wake Island, which are U.S. territories, and
for the Northern Mariana Islands, which are a U.S. commonwealth. Nauru gained its independence in 1968.

Politics
The Secretariat of the Pacific Community is a regional intergovernmental organisation whose membership includes
both nations and territories in the Pacific Ocean and their metropolitan powers.

States and dependencies

Country

Population Area Population

Urban
Life
Literacy
(July 2010 (km2)
population
expectancy
Rate
density
estimate)
2
(/km )

Official
language(s)

Federated
States of
Micronesia

107,154

702

152.641

22%

71.23

89%

English

Roman Catholic
50%, Protestant
47%, others 3%

Chuukese
48.8%,
Pohnpeian
24.2%, Kosraean
6.2%, Yapese
5.2%, Yap outer
islands 4.5%,
Asian 1.8%,
Polynesian 1.5%,
other 7.8%

Guam
(United States)

180,865

1,478

122.371

93%

78.18

99%

English
38.3%,
Chamorro
[13]
22.2%

Roman Catholic
85%

Chamorro
37.1%, Filipino
26.3%, other
Pacific islander
11.3%, white
6.9%, other
8.6%, mixed
9.8%

99,482

811

122.666

44%

64.03

92%

English,
Gilbertese
(de facto)

Roman Catholic
55%, Protestant
36%

Micronesian
98.8%

Kiribati

Main religion(s)

Ethnic groups

Micronesia

Marshall
Islands

91
65,859

181

363.862

71%

71.48

93.7%

Nauru

9,267

21

441.286

100%

64.99

Northern
Mariana Islands
(United States)

48,317

464

104.131

91%

Palau

20,879

459

45.488

81%

Total

531,823

4,116

193.206

71.71%

Marshallese
98.2%,
English

Protestant 54.8%,
other Christian
40.6%

Marshallese
92.1%, mixed
Marshallese
5.9%, other 2%

99%

Nauruanf[]

Nauru
Congregational
Church 35.4%,
Roman Catholic
33.2%, Nauru
Independent
Church
[15]
(Protestant)
10.4%

Nauruan 58%,
other Pacific
Islander 26%,
Chinese 8%,
European 8%

76.9

97%

English

Christian

Asian 56.3%,
Pacific islander
36.3%, White
1.8%, other
0.8%, mixed
4.8%

71.51

92%

Paluan
64.7%d[],
English

Roman Catholic
41.6%, Protestant
23.3%

Palauan 69.9%,
Filipino 15.3%,
Chinese 4.9%,
other Asian
2.4%, white
1.9%, Carolinian
1.4%, other
Micronesian
1.1%, other 3.2%

71.19

[14]

[16]

94.93%

Economy
Nationally, the primary income is the sale of fishing rights to foreign nations that harvest tuna using huge purse
seiners. A few Japanese long liners still ply the waters. The crews aboard fishing fleets contribute little to the local
economy since their ships typically set sail loaded with stores and provisions that are cheaper than local goods.
Additional money comes in from government grants, mostly from the United States, and the $150 million the US
paid into a trust fund for reparations of residents of Bikini Atoll that had to move after nuclear testing. Few mineral
deposits worth exploiting exist, except for some high-grade phosphate, especially on Nauru.
Most residents of Micronesia can freely move to, and work within, the United States. Relatives working in the US
that send money home to relatives represents the primary source of individual income. Additional individual income
comes mainly from government jobs, and work within shops and restaurants.
The tourist industry consists mainly of SCUBA divers that come to see the coral reefs, do wall dives, and visit
sunken ships from WWII. Major stops for SCUBA divers in approximate order are Palau, Chuuk, Yap, and Phonpei.
Some private yacht owners visit the area for months or years at a time. However, they tend to stay mainly at ports of
entry and are too few in number to be counted as a major source of income.
Copra production used to be a more significant source of income, however, world prices have dropped in part to
large palm plantations that are now planted in places like Borneo.

Micronesia

92

Demographics
Further information: Demographics of Oceania
The people today form many ethnicities, but are all descended from and belong to the Micronesian culture. The
Micronesian culture was one of the last native cultures of the region to develop. It developed from a mixture of
Melanesians, Polynesians, and Filipinos. Because of this mixture of descent, many of the ethnicities of Micronesia
feel closer to some groups in Melanesia, Polynesia or the Philippines. A good example of this are the Yapese who
are related to Austronesian tribes in the Northern Philippines.[17]
Though they are all geographically part of the same region, they all have very different colonial histories. The
US-administered areas of Micronesia have a unique experience that sets them apart from the rest of the Pacific.
Micronesia has great economic dependency on its former or current motherlands, something only comparable to the
French Pacific. Sometimes, the term American Micronesia is used to acknowledge the difference in cultural heritage.

Carolinian people
It is thought that ancestors of the Carolinian people may have originally immigrated from Asia and Indonesia to
Micronesia around 2,000 years ago. Their primary language is Carolinian, called Refaluwasch by native speakers,
which has a total of about 5,700 speakers. The Carolinians have a matriarchal society in which respect is a very
important factor in their daily lives, especially toward the matriarchs. Most Carolinians are of the Roman Catholic
faith.
The immigration of Carolinians to Saipan began in the early 19th century, after the Spanish reduced the local
population of Chamorro natives to just 3,700. They began to immigrate mostly sailing from small canoes from other
islands, which a typhoon previously devastated. The Carolinians have a much darker complexion than the native
Chamorros.

Chamorro people
The Chamorro people are the indigenous peoples of the Mariana Islands, which
are politically divided between the United States territory of Guam and the
United States Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands in Micronesia.
The Chamorro are commonly believed to have come from Southeast Asia at
around 2000 BC. They are most closely related to other Austronesian natives to
the west in the Philippines and Taiwan, as well as the Carolines to the south.
The Chamorro language is included in the Malayo-Polynesian subgroup of the
Austronesian family. Because Guam was colonized by Spain for over 300 years,
many words derive from the Spanish language. The traditional Chamorro number
system was replaced by Spanish numbers.[18]
Chamorro people in 1915

Micronesia

Chuukese people
The Chuukese people are an ethnic group in Oceania. They constitute 48% of the population of the Federated States
of Micronesia. Their language is Chuukese. The home atoll of Chuuk is also known by the former name Truk.

Kaping people
The roughly 3000 residents of the Federated States of Micronesia that reside in Kapingamarangi, nicknamed
'Kapings', are both one of the most remote and most difficult people to visit in Micronesia and the entire world. Their
home atoll is almost a 1000-mile round trip to the nearest point of immigration check-in and check-out. There are no
regular flights. The only way to legally visit is to first check-in, travel on a high-speed sailboat to the atoll, and then
backtrack almost 500 miles. Owing to this difficulty, only a handful of the few sailors that travel across the Pacific
will attempt to visit. The local language is Kapingamarangi language. The children typically attend high-school on
Phonpei where they stay with relatives in an enclave that is almost exclusively made up of Kapings.

Nauruan people
The Nauruan people are an ethnicity, which inhabit the Pacific island of Nauru. They are most likely a blend of other
Pacific peoples.
The origin of the Nauruan people has not yet been finally determined. It can possibly be explained by the last
Malayo-Pacific human migration (c. 1200). It was probably seafaring or shipwrecked Polynesians or Melanesians,
which established themselves there because there was not already an indigenous people present, whereas the
Micronesians were already crossed with the Melanesians in this area.

Languages
The largest group of languages spoken in Micronesia are the Micronesian languages. They are in the family of
Oceanic languages, part of the Austronesian language group. They are descended from the protolanguage
Proto-Oceanic, which are developed from Proto-Austronesian.
The languages in the Micronesian family are Marshallese, Gilbertese, Kosraean, Nauruan, as well as a large
sub-family called the TrukicPonapeic languages containing 11 languages.
There are two languages spoken in Micronesia that are part of the SundaSulawesi language group; Chamorro in the
Mariana Islands and Palauan in Palau. On the eastern edge of the Federated States of Micronesia, the languages
Nukuoro and Kapingamarangi represent an extreme westward extension of Polynesian.

Culture
Animals and food
By the time Western contact occurred, although Palau did not have dogs, they did have fowls and maybe also pigs.
Nowhere else in Micronesia were pigs known about at that time. Fruit bats are native to Palau, but other mammals
are rare. Reptiles are numerous, and both mollusks and fish are an important food source. The people of Palau, the
Marianas, and Yap often chew betel nuts seasoned with lime and pepper leaf. Western Micronesia was unaware of
this ceremonial drink, which was called saka on Kosrae and sakau on Pohnpei.

93

Micronesia

Architecture
The book Prehistoric Architecture in Micronesia argues that the most prolific pre-colonial Micronesian architecture
is: "Palau's monumental sculpted hills, megalithic stone carvings, and elaborately decoratedstructures of wood
placed on piers above elevated stone platforms". The archeological traditions of the Yapese people remained
relatively unchanged even after the first European contact with the region during Magellan's 1520s circumnavigation
of the globe.

Art
Micronesia's artistic tradition has developed from the Lapita culture. Among the most prominent works of the region
is the megalithic floating city of Nan Madol. The city began in 1200 AD, and was still being built when European
explorers begin to arrive around 1600. The city, however, had declined by around 1800 along with the Saudeleur
dynasty, and was completely abandoned by the 1820s. During the 19th century, the region was divided between the
colonial powers, but art continued to thrive. Wood-carving, particularly by men, flourished in the region, resulted in
richly decorated ceremonial houses in Belau, stylized bowls, canoe ornaments, ceremonial vessels, and sometimes
sculptured figures. Women created textiles and ornaments such as bracelets and headbands. Stylistically, traditional
Micronesian art is streamlined and of a practical simplicity to its function, but is typically finished to a high standard
of quality. This was mostly to make the best possible use of what few natural materials they had available to
them.[19]
The first half of the 20th century saw a downturn in Micronesia's cultural integrity and a strong foreign influence
from both western and Japanese Imperialist powers. A number of historical artistic traditions, especially sculpture,
ceased to be practiced, although other art forms continued, including traditional architecture and weaving.
Independence from colonial powers in the second half of the century resulted in a renewed interest in, and respect
for, traditional arts. A notable movement of contemporary art also appeared in Micronesia towards the end of the
20th century.

Cuisine
The cuisine of the Mariana Islands is tropical in nature, including such dishes as Kelaguen as well as many others.
Palauan cuisine includes local foods such as cassava, taro, yam, potato, fish and pork. Western cuisine is favored
among young Palauans.

Education
The educational systems in the nations of Micronesia varies depending on the country, and there are several higher
level educational institutions.
The CariPac consists of institutions of higher education in Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, American Samoa,
Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau. The
Agricultural Development in the American Pacific is a partnership of the University of Hawaii, American Samoa
Community College, College of Micronesia, Northern Marianas College, and the University of Guam.
In the Federated States of Micronesia, education is required for citizens aged 6 to 13, and is important to their
economy. The literacy rate for citizens aged 15 to 24 is 98.8%. The College of Micronesia-FSM has a campus in
each of the four states with its national campus in the capital city of Palikir, Pohnpei. The COM-FSM system also
includes the Fisheries and Maritime Institute (FMI) on the Yap islands.
The public education in Guam is organized by the Guam Department of Education. Guam also has several
educational institutions, such as University of Guam, Pacific Islands University and Guam Community College,
There is also the Guam Public Library System and the Umatac Outdoor Library.

94

Micronesia
Weriyeng is one of the last two schools of traditional navigation found in the central Caroline Islands in Micronesia,
the other being Fanur.
The Northern Marianas College is a two-year community college located in the United States Commonwealth of the
Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI).
The College of the Marshall Islands is a community college in the Marshall Islands.

Law
Understanding Law in Micronesia notes that The Federated States of Micronesia's laws and legal institutions are
"uninterestingly similar to [those of Western countries]". However, it explains that "law in Micronesia is an
extraordinary flux and flow of contrasting thought and meaning, inside and outside the legal system". It says that a
knee-jerk reaction would be that law is messed up in the region and that improvement is required, but argues that the
failure is "one endemic to the nature of law or to the ideological views we hold about law".
The Federated States of Micronesia adopted many US legal codes during the Law and Development movement of
the late 1950s and early 1960s. They were implemented by the Trust Territory Administration.

Media
In September 2007, journalists in the region founded the Micronesian Media Association.[20]

Music and dance

Micronesian music is influential to those living in the Micronesian islands. Some of the music is based around
mythology and ancient Micronesian rituals. It covers a range of styles from traditional songs, handed down through
generations, to contemporary music.
Traditional beliefs suggest that the music can be presented to people in dreams and trances, rather than being written
by composers themselves. Micronesian folk music is, like Polynesian music, primarily vocal-based.
In the Marshall Islands, the roro is a kind of traditional chant, usually about ancient legends and performed to give
guidance during navigation and strength for mothers in labour. Modern bands have blended the unique songs of each
island in the country with modern music. Though drums are not generally common in Micronesian music, one-sided
hourglass-shaped drums are a major part of Marshallese music. There is a traditional Marshallese dance called beet,
which is influenced by Spanish folk dances. In it, men and women side-step in parallel lines. There is a kind of stick
dance performed by the Jobwa, nowadays only for very special occasions.
Popular music, both from Micronesia and from other areas of the world, is played on radio stations in Micronesia.

Sports
The region is home to the Micronesian Games, a quadrennial international multi-sport event involving all
Micronesia's countries and territories except Wake Island.
Nauru has two national sports, weightlifting and Australian rules football.[21] According to 2007 Australian Football
League International Census figures, there are around 180 players in the Nauru senior competition and 500 players in
the junior competition,[22] representing an overall participation rate of over 30% for the country.

95

Micronesia

Religion and mythology

Micronesian mythology refers to the traditional belief systems of the people of Micronesia. There is no single belief
system in the islands of Micronesia, as each island region has its own mythological beings.
There are several significant figures and myths in the Federated States of Micronesia, Nauran and Kiribati traditions.

References
Notes
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]

Kirch 2001, p.167.

Rainbird 2004, p.6.
Kirch 2001, p.165.
" U.S. Territories (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070209094507/ http:/ / www. doi. gov/ oia/ Firstpginfo/ territories. html)." DOI Office of
Insular Affairs. February 9, 2007.
"Definitions of Insular Area Political Organizations" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20110721034923/ http:/ / www. doi. gov/ oia/
Islandpages/ political_types. htm). Office of Insular Affairs. Retrieved October 31, 2008.
Destinations / Marshall Islands (http:/ / www. triposo. com/ loc/ Marshall_Islands)
Lal 2000, p.62.
Kirch 2001, p.170.

[9] The History of Mankind (http:/ / www. inquirewithin. biz/ history/ american_pacific/ oceania/ orientation. htm) by Professor Friedrich Ratzel,
Book II, Section A, The Races of Oceania page 165, picture of a stick chart from the Marshall Islands. MacMillan and Co., published 1896.
[10] Levesque, R. (Ed.) (199297). History of Micronesia: A collection of source documents, (Vol. 1-20). Quebec, Canada: Levesque
Publications pp. 249, 251
[11] Rainbird 2004, p.13-14.
[12] Rainbird 2004, p.14.
[13] Languages of Guam (http:/ / ns. gov. gu/ language. html). Ns.gov.gu. Retrieved on 2010-11-12.
[14] Nauru (http:/ / www. talktalk. co. uk/ reference/ encyclopaedia/ countryfacts/ nauru. html). Talktalk.co.uk. Retrieved on 2010-11-12.
[15] Nauru (http:/ / www. travelblog. org/ Oceania/ blog-84053. html). Travelblog.org. Retrieved on 2010-11-12.
[16] DOI Office of Insular Affairs (OIA) Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (http:/ / www. doi. gov/ oia/ Islandpages/ cnmipage.
htm). Doi.gov. Retrieved on 2010-11-12.
[17] Micronesians - Introduction, Location, Language, Folklore, Religion, Major holidays, Rites of passage, Relationships, Living conditions
(http:/ / www. everyculture. com/ wc/ Mauritania-to-Nigeria/ Micronesians. html)
[18] Rafael Rodrguez-Ponga. Del espaol al chamorro: Lenguas en contacto en el Pacfico. Madrid, 2009, Ediciones Gondo,
www.edicionesgondo.com
[19] "Oceanic art", The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition 2006.
[20] Regional journalists form Micronesian media group (http:/ / www. saipantribune. com/ newsstory. aspx?newsID=72699& cat=1), Saipan
Tribune, 26 September 2007
[21] Pacific Sporting Needs Assessment (http:/ / www. ausport. gov. au/ international/ development/ docs/ nauru. pdf)
[22] AFL International Census 2007 (http:/ / www. afl. com. au/ Portals/ 0/ afl_docs/ 2007_International_Census_Sheet_240807. pdf)

Bibliography
Kirch, Patrick Vinton (2001). On the Road of the Winds: An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands Before
European Contact. University of California Press. ISBN978-0-520-92896-1.
Lal, Brij V.; Fortune, Kate (2000). The Pacific Islands: An Encyclopedia. University of Hawaii Press.
ISBN978-0-8248-2265-1.
Rainbird, Paul (2004). The Archaeology of Micronesia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-65630-6.

96

Micronesia

Further reading
Kirch, Patrick Vinton (2000). On the Road of the Winds. An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands before
European Contact (http://books.google.com/?id=qQ0ApgIOPtEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=On+the+
Road+of+the+Winds.+An+Archaeological+History+of+the+Pacific+Islands+before+European+Contact.
). University of California Press. pp.166167. ISBN0-520-22347-0.
Goetzfridt, Nicholas J. and Karen M. Peacock (2002). Micronesian Histories: An Analytical Bibliography and
Guide to Interpretations (http://books.google.com/books?id=oqqdbU0tBvAC&printsec=frontcover&
dq=Micronesian+Histories:+An+Analytical+Bibliography+and+Guide+to+Interpretations&hl=en&sa=X&
ei=KgloUbO7MYSLjALnpYHwBw&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN
0313291039

External links
History of Micronesia (http://www.visit-fsm.org/visitors/history.html) Wikipedia:Link rot
Micronesian Games (http://www.gbrathletics.com/ic/micg.htm) Wikipedia:Link rot

97

Federated States of Micronesia

98

Federated States of Micronesia

This article is about the sovereign state in Oceania. For the region named Micronesia, see Micronesia.

Federated States of Micronesia

Flag

Seal

Motto:"Peace, Unity, Liberty"

Anthem:Patriots of Micronesia

Capital

Palikir
[1]
655N 15811E
Largest city

Weno

Languages

English (national)a

Federated States of Micronesia

99
Ethnicgroups (2000)

Demonym
Government

48.8% Chuukese
24.2% Pohnpeian
6.2% Kosraean
5.2% Yapese
4.5% Outer Yapese
1.8% Asian
1.5% Polynesian
6.4% other
1.4% unknown

Micronesian
Federal parliamentary republic

- President

Manny Mori

- Vice President

Alik L. Alik

Legislature

Congress
Independence

- Compact of FreeAssociation November 3, 1986

Area
- Total

702km (191th)
271sqmi

- Water(%)

negligible

Population
- 2013estimate

106,104 (192th)

- Density

158.1/km (75th)
409.6/sqmi

GDP(PPP)

2011estimate

- Total

$310 million

- Per capita

$3,000

GDP(nominal)

2011estimate

- Total

$277 million

- Per capita

$2,300

Gini(2000)

61.1
very high

HDI (2013)

0.645
medium 117th

Currency

United States dollar (USD)

Time zone

(UTC+10 and +11)

- Summer(DST)

a.

not observed(UTC+10 and +11)

Drives on the

right

Calling code

+691

ISO 3166 code

FM

Internet TLD

.fm

Regional languages used at state and municipal levels.

Federated States of Micronesia

i
The Federated States of Micronesia
/makroni/ (FSM) is an independent sovereign island nation
consisting of four states from west to east, Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei and Kosrae that are spread across the Western
Pacific Ocean. Together, the states comprise around 607 islands (a combined land area of approximately 702km2 or
271sqmi) that cover a longitudinal distance of almost 2,700km (1,678mi) just north of the equator. They lie
northeast of New Guinea, south of Guam and the Marianas, west of Nauru and the Marshall Islands, east of Palau
and the Philippines, about 2,900km (1,802mi) north of eastern Australia and some 4,000km (2,485mi) southwest
of the main islands of Hawaii.

While the FSM's total land area is quite small, it occupies more than 2,600,000km2 (1,000,000sqmi) of the Pacific
Ocean. The capital is Palikir, located on Pohnpei Island, while the largest city is Weno, located in the Chuuk Atoll.
Each of its four states is centered around one or more main high islands, and all but Kosrae include numerous
outlying atolls. The Federated States of Micronesia is spread across part of the Caroline Islands in the wider region
of Micronesia, which consists of thousands of small islands divided between several countries. The term Micronesia
may refer to the Federated States or to the region as a whole.
The FSM was formerly a part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI), a United Nations Trust Territory
under U.S. administration, but it formed its own constitutional government on May 10, 1979, becoming a sovereign
state after independence was attained on November 3, 1986 under a Compact of Free Association with the United
States. Other neighboring island entities, and also former members of the TTPI, formulated their own constitutional
governments and became the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) and the Republic of Palau (ROP). The FSM
has a seat in the United Nations.

History
Main article: History of the Federated States of Micronesia
The ancestors of the Micronesians settled over four thousand years ago. A decentralized chieftain-based system
eventually evolved into a more centralized economic and religious empire centered on Yap.
Nan Madol, consisting of a series of small artificial islands linked by a network of canals, is often called the Venice
of the Pacific. It is located on the eastern periphery of the island of Pohnpei and used to be the ceremonial and
political seat of the Saudeleur dynasty that united Pohnpei's estimated 25,000 people from about AD 500 until 1500,
when the centralized system collapsed.
European explorersfirst the Portuguese in search of the Spice Islands (Indonesia) and then the Spanishreached
the Carolines in the sixteenth century. The Spanish incorporated the archipelago to the Spanish East Indies and in the
19th century established a number of outposts and missions. In 1887 they founded the town of Santiago de la
Ascension in what today is Kolonia on the island of Pohnpei.[2] Following the Spanish-American War the Spanish
sold the archipelago to Germany in 1899. It was awarded to the Empire of Japan following World War I as a League
of Nations Mandate.
During World War II, a significant portion of the Japanese fleet was based in Truk Lagoon. In February 1944,
Operation Hailstone, one of the most important naval battles of the war, took place at Truk, in which many Japanese
support vessels and aircraft were destroyed.
Following World War II, it was administered by the United States under United Nations auspices in 1947 as part of
the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands.
On May 10, 1979, four of the Trust Territory districts ratified a new constitution to become the Federated States of
Micronesia. Palau, the Marshall Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands chose not to participate. The FSM signed
a Compact of Free Association with the United States, which entered into force on November 3, 1986, marking
Micronesia's emergence from trusteeship to independence. The Compact was renewed in 2004.

100

Federated States of Micronesia

101

Politics
Main article: Politics of the Federated States of Micronesia
The Federated States of Micronesia is governed by the 1979 constitution, which guarantees fundamental human
rights and establishes a separation of governmental powers. The unicameral Congress has fourteen members elected
by popular vote. Four senatorsone from each stateserve four-year terms; the remaining ten senators represent
single-member districts based on population, and serve two-year terms. The President and Vice President are elected
by Congress from among the four state-based senators to serve four-year terms in the executive branch. Their
congressional seats are then filled by special elections.
The president and vice president are supported by an appointed cabinet. There are no formal political parties.
In international politics, the Federated States of Micronesia has often voted with the United States with respect to
United Nations General Assembly resolutions.[3]

Administrative divisions
Main article: Administrative divisions of the
Federated States of Micronesia
The four states in the federation are:

Map of the Federated States of Micronesia.

Flag

State

Capital Current Governor

Land

[5] sqmi

km

[4]

Population
density

Population

per km per sqmi

Chuuk

Weno

Johnson Elimo

127

49.2

54,595 420

1088

Kosrae

Tofol

Lyndon Jackson

110

42.6

9,686 66

170

Pohnpei Kolonia John Ehsa

345

133.2

34,685 98

255

Yap

118

45.6

16,436 94

243

Colonia Sebastian Anefal

These states are further divided into municipalities.

Federated States of Micronesia

102

Geography
Main article: Geography of the Federated States of
Micronesia
The Federated States of Micronesia consists of 607
islands extending 2,900km (1,802mi) across the
archipelago of the Caroline Islands east of the
Philippines. The islands have a combined area of 702km2
(271sqmi).
The islands are grouped into four states, which are Yap,
Chuuk (called Truk until January 1990), Pohnpei (known
as "Ponape" until November 1984), and Kosrae (formerly
Kusaie). These four states are each represented by a white
star on the national flag. The capital is Palikir, on
Pohnpei.

View of Kolonia Town from Sokehs Ridge in Pohnpei.

Economy
Main article: Economy of the Federated States of Micronesia
Economic activity in the Federated States of Micronesia consists primarily of subsistence farming and fishing. The
islands have few mineral deposits worth exploiting, except for high-grade phosphate. Long line fishing of tuna is
also viable with foreign vessels from China operated in the 1990s. The potential for a tourist industry exists, but the
remoteness of the location and a lack of adequate facilities hinder development. Financial assistance from the U.S. is
the primary source of revenue, with the U.S. pledged to spend $1.3 billion in the islands in 19862001; the CIA
World Factbook lists high dependence on U.S. aid as one of the main concerns of the FSM. Geographical isolation
and a poorly developed infrastructure are major impediments to long-term growth.

Transportation
The Federated States of Micronesia is served by four international airports.

Pohnpei International Airport, on the main island of Pohnpei State.

Chuuk International Airport, located on the main island of Chuuk State.
Kosrae International Airport, located on the main island of Kosrae State.
Yap International Airport, located on the main island of Yap State.

Demographics
Main article: Demographics of the Federated States of Micronesia
The indigenous population of the Federated States of Micronesia, which is predominantly Micronesian, consists of
various ethnolinguistic groups. It has a nearly 100% Pacific Islander and Asian population. Chuukese 48.8%,
Pohnpeian 24.2%, Kosraean 6.2%, Yapese 5.2%, Yap outer islands 4.5%, Asian 1.8%, Polynesian 1.5%, other 6.4%,
unknown 1.4%. A sizeable minority also have some Japanese ancestry, which is a result of intermarriages between
Japanese settlers and Micronesians during the Japanese colonial period.[6]
There is also growing expatriate population of Americans, Australians, Europeans, and residents from China and the
Philippines since the 1990s. English has become the common language of the government, and for secondary and
tertiary education. Outside of the main capital towns of the four FSM states, the local languages are primarily
spoken. Population growth remains high at more than 3% annually, offset somewhat by net emigration. Pohnpei is

Federated States of Micronesia

103

notable for the prevalence of the extreme form of color blindness known as maskun.

Culture
See also: Music of the Federated States of Micronesia
Each of the four States has its own culture and traditions, but there are
also common cultural and economic bonds that are centuries old. For
example, cultural similarities like the importance of the traditional
extended family and clan systems can be found on all the islands.
The island of Yap is notable for its "stone money" (Rai stones), large
disks usually of calcite, up to 4m (about 13ft) in diameter, with a hole
in the middle. The islanders, aware of the owner of a piece, do not
necessarily move them when ownership changes. There are five major
types: Mmbul, Gaw, Ray, Yar, and Reng, the last being only 30cm
(12in) in diameter. Their value is based on both size and history, many
of them having been brought from other islands, as far as New Guinea,
but most coming in ancient times from Palau. Approximately 6,500 of
them are scattered around the island.

A large (approximately 2.4m or about 8ft in

height) example of Yapese stone money (Rai
stones) in the village of Gachpar.

Languages
English is the official and common language. Also spoken are Chuukese (Trukese), Kosraean, Pohnpeian, Yapese,
and Woleaian.
Other languages spoken in the country include Pingelapese, Ngatikese, Satawalese, Puluwatese, Mortlockese, and
Mokilese.Wikipedia:Citation needed There are also about 3,000 speakers of Kapingamarangi and Ulithian, and
under 1,000 speakers of Nukuoro.Wikipedia:Citation needed

Literature
There have been few published literary writers from the Federated States of Micronesia.[7] In 2008, Emelihter
Kihleng became the first ever Micronesian to publish a collection of poetry in the English language.[8]

Religion
Main article: Religion in the Federated States of Micronesia
Several Protestant denominations, as well as the Roman Catholic
Church, are present in every Micronesian state.[9] Most Protestant
groups trace their roots to American Congregationalist missionaries.
On the island of Kosrae, the population is approximately 7,800; 95
percent are Protestants. On Pohnpei, the population of 35,000 is evenly
divided between Protestants and Catholics. On Chuuk and Yap, an
estimated 60 percent are Catholic and 40 percent are Protestant.
Religious groups with small followings include Baptists, Assemblies of
God, Salvation Army, Seventh-day Adventists, Jehovah's Witnesses,
A Roman Catholic church in Kolonia, Pohnpei
the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), and the
Baha'i Faith. There is a small group of Buddhists on Pohnpei. Attendance at religious services is generally high;
churches are well supported by their congregations and play a significant role in civil society.

Federated States of Micronesia

Most immigrants are Filipino Catholics who have joined local Catholic churches. The Filipino Iglesia Ni Cristo also
has a church in Pohnpei. In the 1890s, on the island of Pohnpei, intermissionary conflicts and the conversion of clan
leaders resulted in religious divisions along clan lines which persist today. More Protestants live on the western side
of the island, while more Catholics live on the eastern side. Missionaries of many religious traditions are present and
operate freely. The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the Government generally respected this right
in practice. The US government received no reports of societal abuses or discrimination based on religious belief or
practice in 2007.

Defense and foreign affairs

Main article: Compact of Free Association
The FSM is a sovereign, self-governing state in free association with the United States, which is wholly responsible
for its defense. The Division of Maritime Surveillance operates a paramilitary Maritime Wing and a small Maritime
Police Unit. The Compact of Free Association allows FSM citizens to join the U.S. military without having to obtain
U.S. permanent residency or citizenship,[10] allows for immigration and employment for Micronesians in the U.S.,
and establishes economic and technical aid programs.

References
[1] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Federated_States_of_Micronesia& params=6_55_N_158_11_E_type:country
[2] The Catholic Church in Pohnpei (http:/ / www. micsem. org/ pubs/ books/ catholic/ pohnpei/ index. htm)
[3] General Assembly - Overall Votes - Comparison with U.S. vote (http:/ / www. state. gov/ documents/ organization/ 82642. pdf) lists
Micronesia as in the country with the fourth high coincidence of votes. Micronesia has always been in the top four.
[4] FSM government website - Population (http:/ / www. fsmgov. org/ info/ people. html)
[5] FSM government website - Geography (http:/ / www. fsmgov. org/ info/ geog. html)
[6] President Emanuel Mori Meets With Japan Prime Minister Yasuo Fukuda (http:/ / www. fsmgov. org/ press/ pr12120a. htm); AESonline.org
(http:/ / www. aesonline. org/ 3056) Government of the Federated States of Micronesia, December 12, 2007
[7] "Seeking Micronesian literary writers" (http:/ / guam. mvarietynews. com/ index. php?view=article&
id=4591:seeking-micronesian-literary-writers& option=com_content& Itemid=2), Marianas Variety, February 18, 2009
[8] "Micronesian Poet Publishes Collection of Poems" (http:/ / www. doi. gov/ oia/ press/ 2008/ 05122008b. html), Office of Insular Affairs, May
12, 2008
[9] International Religious Freedom Report 2007: Micronesia, Federated States of (http:/ / www. state. gov/ g/ drl/ rls/ irf/ 2007/ 90145. htm).
United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor (September 14, 2007). This article incorporates text from this source, which is
in the public domain.
[10] U.S. Military Enlistment Standards (http:/ / www. us-army-info. com/ pages/ pdfs/ enlistment_standards. pdf)

Sources
Arnold, Bruce Makoto (2011). "Conflicted Childhoods in the South Seas: The Failure of Racial Assiimilation in
the Nan'yo" (https://www.academia.edu/5445339/
Conflicted_Childhoods_in_the_South_Seas_The_Failure_of_Racial_Assiimilation_in_the_Nanyo). Tufts
Historical Review 4 (11): 7996.
Brower, Kenneth; Harri Peccinotti (1981). Micronesia: The Land, the People, and the Sea. Baton Rouge:
Louisiana State University Press. ISBN0-8071-0992-4.
Darrach, Brad; David Doubilet (1995). "Treasured Islands". Life (August 1995): 4653.
Falgout, Suzanne (1995). "Americans in Paradise: Anthropologists, Custom, and Democracy in Postwar
Micronesia". Ethnology (Ethnology, Vol. 34, No. 2) 34 (Spring 1995): 99111. doi: 10.2307/3774100 (http://dx.
doi.org/10.2307/3774100). JSTOR 3774100 (http://www.jstor.org/stable/3774100).
Friedman, Hal M. (1993). "The Beast in Paradise: The United States Navy in Micronesia, 19431947". Pacific
Historical Review 62 (May 1993): 173195.
Friedman, Hal M. (1994). "Arguing over Empire". Journal of Pacific History 29 (1994): 3648. doi:
10.1080/00223349408572757 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00223349408572757).

104

Federated States of Micronesia

Hanlon, David (1998). Remaking Micronesia: Discourses over Development in a Pacific Territory, 19441982.
Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN0-8248-1894-6.
Hezel, Francis X. (1995). "The Church in Micronesia". America 18 (February 1995): 2324.
Kluge, P. F. (1991). The Edge of Paradise: America in Micronesia. New York: Random House.
ISBN0-394-58178-4.
Malcomson, S. L. (1989). "Stranger than Paradise". Mother Jones 14 (January 1989): 1925.
"Micronesia: A New Nation". U.S. News & World Report (October 15, 1984): 8081.
Parfit, Michael (2003). "Islands of the Pacific". National Geographic 203 (March 2003): 106125.
Patterson, Carolyn Bennett (1986). "In the Far Pacific: At the Birth of Nations". National Geographic 170
(October 1986): 460500.
Peoples, James G. (1993). "Political Evolution in Micronesia". Ethnology (Ethnology, Vol. 32, No. 1) 32 (Winter
1993): 117. doi: 10.2307/3773542 (http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3773542). JSTOR 3773542 (http://www.
jstor.org/stable/3773542).
Rainbird, Paul (2003). "Taking the Tapu: Defining Micronesia by Absence". Journal of Pacific History 38
(September 2003): 237250. doi: 10.1080/0022334032000120558 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/
0022334032000120558).
Schwalbenberg, Henry M.; Thomas Hatcher (1994). "Micronesian Trade and Foreign Assistance". Journal of
Pacific History 29 (1): 95104. doi: 10.1080/00223349408572762 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/
00223349408572762).

External links
Government
Government of the Federated States of Micronesia (http://www.fsmgov.org/)
Chief of State and Cabinet Members (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/
world-leaders-m/micronesia-federated-states-of.html)
General information
Federated States of Micronesia (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fm.html)
entry at The World Factbook
Federated States of Micronesia (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/micronesia.htm) from UCB
Libraries GovPubs
Federated States of Micronesia (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Oceania/Micronesia,_Federated_States_of)
at DMOZ
Micronesia (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-15494620) from the BBC News
Jane's Federated States of Micronesia Home Page (http://www.janeresture.com/fedmic/index.htm)
Trust Territory of the Pacific Archives (http://libweb.hawaii.edu/digicoll/ttp/ttpi.html) at the University of
Hawaii
Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute - Federated States of Micronesia (http://www.paclii.org/databases.
html#FM)
Nature.org - Micronesia (http://www.nature.org/wherewework/asiapacific/micronesia/) environmental
conservation
myMicronesia.com (http://www.mymicronesia.com/) Online resource center about the islands of Micronesia.
Provides free listings and links to all Micronesian businesses, as well as civic, cultural, health and educational
organizations.
Habele.org - Outer Islands (http://www.habele.org/islands.asp) Information about the remote islands and
atolls outside the four state capitals of Micronesia from an educational nonprofit.

105

Federated States of Micronesia

106

Development Forecasts for Federated States of Micronesia (http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.

aspx?Country=FM)
News media
The Kaselehlie Press (http://www.kpress.info/) The Kaselehlie Press is a Pohnpei-based newspaper that
covers stories throughout the FSM.
Maps

Wikimedia Atlas of the Federated States of Micronesia

Nan Madol islet complex (http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~wsayres/Pohnpei/NanMadol.html) Provides
computer based reconstruction of the main islets and features
Travel
Travel Overview of Micronesia (http://www.anytravels.com/australia/micronesia/)
Yap Visitors Bureau (http://www.visityap.com/)
Weather
NOAA's National Weather Service - Chuuk, FSM (http://www.prh.noaa.gov/chuuk/)
NOAA's National Weather Service - Pohnpei & Kosrae, FSM (http://www.prh.noaa.gov/pohnpei/)
NOAA's National Weather Service - Yap, FSM (http://www.prh.noaa.gov/yap/)

Guam
This article is about the United States island territory of Guam. For the eastern European international organization,
see GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development.

Guam
Guhn

Flag

Seal

Anthem:Fanohge Chamoru
"Stand Ye Guamanians"
The Star Spangled Banner

Guam

107

Location of Guam in the western Pacific Ocean.

Capital

Hagta

Largest village

Dededo

Official languages
[1]

Ethnicgroups (2012

Demonym
Government

English
Chamorro

37.1% Chamorro
26.3% Filipino
11.3% Pacific
9.8% Mixed
6.9% White
6.3% other Asian
2.3% other

Guamanian
Representative democracy

President

Barack Obama (D)

Governor

Eddie Calvo (R)

Lt. Governor Raymond Tenorio (R)

Delegate

Madeleine Bordallo (D)

Guam

108
Legislature

Legislature of Guam
Area

Total

541.3km2 (190th)
209sqmi

Water(%)

negligible
Population

2010census 159,358

Density

320/km2 (37th)
830/sqmi

GDP(PPP)

2000estimate

Total

$2.5 billiona (167th)

Per capita

$15,000

HDI (2008)

[2]

0.901
very high

Currency

United States dollar (USD)

Time zone

Chamorro Standard Time (UTC+10)

Calling code

+1-671

ISO 3166 code

GU

Internet TLD

.gu
Website
[3]
www.guam.gov

Guam ( i/wm/ or /wm/; Chamorro: Guhn) is an organized, unincorporated territory of the United States
in the western Pacific Ocean. It is one of five U.S. territories with an established civilian government.[4][5] Guam is
listed as one of seventeen Non-Self-Governing Territories by the Special Committee on Decolonization of the United
Nations.[6] The island's capital is Hagta (formerly named Agana). Guam is the largest and southernmost of the
Mariana Islands.
The Chamorros, Guam's indigenous people, first inhabited the island approximately 4,000 years ago. The island has
a long history of European colonialism, beginning with Ferdinand Magellan's Spanish expedition landing on March
6, 1521. The first colony was established in 1668 by Spain with the arrival of settlers including Padre San Vitores, a
Catholic missionary. For more than two centuries Guam was an important stopover for the Spanish Manila Galleons
that crossed the Pacific annually. The island was controlled by Spain until 1898, when it was surrendered to the
United States during the SpanishAmerican War and later formally ceded as part of the Treaty of Paris.
Guam is the largest island in Micronesia and was the only U.S.-held island in the region before World War II. Guam
was captured by the Japanese on December 8, 1941, just hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor, and was occupied for
two and a half years. During the occupation, the people of Guam were subjected to acts that included forced labor,
torture, beheadings, and rape,[7][8] and were forced to adopt the Japanese culture. Guam was subject to fierce fighting
when U.S. troops recaptured the island on July 21, 1944, a date commemorated every year as Liberation Day.
Today, Guam's economy is supported by its principal industry, tourism, which is composed primarily of visitors
from Japan. Guam's second largest source of income is the United States Armed Forces.

Guam

History
Main article: History of Guam
The original inhabitants of Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands are believed to be descendents of Austronesian
people originating from Southeast Asia as early as 2000 BC. These people evolved into the Chamorro people. Most
of what is known about pre-contact ("ancient") Chamorros comes from legends and myths, archaeological evidence,
Jesuit missionary accounts, and observations from visiting scientists like Otto von Kotzebue and Louis de
Freycinet.Wikipedia:Citation needed
When Europeans first arrived on Guam, Chamorro society had three classes: matua (upper class), achaot (middle
class), and mana'chang (lower class). The matua were located in the coastal villages, which meant they had the best
access to fishing grounds, whereas the mana'chang were located in the interior of the island. Matua and mana'chang
rarely communicated with each other, and matua often used achaot as an intermediary. There were also "makhna"
(similar to shamans), skilled in healing and medicine. Belief in spirits of ancient Chamorros called "Taotao mo'na"
still persists as a remnant of pre-European culture. When Magellan arrived on Guam, he was greeted by hundreds of
small outrigger canoes that appeared to be flying over the water, due to their considerable speed. These outrigger
canoes were called Proas, and resulted in Magellan naming Guam Islas de las Velas Latinas ("Islands of the Lateen
sails").
Pigafetta described the "lateen sail" used by the inhabitants of Guam, hence the name "Island of Sails", but he also
writes the inhabitants "entered the ships and stole whatever they could lay their hands on", including "the small boat
that was fastened to the poop of the flagship."[9]:129 "Those people are poor, but ingenious and very thievish, on
account of which we called those three islands the islands of Ladroni.":131
Guam, the only Spanish outpost in the Pacific Ocean east of the Philippines, became the regular port of the Manila
galleons between Acapulco, Mexico, and Manila from 1565 to 1815, and (since Philippine independence) the most
western outpost of actual United States territory in the Pacific. It is the biggest single segment of Micronesia, the
largest islands between the islands of Kyushu (Japan), New Guinea, the Philippines, and the Hawaiian Islands.
Latte stones are stone pillars that are found only in the Mariana Islands and are a recent development in Pre-Contact
Chamorro society. The latte stone was used as a foundation on which thatched huts were built. Latte consist of a base
shaped from limestone called the haligi and with a capstone, or tsa, made either from a large brain coral or
limestone, placed on top. Using carbon-dating, archaeologists have broken Pre-Contact Guam (i.e. Chamorro)
history into three periods: "Pre-Latte" (BC2000? to AD1) "Transitional Pre-Latte" (AD1 to AD1000), and "Latte"
(AD1000 to AD1521).
Archaeological evidence also suggests that Chamorro society was on the verge of another transition phase by 1521,
as latte stones became bigger. Assuming the larger latte stones were used for chiefly houses, it can be argued that
Chamorro society was becoming more stratified, either from population growth or the arrival of new
people.Wikipedia:Citation needed The theory remains tenuous, however, due to lack of evidence, but if proven
correct, would support the idea that Pre-Contact Chamorros were in a transitioning society.Wikipedia:Citation
needed

Spanish colonization and the Manila galleons

Contact with Europeans began when Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan, sailing for the King of Spain,
reached the island in 1521 during his fleet's circumnavigation of the globe. General Miguel Lpez de Legazpi
claimed Guam for Spain in 1565. Spanish colonization commenced in 1668 with the arrival of Padre San Vitores,
who established the first Catholic mission. The islands were part of the Spanish East Indies governed from the
Philippines, which were in turn part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain based in Mexico City.
Between 1668 and 1815, Guam was an important resting stop for the Spanish Manila galleons, a fleet that covered
the Pacific trade route between Acapulco (Mexico) and Manila (Philippines). To protect these Pacific fleets, Spain

109

Guam
built a number of defensive structures such as Fort Nuestra Seora de la Soledad in Umatac, which are still standing
today. Other reminiscences of colonial times include the old Governor's Palace in Plaza de Espaa and the Spanish
Bridge, both in Hagata. Guam's Cathedral Dulce Nombre de Maria was also built during Spanish times in the 17th
century. Guam, along with the rest of the Mariana and Caroline Islands, were treated as part of Spain's colony in the
Philippines. While Guam's Chamorro culture has indigenous roots, the cultures of both Guam and the Northern
Marianas have many similarities with Spanish and Mexican culture due to three centuries of Spanish rule.

The Spanish-American War and World War II

Spanish-Philippine Peso commemorating the US occupation of Guam in 1899.

Marines laying fire on a Japanese sniper nest (July 28, 1944).

The United States took control of the island in the 1898 Spanish-American War, as part of the Treaty of Paris. Guam
came to serve as a station for American ships traveling to and from the Philippines, while the Northern Mariana
Islands passed to Germany, and then to Japan.
Following the Philippine-American War, Emilio Aguinaldo and Apolinario Mabini were exiled here in 1901.[10]:vi
During World War II, Guam was attacked and invaded by the armed forces of Japan on December 8, 1941.
The Northern Mariana Islands had become a Japanese protectorate before the war. It was the Chamorros from the
Northern Marianas who were brought to Guam to serve as interpreters and in other capacities for the occupying
Japanese force. The Guamanian Chamorros were treated as an occupied enemy by the Japanese military. After the
war, this would cause resentment between the Guamanian Chamorros and the Chamorros of the Northern Marianas.
Guam's Chamorros believed their northern brethren should have been compassionate towards them, whereas having
been occupied for over 30 years, the Northern Mariana Chamorros were loyal to Japan.
Guam's Japanese occupation lasted for approximately thirty-one months. During this period, the indigenous people
of Guam were subjected to forced labor, family separation, incarceration, execution, concentration camps and forced
prostitution. Approximately one thousand people died during the occupation, according to Congressional Testimony
in 2004. Some historians estimate that war violence killed 10% of Guam's some 20,000 population.[11]
The United States returned and fought the Battle of Guam on July 21, 1944, to recapture the island from Japanese
military occupation. More than 18,000 Japanese were killed as only 485 surrendered. Sergeant Shoichi Yokoi, who
surrendered in January 1972, appears to have been the last confirmed Japanese holdout in Guam.[12] The United
States also captured and occupied the Northern Marianas.

110

Guam

Post-war
After the war, the Guam Organic Act of 1950, established Guam as an unincorporated organized territory of the
United States, provided for the structure of the island's civilian government, and granted the people U.S. citizenship.
Since Guam is not a U.S. state, U.S. citizens residing on Guam are not allowed to vote for president and their
congressional representative is a non-voting member.
On August 6, 1997, Guam was the site of the Korean Air Flight 801 aircraft accident. The Boeing 747300 jetliner
was preparing to land when it crashed into a hill, killing 228 of the 254 people on board.
Since 1974, about 124 historic sites in Guam have been recognized under the U.S. National Register of Historic
Places.

Geography

Guam from satellite

Aerial view of Apra Harbor

Sunset on Guam
Main article: Geography of Guam
Guam lies between 13.2N and 13.7N and between 144.6E and 145.0E, and has an area of 212 square miles
(549km2), making it the 31st largest island of the United States. It is the southernmost and largest island in the
Mariana island chain and is also the largest island in Micronesia. This island chain was created by the colliding
Pacific and Philippine Sea tectonic plates. Guam is the closest land mass to the Mariana Trench, a deep subduction
zone, that lies beside the island chain to the east. Challenger Deep, the deepest surveyed point in the Oceans, is
southwest of Guam at 35,797 feet (10,911m) deep. The highest point in Guam is Mount Lamlam at an elevation of
1,334 feet (407 meters).[13]
The island of Guam is 30 miles (48km) long and 4 to 12 miles (6 to 19km) wide, 3/4 the size of Singapore. The
island experiences occasional earthquakes due to its location on the western edge of the Pacific Plate and near the

111

Guam

112

Philippine Sea Plate. In recent years, earthquakes with epicenters near Guam have had magnitudes ranging from 5.0
to 8.7. Unlike the Anatahan volcano in the Northern Mariana Islands, Guam is not volcanically active. However, due
to its proximity to Anatahan, vog (i.e., volcanic smog) does occasionally affect Guam.[14]
A coral table reef with deepwater channels surrounds most of Guam. Sandy beaches, rock cliff lines and mangroves
characterize the coastline area. Sheer limestone coastal cliffs dominate the north, while the southern end of the island
is mountainous, with lower hills in between.

Climate
The climate is characterized as tropical marine moderated by seasonal northeast trade winds. The weather is
generally hot and very humid with little seasonal temperature variation. The mean high temperature is 86F (30C)
and mean low is 76F (24C) with an average annual rainfall of 96inches (2,180mm). The dry season runs from
December through June. The remaining months (July through November) constitute the rainy season. The months of
January and February are considered the coolest months of the year with overnight low temperatures of 7075F
(2124C) and low humidity levels. The lowest temperature ever recorded in Guam was 65F (18C) on February
8, 1973.
Guam is located in Typhoon Alley and it is common for the island to be threatened by tropical storms and possible
typhoons during the wet season. The highest risk of typhoons is during October and November. They can, however,
occur year-round. The most intense typhoon to pass over Guam recently was Super Typhoon Pongsona, with
sustained winds of 144 miles per hour, gusts to 173 miles per hour, which slammed Guam on December 8, 2002,
leaving massive destruction.
Since Super Typhoon Pamela in 1976, wooden structures have been largely replaced by concrete structures. During
the 1980s wooden utility poles began to be replaced by typhoon-resistant concrete and steel poles. After the local
Government enforced stricter construction codes, many home and business owners built their structures out of
reinforced concrete with installed typhoon shutters.
Climate data for Guam (Guam International Airport) (19812010)
Month

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

Record high F
(C)

94
(34)

93
(34)

93
(34)

96
(36)

94
(34)

95
(35)

95
(35)

94
(34)

93
(34)

93
(34)

92
(33)

91
(33)

96
(36)

Average high F
(C)

86.3
(30.2)

86.3
87.2
88.4
(30.2) (30.7) (31.3)

88.8
(31.6)

88.8
(31.6)

88.0
(31.1)

87.5
(30.8)

87.6
(30.9)

87.9
(31.1)

87.8
(31)

86.8
(30.4)

87.6
(30.9)

Daily mean F
(C)

80.7
(27.1)

80.5
81.2
82.5
(26.9) (27.3) (28.1)

83.0
(28.3)

83.1
(28.4)

82.3
(27.9)

81.9
(27.7)

81.9
(27.7)

82.2
(27.9)

82.4
(28)

81.6
(27.6)

81.94
(27.74)

Average low F
(C)

75.2
(24)

74.8
75.3
76.5
(23.8) (24.1) (24.7)

77.3
(25.2)

77.4
(25.2)

76.5
(24.7)

76.3
(24.6)

76.1
(24.5)

76.6
(24.8)

76.9
(24.9)

76.3
(24.6)

76.3
(24.6)

Record low F
(C)

66
(19)

65
(18)

70
(21)

70
(21)

70
(21)

70
(21)

70
(21)

67
(19)

68
(20)

68
(20)

65
(18)

Precipitation
inches (mm)

3.96
(100.6)

3.78
(96)

Avg.
precipitation
days ( 0.01 in)

18.8

15.7

16.8

17.0

19.3

22.6

24.7

25.3

24.3

25.1

23.4

22.1

254.9

Mean monthly
sunshine hours

176.7

186.0

217.0

213.0

220.1

195.0

155.0

142.6

132.0

133.3

135.0

142.6

2,048.3

66
(19)

68
(20)

2.35
2.84
4.28
7.75
11.45
16.00
13.58
11.74
8.08
6.24
92.05
(59.7) (72.1) (108.7) (196.9) (290.8) (406.4) (344.9) (298.2) (205.2) (158.5) (2,338.1)

Source #1: NOAA (normals)

Guam

113
Source #2: Hong Kong Observatory (sun only 19611990)

Demographics
Historical
population
Census

Pop.

1910

11,806

1920

13,275

12.4%

1930

18,509

39.4%

1940

22,290

20.4%

1950

59,498

166.9%

1960

67,044

12.7%

1970

84,996

26.8%

1980

105,979

24.7%

1990

133,152

25.6%

2000

154,805

16.3%

2010

159,358

2.9%

Main article: Demographics of Guam

See also: List of U.S. states and territories by population
The largest ethnic group are the native Chamorros, accounting for 37.1% of the total population. Another 75,000 live
outside the Marianas in the state of California, Washington, Texas, and Hawaii.[15] Other significant ethnic groups
include those of Filipino (25.5%), White (10%). The rest are from other Pacific Islands or of Chinese, Japanese and
Korean ancestry. Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion, with 85% of the population stating an affiliation
with it.
The official languages of the island are English and Chamorro.

Culture
See also: Music of Guam
Post European contact Chamorro culture is a combination of
American, Spanish, Filipino, other Micronesian Islander and Mexican
traditions, with few remaining indigenous pre-Hispanic customs. These
influences are manifested in the local language, music, dance, sea
navigation, cuisine, fishing, games (such as batu, chonka, estuleks, and
bayogu), songs and fashion. During Spanish colonial rule (16681898)
the majority of the population was converted to Roman Catholicism
and religious festivities such as Easter and Christmas became
widespread. Post-contact Chamorro cuisine is largely based on corn,
and includes tortillas, tamales, atole and chilaquiles, which are a clear
influence from Spanish trade between Mesoamerica and Asia. The

Puntan Dos Amantes ("Two Lovers Point"), a

National Natural Landmark, well known for its
romantic associations.

Guam

114

modern Chamorro language is a Malayo-Polynesian language with much Spanish and Filipino influence. Many
Chamorros also have Spanish surnames because of their conversion to Roman Catholic Christianity and the adoption
of names from the Catlogo alfabtico de apellidos, a phenomenon also common to the Philippines.
Due to foreign cultural influence from Spain, most aspects of the early indigenous culture have been lost, though
there has been a resurgence in preserving any remaining pre-Hispanic culture in the last few decades. Some scholars
have traveled throughout the Pacific Islands conducting research to study what the original Chamorro cultural
practices such as dance, language, and canoe building may have been like.
Two aspects of indigenous pre-Hispanic culture that withstood time are chenchule' and inafa'maolek. Chenchule' is
the intricate system of reciprocity at the heart of Chamorro society. It is rooted in the core value of inafa'maolek.
Historian Lawrence Cunningham in 1992 wrote, "In a Chamorro sense, the land and its produce belong to everyone.
Inafa'maolek, or interdependence, is the key, or central value, in Chamorro culture... Inafa'maolek depends on a
spirit of cooperation and sharing. This is the armature, or core, that everything in Chamorro culture revolves around.
It is a powerful concern for mutuality rather than individualism and private property rights."

Chief Gadao is featured in many legends about

Guam before European colonization.

The core culture or Pengngan Chamorro is based on complex social

protocol centered upon respect: From sniffing over the hands of the
elders (called mangnginge in Chamorro), the passing down of legends,
chants, and courtship rituals, to a person asking for permission from
spiritual ancestors before entering a jungle or ancient battle grounds.
Other practices predating Spanish conquest include galaide'
canoe-making, making of the belembaotuyan (a string musical
instrument made from a gourd), fashioning of cho' atupat slings and
slingstones, tool manufacture, Mtan Guma' burial rituals, and
preparation of herbal medicines by Suruhanu.

Master craftsmen and women specialize in weavings, including plaited work (niyok- and kgak-leaf baskets, mats,
bags, hats, and food containments), loom-woven material (kalachucha-hibiscus and banana fiber skirts, belts and
burial shrouds), and body ornamentation (bead and shell necklaces, bracelets, earrings, belts and combs made from
tortoise shells) and Spondylus.
The cosmopolitan and multicultural nature of modern Guam poses challenges for Chamorros struggling to preserve
their culture and identity amidst forces of acculturation. The increasing numbers of Chamorros, especially Chamorro
youth, relocating to the U.S. Mainland has further complicated both definition and preservation of Chamorro
identity.Wikipedia:Citation needed While only a few masters exist to continue traditional art forms, the resurgence
of interest among the Chamorros to preserve the language and culture has resulted in a growing number of young
Chamorros who seek to continue the ancient ways of the Chamorro people.

Guam

115

Government and politics

See also: Voting in Guam and Political party strength in Guam
Guam is governed by a popularly elected governor and a unicameral
15-member legislature, whose members are known as senators. Guam
elects one non-voting delegate, currently Democrat Madeleine Z.
Bordallo, to the United States House of Representatives. U.S. citizens
in Guam vote in a straw poll for their choice in the U.S. Presidential
general election, but since Guam has no votes in the Electoral College,
the poll has no real effect. However, in sending delegates to the
Republican and Democratic national conventions, Guam does have
influence in the national presidential race. These delegates are elected
by local party conventions.

The War in the Pacific National Historical Park at

Asan.

In the 1980s and early 1990s, there was a significant movement in

favor of the territory becoming a commonwealth, which would give it a level of self-government similar to Puerto
Rico and the Northern Mariana Islands. However, the federal government rejected the version of a commonwealth
that the government of Guam proposed, due to it having clauses incompatible with the Territorial Clause (Art. IV,
Sec. 3, cl. 2) of the U.S. Constitution. Other movements are also in existence that advocate becoming a U.S. state,
union with the state of Hawaii, union with the Northern Mariana Islands as a single territory, or independence. Guam
is generally thought of as conservative on the political spectrum.

Villages and military bases

Main article: List of villages in Guam
Note: Naval Air Station Agana has been deactivated.[16]
Guam is divided into nineteen municipalities called villages: Agana
Heights, Agat, AsanMaina, Barrigada, ChalanPagoOrdot, Dededo,
Hagta, Inarajan, Mangilao, Merizo, MongmongTotoMaite, Piti,
Santa Rita, Sinajana, Talofofo, Tamuning, Umatac, Yigo, Yona.
The U.S. military maintains jurisdiction over its bases, which cover
approximately 39,000 acres (16,000ha), or 29% of the island's total
land area:

The aircraft carrier USS Ronald Reagan (CVN

76) enters Apra Harbor for a scheduled port visit.

U.S. Naval Base Guam, U.S. Navy Sumay

U.S. Coast Guard Sector Guam, Sumay
Andersen Air Force Base, U.S. Air Force Yigo

Apra Harbor Orote peninsula

Ordnance Annex, U.S. Navy South Central Highlands (formerly known as Naval Magazine)
Naval Computer and Telecommunications Station, U.S. Navy Barrigada and Finegayan
Joint Force Headquarters-Guam, Guam National Guard Radio Barrigada and Fort Juan Muna

In addition to on-shore military installations, Guam, along with the rest of the Mariana Islands, is being prepared to
be the westernmost military training range for the U.S. Guam is currently viewed as a key military hub that will
further allow U.S. military power to be projected via sea and sky.
The U.S. military has proposed to build a new aircraft carrier berth on Guam and to move 8,600 Marines, and 9,000
of their dependents, to Guam from Okinawa, Japan. Including the required construction workers, this buildup would
increase Guam's population by 45%. In a February 2010 letter, the United States Environmental Protection Agency
sharply criticized these plans because of a water shortfall, sewage problems and the impact on coral reefs. By 2012,

Guam

116

these plans had been cut to only have a maximum of 4,800 Marines stationed on the island, two thirds of which
would be there on a rotational basis without their dependents.[17]
With the proposed increased military presence stemming from the upcoming preparation efforts and relocation
efforts of U.S. Marines from Okinawa, Japan to Guam slated to begin in 2010 and last for the next several years
thereafter, the amounts of total land that the military will control or tenant may grow to or surpass 40% of the entire
landmass of Guam.
In January 2011, the Ike Skelton National Defense Authorization Act for FY2011 indicated that recent significant
events will delay the deadline for realigning U.S. Marine Corps service members and their families from Okinawa to
Guam. The transfer may be as late as 2020. In addition, the Defense Authorization Act cut approximately $320
million from the 2011 budget request.
Villagers and the military community are inter-connected in many ways. Many villagers serve in the military or are
retired. Many active duty personnel and Defense Department civilians also live in the villages outside of the military
installation areas. The military and village communities have "adoption" programs where Guam's population and
military personnel stationed on Guam perform community service projects.

Economy
Guam's economy depends primarily on tourism, Department of Defense
installations and locally owned businesses. Despite paying no income or excise
tax, it receives large transfer payments from the general revenues of the U.S.
federal treasury. Under the provisions of a special law of Congress, it is Guam's
treasury rather than the U.S. treasury that receives the federal income taxes paid
by local taxpayers (including military and civilian federal employees assigned to
Guam).
Lying in the western Pacific, Guam is a popular destination for Japanese tourists.
Its tourist hub, Tumon, features over 20 large hotels, a Duty Free Shoppers
2009 Guam quarter.
Galleria, Pleasure Island district, indoor aquarium, Sandcastle Las Vegasstyled
shows and other shopping and entertainment venues. It is a relatively short flight from Asia or Australia compared to
Hawaii, with hotels and seven public golf courses accommodating over a million tourists per year. Although 75% of
the tourists are Japanese, Guam receives a sizable number of tourists from South Korea, the U.S., the Philippines,
and Taiwan.[18] Significant sources of revenue include duty-free designer shopping outlets, and the American-style
malls: Micronesia Mall, Guam Premier Outlets, the Agana Shopping Center, and the world's largest Kmart.[19]
The economy had been stable since 2000 due to increased tourism, but
took a recent downturn along with the rest of the global economy. It is
expected to stabilize with the transfer of U.S. Marine Corps' 3rd
Marine Expeditionary Force, currently in Okinawa, Japan,
(approximately 8,000 Marines, along with their 10,000 dependents), to
Guam between 2010 and 2015. In 2003, Guam had a 14%
unemployment rate, and the government suffered a $314million
shortfall.
Terminal at Antonio B. Won Pat International
Airport. The airport hosts the headquarters of
Continental Micronesia, Guam's largest
private-sector employer.

The Compacts of Free Association between the United States, the

Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands
and the Republic of Palau accorded the former entities of the Trust
Territory of the Pacific Islands a political status of "free association"

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117

with the United States. The Compacts give citizens of these island nations generally no restrictions to reside in the
United States (also its territories), and many were attracted to Guam due to its proximity, environmental, and cultural
familiarity. Over the years, it was claimed by some in Guam that the territory has had to bear the brunt of this
agreement in the form of public assistance programs and public education for those from the regions involved, and
the federal government should compensate the states and territories affected by this type of
migration.Wikipedia:Citation needed Over the years, Congress had appropriated "Compact Impact" aids to Guam,
the Northern Mariana Islands and Hawaii, and eventually this appropriation was written into each renewed Compact.
Some, however, continue to claim the compensation is not enough or that the distribution of actual compensation
received is significantly disproportionate.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Guam's largest single private sector employer, with about 1,400 jobs, is United Airlines, a subsidiary of
Chicago-based United Continental Holdings, Inc.[20] As of 2008 the airline's annual payroll in Guam was $90
million.[21]

Transportation and communications

Main articles: Communications in Guam and Transportation in Guam
Most of the island has state-of-the-art mobile phone services and high-speed internet
widely available through either cable or DSL. Guam was added to the North American
Numbering Plan (NANP) in 1997 (country code 671 became NANP area code 671),
removing the barrier of high cost international long-distance calls to the U.S. Mainland.
Guam is also a major hub for submarine cables travelling between Western USA,
Hawaii, Australia and Asia. Guam currently serves 12 submarine cables, with most
continuing to China.

Guam Highway 8 route

marker.

In 1899, the local postage stamps were overprinted "Guam" as was

done for the other former Spanish colonies, but this was discontinued
shortly thereafter and regular U.S. postage stamps have been used ever
since. Because Guam is also part of the U.S. Postal System (postal
abbreviation: GU, ZIP code range: 9691096932), mail to Guam from
the U.S. mainland is considered domestic and no additional charges are
required. Private shipping companies, such as FedEx, UPS, and DHL,
however, have no obligation to do so, and do not regard Guam as
domestic.

Cover carried both directions on the first

commercial flights between Guam and the United
States, October 524, 1935.

The speed of mail traveling between Guam and the states varies
depending on size and time of year. Light, first-class items generally take less than a week to or from the mainland,
but larger first-class or Priority items can take a week or two. Fourth-class mail, such as magazines, are transported
by sea after reaching Hawaii. Most residents use post office boxes or private mail boxes, although residential
delivery is becoming increasingly available. Incoming mail not from the Americas should be addressed to "Guam"
instead of "USA" to avoid being routed the long way through the U.S. mainland and possibly charged a higher rate
(especially from Asia).

Guam
The Commercial Port of Guam is the island's lifeline because most products must be shipped into Guam for
consumers. The port is also the regional transhipment hub for over 500,000 customers throughout the Micronesian
region. The port is the shipping and receiving point for containers designated for the island's US Department of
Defense installations, Andersen Air Force Base and Commander, Naval Forces Marianas and eventually the Third
Marine Expeditionary Force.
Guam is served by the Antonio B. Won Pat International Airport, which is a hub for United Airlines. The island is
outside the United States customs zone so Guam is responsible for establishing and operating its own customs and
quarantine agency and jurisdiction. Therefore, the U.S. Customs and Border Protection only carries immigration (but
not customs) functions. Since Guam is under federal immigration jurisdiction, passengers arriving directly from the
United States skip immigration and proceed directly to Guam Customs and Quarantine.
However, due to the Guam and CNMI visa waiver program for certain countries, an eligibility pre-clearance check is
carried on Guam for flights to the States. For travel from the Northern Mariana Islands to Guam, a pre-flight passport
and visa check is performed before boarding the flight to Guam. On flights from Guam to the Northern Mariana
Islands, no immigration check is performed. Traveling between Guam and the States through a foreign point,
however, does require a passport.
Most residents travel within Guam using personally owned vehicles. The local government currently outsources the
only public bus system (Guam Regional Transit Authority), and some commercial companies operate buses between
tourist-frequented locations

Ecological issues
Brown tree snake
Believed to be a stowaway on a U.S. military transport near the end of
World War II, the brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis) was
accidentally introduced to Guam and nearly eliminated the native bird
population of an island that previously had no native species of snake;
this snake has no natural predators on the island. The brown tree snake,
known locally as the kulebla is native to northern and eastern coasts of
Australia, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands. While slightly
venomous, the brown tree snake is relatively harmless to human
beings. Although some studies have suggested a high density of brown
Brown tree snake.
tree snakes on Guam, residents rarely see these nocturnal snakes. The
United States Department of Agriculture has trained detector dogs to
keep brown tree snakes out of the island's cargo flow, and the United States Geological Survey has dogs capable of
detecting snakes in forested environments around the region's islands.
Before the introduction of the brown tree snake, Guam was home to two endemic and several native bird species.
Among them was the Guam Rail or ko'ko' bird in Chamorro and the Guam Flycatcher which were common
throughout the island. Today the flycatcher is extinct and the Guam Rail is now being bred in captivity by the
Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources. The consequence of the introduction of the brown tree snake has been
significant over the past several decades. The severe reduction of the island's bird population has been attributed to
the brown tree snakes, who eat them. Up to twelve species are believed to have been driven to extinction. According
to many elders, ko'ko' birds were common in Guam before World War II; they are no longer around largely due to
predation by brown tree snakes.
Other birds threatened by the brown tree snake include the Mariana Crow and Mariana Swiftlet though populations
are present on other islands including Rota.

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Guam
Due to the diminished bird population, Guam is said to have 40 times more spiders than neighboring islands, as there
are not as many birds on the island to eat the spiders.

Coconut rhinoceros beetle

An infestation of the coconut rhinoceros beetle (CRB), Oryctes
rhinoceros, was detected on Guam on September 12, 2007. CRB is not
known to occur in the United States except in American Samoa.
Delimiting surveys performed September 1325, 2007 indicated that
the infestation was limited to Tumon Bay and Faifai Beach, an area of
approximately 900 acres (3.6km2). Guam Department of Agriculture
(GDA) placed quarantine on all properties within the Tumon area on
October 5 and later expanded the quarantine to about 2,500 acres
(10km2) on October 25; approximately 0.5 miles (800m) radius in all
Coconut rhinoceros beetle.
directions from all known locations of CRB infestation. CRB is native
to Southern Asia and distributed throughout Asia and the Western
Pacific including Sri Lanka, Upolu, Samoa, American Samoa, Palau, New Britain, West Irian, New Ireland, Pak
Island and Manus Island (New Guinea), Fiji, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Mauritius, and Reunion.
Adults are the injurious stage of the insect. They are generally night-time fliers and when they alight on a host, they
chew down into the folded, emerging fronds of coconut palms to feed on sap. V-shaped cuts in the fronds and holes
through the midrib are visible when the leaves grow out and unfold. If the growing tip is injured, the palm may be
killed or severe loss of leaf tissue may cause decreased nut set. Feeding wounds may also serve as an infection
pathway for pathogens or other pests. The effects of adult boring may be more severe on younger palms where
spears are narrower. Mortality of young palms has already been observed on Guam. Oviposition and larval
development typically occurs in decaying coconut logs or stumps.
Control measures have been developed for CRB and the current strategy on Guam is to implement an integrated
eradication program using pheromone-baited, attractive traps to capture adults, various methods to eliminate infested
and susceptible host material, and pesticides to kill larvae and adults. Pesticides may also be applied to uninfested
trees as a preventive treatment. USDA-APHIS has completed an Environmental Assessment for the coconut
rhinoceros beetle eradication program on Guam. The eradication program is a cooperative effort between USDA
(APHIS and Forest Service), GDA and the University of Guam (UOG). This document follows the Forest Service
Pest Risk Assessment (Kliejunas et al. 2001) format and is intended to provide information regarding the current
status of CRB on Guam, its potential to spread to uninfested locales, and the consequences of establishment. The
high, moderate or low riskvalues are based on available biological information and the subjective judgment of the
authors. In 2010, GDA and UOG set out to introduce a virus in the adult population designed to kill the beetle
through infection by beetles released from the labs.
In June 2010, during a controlled release of infected adult beetles and in a joint venture with a team from New
Zealand, they discovered "...unusual rhino beetle behavior: the beetles were not breeding on the ground in decayed
logs as normal; they were breeding in the detritus trapped in the tree branches. In cutting down 11 large coconut
palms they found a complete ecosystem in the crowns including brown tree snakes, crabs, and, unfortunately, all life
stages of rhinoceros beetles, from eggs to larva to young adults. This new discovery makes the release of the
bio-control virus even more vital. Moore thinks this arboreal breeding behavior, seen only on Guam, may be because
the brown tree snake has wiped out most of Guam's rats. Elsewhere, rats love to live in coconut crowns, and they
love to eat rhino beetle grubs. This never-before-seen rhino beetle behavior of breeding in the crowns of coconut
trees underscores an important point of invasive species on small islands. Their impact is often severe because there
are no natural enemies, such as predators, parasites, or diseases, to control their population growth."

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Guam
A joint initiative between Guam Customs and Quarantine (which trains CRB detector dogs and CRB handlers),
Guam Department of Agriculture (which employs CRB detector dog handlers), University of Guam College of
Agriculture (which provides CRB Detector Dog program funding) and the U.S. Department of Agriculture Animal
and Plant Health Inspection Station (the federal agency providing strategic direction and regulatory guidance) to
form the nation's first Bio-Security Task Force which features the nation's first CRB trained detector dogs. This
program will provide enhanced capability and capacity for the invasive species interdiction and eradication program
in order to mitigate these species on Guam and prevent it from spreading to other jurisdictions in the United States.
This Task Force increases the island's capacity to handle the increased volume of invasive species associated with
the unprecedented military buildup on Guam.

Other invasive animal species

From the seventeenth through nineteenth centuries, the Spanish introduced pigs,
dogs, chickens, the Philippine deer (Rusa mariannus), black francolins, and
carabao (a subspecies of water buffalo), which have cultural significance. Herds
of carabao obstruct military base operations and harm native ecosystems. After
birth control and adoption efforts were ineffective, the U.S. military began
culling the herds in 2002 leading to organized protests from island residents.
Other introduced species include cane toads imported in 1937, the giant African
snail (an agricultural pest introduced during World WarII by Japanese
occupation troops) and more recently frog species which could threaten crops in
Adult female carabao and calf.
addition to providing additional food for the brown tree snake population.
Reports of loud chirping frogs native to Puerto Rico and known as coqu, that
may have arrived from Hawaii, have led to fears that the noise could threaten Guam's tourism.
Introduced feral pigs and deer, over-hunting, and habitat loss from human development are also major factors in the
decline and loss of Guam's native plants and animals.

Threats to indigenous plants

Invading animal species are not the only threat to Guam's native flora. Tinangaja, a virus affecting coconut palms,
was first observed on the island in 1917 when copra production was still a major part of Guam's economy. Though
coconut plantations no longer exist on the island, the dead and infected trees that have resulted from the epidemic are
seen throughout the forests of Guam.
During the past century, the dense forests of northern Guam have been largely replaced by thick tangan-tangan
brush (Leucaena leucocephala). Much of Guam's foliage was lost during World War II. In 1947, the U.S. military is
thought to have planted tangan-tangan by seeding the island from the air to prevent erosion. Tangan-tangan was
present on the island before 1905 (Stone,Useful Plants of Guam, 1905).
In southern Guam, non-native grass species dominate much of the landscape.
Although the colorful and impressive Flame Tree (Delonix regia) is found throughout the Marianas, the tree on
Guam has been largely decimated.

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121

Wildfires
Wildfires plague the forested areas of Guam every dry season despite the
island's humid climate. Most fires are man-caused with 80% resulting from
arson.[22] Poachers often start fires to attract deer to the new growth.
Invasive grass species that rely on fire as part of their natural life cycle
grow in many regularly burned areas. Grasslands and "barrens" have
replaced previously forested areas leading to greater soil erosion. During
the rainy season sediment is carried by the heavy rains into the Fena Lake
Reservoir and Ugum River, leading to water quality problems for southern
Guam's grassland.
Guam. Eroded silt also destroys the marine life in reefs around the island.
Soil stabilization efforts by volunteers and forestry workers (planting trees) have had little success in preserving
natural habitats.

Aquatic preserves
Efforts have been made to protect Guam's coral reef habitats from
pollution, eroded silt and overfishing, problems that have led to
decreased fish populations. (Since Guam is a significant vacation spot
for scuba divers, this is important.) In recent years, the Department of
Agriculture, Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources has
established several new marine preserves where fish populations are
monitored by biologists. Before adopting U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency standards, portions of Tumon Bay were dredged by
the hotel chains to provide a better experience for hotel guests. Tumon
Bay has since been made into a preserve. A federal Guam National
Wildlife Refuge in northern Guam protects the decimated sea turtle
population in addition to a small colony of Mariana fruit bats.

Having previously experienced extensive

dredging, Tumon Bay is now a marine wildlife
preserve.

Harvest of sea turtle eggs was a common occurrence on Guam before World War II. The Green sea turtle (Chelonia
mydas) was harvested legally on Guam before August 1978, when it was listed as threatened under the Endangered
Species Act. The Hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) has been on the endangered list since 1970. In an
effort to ensure protection of sea turtles on Guam, routine sightings are counted during aerial surveys and nest sites
are recorded and monitored for hatchlings.
Traditional harvests of sea turtles were primarily for local consumption at fiestas, weddings, funerals, and
christenings. In recent times, poaching of sea turtles has been known to occur on Guam due to the traditional demand
for its meat. Capture of the responsible parties has been difficult, although arrests have been made for unauthorized
take. Effective conservation and enforcement will be critical to the recovery efforts of this project.
Guam's Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources (DAWR) will continue to give sea turtle presentations for
community awareness, especially through the elementary-secondary school system and University of Guam. In
addition, the recommendation to produce and distribute sea turtle posters and pamphlets would help to enhance
conservation and recovery awareness within the local community.
The DAWR Sea Turtle Recovery Program (STRP) is funded in part by the NMFS Honolulu PIAO to determine the
extent of Guam's resident/nesting sea turtle populations and nesting habitats by conducting beach surveys and
satellite tracking. ComNavMarianas has funded part of the satellite telemetry portion of the project through the
purchase of satellite tags and satellite time. The objectives of the project are:
1. To collect baseline population size-structure (age and size) and genetic information for sea turtles in and about
Guam.

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122

2. To survey Guam's beaches for sea turtle nesting activity for both green turtle (Chelonia mydas) and hawksbill
(Eretmochelys imbricata) throughout the nesting period in order to determine the size of the nesting population of
sea turtles on Guam and to employ a variety of tagging techniques to determine movement, residency and further
define population dynamics.
3. To establish a Guam-based sea turtle-working group consisting of natural resource stakeholders and involve them
in the refinement of the implementation plan.
The acquisition of satellite tagging materials and training was completed in March and April 2000. On June 28,
2000, an approximately 250300 pound Green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) was Argos satellite-tagged and tracked
after making a false crawl (i.e., one in which no nest was made) on Explosive Ordnance Disposal Beach, Andersen
Air Force Base. A poaching arrest was also made on the following morning concerning a 22lb. C. mydas that was
illegally speared in the Tumon Bay Marine Preserve Area.
Reef fish of Guam

Whitespotted boxfish (Ostracion meleagris)

Royal angelfish (Pygoplites diacanthus)

Education
Colleges and universities
The University of Guam (UOG) and Guam Community College, both
fully accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges,
offer courses in higher education. UOG is a member of the exclusive
group of only 76 U.S. land-grant institutions in the entire United
States. Pacific Islands University is a small Christian liberal arts
institution nationally accredited by the Transnational Association of
Christian Colleges and Schools. They offer courses at both the
undergraduate and graduate levels.

Primary and secondary schools

The central campus at the University of Guam.

See also: List of schools in Guam

The Guam Public School System[23] serves the entire island of Guam. In 2000, 32,000 students attended Guam's
public schools. Guam Public Schools have struggled with problems such as high dropout rates and poor test scores.
Guam's educational system has always faced unique challenges as a small community located 6,000 miles
(9,700km) from the U.S. mainland with a very diverse student body including many students who come from
backgrounds without traditional American education. An economic downturn in Guam since the mid-1990s has

Guam
compounded the problems in schools.
Before September 1997, the U.S. Department of Defense partnered with Guam Board of Education.[24] In September
1997 the DoDEA opened its own schools for children of military personnel.[25] DoDEA schools, which also serve
children of some federal civilian employees, had an attendance of 2,500 in 2000. DoDEA Guam operates three
elementary/middle schools and one high school.

Public libraries
Guam Public Library System operates the Nieves M. Flores Memorial Library in Hagta and five branch
libraries.[26]

Health care
The Government of Guam maintains the island's main health care facility, Guam Memorial Hospital, in
Tamuning.[27] U.S. board certified doctors and dentists practice in all specialties. In addition, the U.S. Naval
Hospital in Agana Heights[28] serves active-duty members and dependents of the military community. There is one
subscriber-based air ambulance located on the island, CareJet, which provides emergency patient transportation
across Guam and surrounding islands.[29]

Film-making
Over the years, a number of films have been shot on Guam, including Shiro's Head (directed by the Muna brothers)
and the government-funded Max Havoc: Curse of the Dragon (2004). The latter has been mired in lawsuits and
accusations of fraud perpetrated against the government and people of Guam by its makers John Laing and Albert
Pyun.
Although set on Guam, No Man Is an Island (1962) was not shot there, but in the Republic of the Philippines.

Sports
Pacific Games
Guam hosted the Pacific Games in 1975 and 1999. At the 2007 Games, Guam finished 7th of 22 countries and 14th
at the 2011 Games.[30]

Association football
The Guam national football team was founded in 1975 and joined FIFA in 1996. Guam is one of FIFA's weakest
teams and only managed their first victory over a FIFA-registered side in 2009, when they defeated Mongolia in the
East Asian Cup. The national team plays at the Guam National Football Stadium, which has a capacity of 1,000.
The top division in Guam is the Guam Men's Soccer League. The current champion is Cars Plus FC and Guam
Shipyard is the country's most successful club, with six championships.

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Guam

Swimming
In the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, Pilar Shimizu competed for Guam and placed 42nd in the breastroke
competition.

Rugby union
Guam is represented in rugby union by the Guam national rugby union team. The team has never qualified for a
Rugby World Cup. Guam played their first match in 2005, an 88 draw with India. Guam's biggest win was a 740
thrashing of Brunei in June 2008.

Mixed martial arts

Pacific Xtreme Combat is Guam's premier mixed martial arts organization. Established in 2004, it has showcased
more than 30 professional MMA events and over 40 amateur fights with a number of participants from Guam,
Hawaii, U.S. mainland, Philippines, Japan, South Korea and the Northern Mariana Islands. With its recent expansion
in the Philippines, it continues to promote the development of local and regional athletes to compete in world-class
settings.

References
[1] CIA Factbook: Guam (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ gq. html). Cia.gov. Retrieved on June 13,
2012.
[2] Filling Gaps in the Human Development Index (http:/ / www. unescap. org/ pdd/ publications/ workingpaper/ wp_09_02. pdf), United
Nations ESCAP, February 2009
[3] http:/ / www. guam. gov/
[4] ." DOI Office of Insular Affairs. February 9, 2007.
[5] Office of Insular Affairs. Retrieved October 31, 2008.
[6] History of U.N. Decolonisation Committee Official U.N. Website (http:/ / www. un. org/ Depts/ dpi/ decolonization/ history. htm). Un.org
(December 14, 1960). Retrieved on June 13, 2012.
[7] War Restitution Act : hearing before the Subcommittee on Insular and International Affairs of the Co... |National Library of Australia (http:/ /
catalogue. nla. gov. au/ Record/ 197751). Catalogue.nla.gov.au (September 20, 1994). Retrieved on June 13, 2012.
[8] " Statement of David B. Cohen Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Interior for Insular Affairs Before the House Committee on Resources
Regarding the Report of the Guam War Claims Review Commission |July 21, 2004 (http:/ / www. doi. gov/ oia/ press/ 2004/
72104guam_war_claims. cfm)." Office of Insular Affairs. Retrieved September 19, 2012.
[9] Nowell, C.E., 1962, Magellan's Voyage Around the World, Antonio Pigafetta's account, Evanston: Northwestern University Press
[10] Mabini, A., 1969, The Philippine Revolution, Republic of the Philippines, Dept. of Education, National Historical Commission
[11] Werner Gruhl, Imperial Japan's World War Two, 19311945 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ow5Wlmu9MPQC& pg=PA102& dq&
hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false), Transaction Publishers, 2007 ISBN 978-0-7658-0352-8
[12] Kristof, Nicholas D. "Shoichi Yokoi, 82, Is Dead; Japan Soldier Hid 27 Years," (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage.
html?res=950DE7D81F3BF935A1575AC0A961958260& sec=& spon=& pagewanted=2) New York Times. September 26, 1997.
[13] "Geography of Guam". Official site of Guam, April 19, 2014. Retrieved on April 19, 2014 from http:/ / ns. gov. gu/ geography. html.
[14] "Home page of the Anahatan volcano". USGS-CNMI, November 8, 2007. Retrieved on November 8, 2007 from http:/ / hvo. wr. usgs. gov/
cnmi/ .
[15] " Chamorro Population of the United States: 2010 (http:/ / bsp. guam. gov/ Chamorros in the United States_2011. 1. pdf)" (PDF). U.S.
Census Bureau, 2010 Census.
[16] Military: Naval Air Station, Agana (Tiyan) (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ facility/ agana. htm). GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved
2010-02-19.
See also List of United States Navy installations#Guam.
[17] Parrish, Karen (July 20, 2012). "Carter: Guam Central to Asia-Pacific Strategy." (http:/ / www. defense. gov/ / news/ newsarticle.
aspx?id=117196) American Forces Press Service.
[18] . visitguam.org
[19] Kmart Guam (http:/ / dangerboyandpixie. wordpress. com/ 2011/ 07/ 11/ worlds-largest-kmart/ ). dangerboyandpixie.wordpress.com (July
11, 2011). Retrieved on July 20, 2013.
[20] Kerrigan, Kevin. . Pacific News Center (May 5, 2010). Retrieved on October 5, 2010. "Continental Micronesia is Guam's single largest
employer. About 14-hundred jobs here on dependent on the airline."

124

Guam
[21] Blair, Chad (May 30, 2008). " 'Air Mike' a rare bright spot in local aviation (http:/ / pacific. bizjournals. com/ pacific/ stories/ 2008/ 06/ 02/
story3. html)." Pacific Business News.
[22] , pp. 67, guamforestry.org
[23] Welcome to the Guam Public School System! (http:/ / www. gdoe. net/ ). Gdoe.net. Retrieved on June 13, 2012.
[24] " Rats, other problems face Guam schools (http:/ / www. newspaperarchive. com/ LandingPage. aspx?type=glp& search="rats, other
problems face guam schools"& img=\\na0041\6800243\56035875_clean. html)." Pacific Stars and Stripes. October 3, 1993.
[25] Guam School to Be Renamed in Honor of NASA Astronaut William McCool |SpaceRef Your Space Reference (http:/ / www. spaceref.
com/ news/ viewpr. html?pid=12381). SpaceRef (August 21, 2003). Retrieved on June 13, 2012.
[26] (http:/ / gpls. guam. gov/ Portals/ 50/ GPLS_LOC/ GPLS_Location_2007Apr12. xml). gpls.guam.gov
[27] Welcome to the official Guam Memorial Hospital Authority Website! Tonyt (http:/ / www. gmha. org/ ). Gmha.org. Retrieved on June 13,
2012.
[28] U.S Naval Hospital Guam (http:/ / www. med. navy. mil/ sites/ usnhguam/ Pages/ default. aspx). med.navy.mil
[29] Guam's CareJet Program Resumes Service (http:/ / airmedical. net/ 2012/ 09/ 10/ guams-carejet-program-resumes-service/ ). Airmedical.net.
Retrieved on September 27, 2012.
[30] http:/ / www. nc2011. nc/ en/ medal-tally

External links
Guam.gov (http://www.guam.gov/) Official Government Website
Guampedia, Guam's Online Encyclopedia (http://guampedia.com/)
The Insular Empire: America in the Mariana Islands (http://www.theinsularempire.com/), PBS documentary
film website.
Guam (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gq.html) entry at The World
Factbook
U.S. Census Bureau: Island Areas Census 2000 (http://www.census.gov/population/www/cen2000/
islandareas/)
Guam (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Oceania/Guam) at DMOZ
Portals to the World: Guam (http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/hispanic/guam/guam.html) from the U.S.
Library of Congress.

Wikimedia Atlas of Guam

Coordinates: 1330N 14448E (http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Guam&
params=13_30_N_144_48_E_region:GU_type:isle_scale:250000)

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Kiribati

126

Kiribati
This article is about the island nation. For other uses, see Kiribati (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Kiritimati, an island in the Line Islands and part of Kiribati.

Independent and Sovereign

Republic of Kiribati
Ribaberiki Kiribati

Flag

Coat of arms

Motto:"Te Mauri, Te Raoi ao Te Tabomoa"

"Health, Peace and Prosperity"
Anthem:Teirake Kaini Kiribati
Stand up, Kiribati

Capital
and largest city

South Tarawa
[1]
128N 1732E

Official languages
Ethnicgroups (2000)
Demonym
Government

English
Gilbertese

98.8% Micronesian
1.2% others
I-Kiribati
Parliamentary republic

- President

Anote Tong

- Vice-President

Teima Onorio

Legislature

House of Assembly

Independence

Kiribati

127
- from the United Kingdom 12 July 1979
Area
- Total

811km2 (186th)
313sqmi
Population

- 2010estimate

103,500 (197th)

- 2010census

103,500

- Density

135/km2 (73rd)
350/sqmi

GDP(PPP)

2011estimate

- Total

$599 million

- Per capita

$5,721

GDP(nominal)

2011estimate

- Total

$167 million

- Per capita

$1,592

HDI (2013)

0.629
medium 121st

Currency

Kiribati dollar
Australian dollar (AUD)

Time zone

(UTC+12, +13, +14)

Drives on the

left

Calling code

+686

ISO 3166 code

KI

Internet TLD

.ki

Kiribati ([kribas] KIRR-i-bas or krbdi;[2] Gilbertese:[kiibas]), officially the Independent and Sovereign
Republic of Kiribati[19] [3], is an island nation in the central tropical Pacific Ocean. The permanent population is
just over 100,000 (2011) on 800 square kilometres (310sqmi). The nation is composed of 32 atolls and one raised
coral island, Banaba, dispersed over 3.5million square kilometres, (1,351,000squaremiles) straddling the equator,
and bordering the International Date Line at its easternmost point.
The name Kiribati is the local pronunciation of Gilberts, which derives from the main island chain, named the
Gilbert Islands after the British explorer Thomas Gilbert, who sailed through the islands in 1788. The capital, South
Tarawa, consists of a number of islets connected through a series of causeways, located in the Tarawa archipelago.
Kiribati became independent from the United Kingdom in 1979. It is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations,
the IMF and the World Bank, and became a full member of the United Nations in 1999.

Etymology
Kiribati was named in French by captains Krusenstern and Louis Isidore Duperrey "les Gilbert",[4] Gilbert Islands,
after the British Captain Thomas Gilbert, who sighted the islands in 1788. The current name, Kiribati, is an
adaptation of "Gilberts", from the former European name the "Gilbert Islands". Although the indigenous Gilbertese
language name for the Gilbert Islands proper is Tungaru, the new state chose the name Kiribati, the Gilbertese
rendition of Gilberts, as an equivalent of the former colony to acknowledge the inclusion of islands never considered
part of the Gilberts chain.[5][6]

Kiribati

128

History
Main article: History of Kiribati

Early history

American marines assault a Japanese bunker

during the Battle of Tarawa, November 1943.

The area now called Kiribati has been inhabited by Micronesians

speaking the same Oceanic language since sometime between 3000
BC[7] and AD 1300.[8] The area was not isolated; invaders from Tonga
and Samoa, and from Fiji, later introduced Polynesian and Melanesian
cultural aspects, respectively. Intermarriage tended to blur cultural
differences and resulted in a significant degree of cultural
homogenisation.[9]

Colonial era
Contact with Europeans began in the 16th century when Magellan, Saavedra and Quirs discovered and conquered
the islands of Pope Clement VIII in 1520, the islands of the Queen Catalina in 1528 and the Island (La) Carolina in
1606 (Spanish rule lasted from 1528-1885), at that time the islands of Santa Catalina, were named in honor of queen
Catherine of Aragon.Wikipedia:Citation needed Whalers, slave traders and merchant ships arrived in large numbers
during the 19th century, and the resulting agitation formented internal conflicts between tribes and introduced
European epidemics.
The main island chain was named the Gilbert Islands in 1820 by a Russian admiral, Adam von Krusenstern, and
French captain Louis Duperrey, after a British captain named Thomas Gilbert, who crossed the archipelago in 1788
when sailing from Australia to China.
From the early 19th century, Western whalers, merchant vessels and slave traders visited the islands, introducing
diseases and firearms. The first British settlers arrived in 1837. In 1892 the Gilbert Islands consented to become a
British protectorate together with the nearby Ellice Islands. They were administered by the Western Pacific High
Commission based in Fiji. Together they became the crown colony of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands in 1916.
Christmas Island (or Kiritimati) became part of the colony in 1919 and the Phoenix Islands were added in 1937. Sir
Arthur Grimble was a cadet administrative officer based at Tarawa (19131919) and became Resident
Commissioner of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony in 1926.
Tarawa Atoll and others of the Gilbert group were occupied by Japan during World War II. Tarawa was the site of
one of the bloodiest battles in US Marine Corps history. Marines landed in November 1943; the Battle of Tarawa
was fought at Kiribati's former capital Betio on Tarawa Atoll.
Some of the islands of Kiribati, especially in the remote Line Islands, were formerly used by the United States and
United Kingdom for nuclear weapons testing including hydrogen bombs in the late 1950s and early 1960s.

Independence to present day

The Gilbert and Ellice Islands gained self-rule in 1971, and were separated in 1975 and granted internal
self-government by Britain. In 1978 the Ellice Islands became the independent nation of Tuvalu. The Gilbert Islands
became independent as Kiribati on 12 July 1979. Although the indigenous Gilbertese language name for the Gilbert
Islands proper is "Tungaru", the new state chose the name "Kiribati", the Gilbertese rendition of "Gilberts", as an
equivalent of the former colony to acknowledge the inclusion of Banaba, the Line Islands, and the Phoenix Islands,
which were never considered part of the Gilberts chain.[10] In the Treaty of Tarawa, signed shortly after
independence and ratified in 1983, the United States relinquished all claims to the sparsely inhabited Phoenix Islands
and those of the Line Islands that are part of Kiribati territory.

Kiribati

129

Overcrowding has been a problem. In 1988 it was announced that 4,700 residents of the main island group would be
resettled onto less-populated islands. Teburoro Tito was elected president in 1994. Kiribati's 1995 act of moving the
international date line far to the east to encompass the Line Islands group, so that it would no longer be divided by
the date line, courted controversy. The move, which fulfilled one of President Tito's campaign promises, was
intended to allow businesses all across the expansive nation to keep the same business week. This also enabled
Kiribati to become the first country to see the dawn of the third millennium, an event of significance for tourism.
Tito was re-elected in 1998. Kiribati gained UN membership in 1999.
In 2002 Kiribati passed a controversial law enabling the government to shut down newspapers. The legislation
followed the launching of Kiribati's first successful non-government-run newspaper. President Tito was re-elected in
2003, but was removed from office in March 2003 by a no-confidence vote and replaced by a Council of State.
Anote Tong of the opposition party Boutokaan Te Koaua was elected to succeed Tito in July 2003. He was
re-elected in 2007.
In June 2008, Kiribati officials asked Australia and New Zealand to accept Kiribati citizens as permanent refugees.
Kiribati is expected to be the first country to lose all its land territory to global climate change. In June 2008, the
Kiribati president Anote Tong said that the country has reached "...the point of no return." He added, "To plan for the
day when you no longer have a country is indeed painful but I think we have to do that."[11][12][13][14]
In early 2012, the government of Kiribati purchased the 2,200-hectare Natoavatu Estate on the second largest island
of Fiji, Vanua Levu. At the time it was widely,[15] but incorrectly, reported that the Government planned to evacuate
the entire population of Kiribati to Fiji. However, in April 2013, President Tong began urging citizens to evacuate
the islands and migrate elsewhere.[16]

Politics
Main article: Politics of Kiribati
The Kiribati Constitution, promulgated 12 July 1979, provides for free
and open elections. The executive branch consists of a president (te
Beretitenti), a vice-president and a cabinet (the president is also chief
of the cabinet and must be an MP). The constitution requires that the
president be nominated from among elected legislators, and limits the
office to three four-year terms. The cabinet is composed of the
president, vice-president, and 10 ministers (appointed by the president)
who are members of the House of Assembly.
The legislative branch is the unicameral Maneaba Ni Maungatabu
(House of Assembly). It has elected members, including by
constitutional mandate a representative of the Banaban people in Fiji
(Banaba Island, former Ocean Island), in addition to the attorney
general, who serves as an ex-officio member. Legislators serve for a
four-year term.

Kiribati Parliament House.

The constitutional provisions governing administration of justice are

similar to those in other former British possessions in that the judiciary
is free from governmental interference. The judicial branch is made up
of the High Court (in Betio) and the Court of Appeal. The president
appoints the presiding judges.
The Presidential residence.

Kiribati

130

Local government is through island councils with elected members. Local affairs are handled in a manner similar to
town meetings in colonial America. Island councils make their own estimates of revenue and expenditure and
generally are free from central government controls. There are a total of 21 inhabited islands in Kiribati. Each
inhabited island has its own council. Since independence, Kiribati is no longer divided into districts, see
Subdivisions of Kiribati
Kiribati has formal political parties but their organisation is quite informal. Adhoc opposition groups tend to
coalesce around specific issues. Today the only recognisable parties are the Boutokaan te Koaua Party, Maneaban te
Mauri Party, Maurin Kiribati Party and Tabomoa Party. There is universal suffrage at age 18.
In government terms, Kiribati has a police force, which carries out law enforcement and paramilitary dutiesand
has small police posts on all islands but no military. The police have one patrol boat.

Island groups
Main article: Districts of Kiribati
There are a total of 21 inhabited islands in Kiribati. Kiribati was
formally divided into districts until independence. The country is now
divided into three island groups, including a group that unites the Line
Islands and the Phoenix Islands (ministry at London, Christmas). The
groups have no administrative function. Each inhabited island has its
own council: three councils on Tarawa: Betio, South-Tarawa,
North-Tarawaand two councils on Tabiteuea). The original districts
were:

Line Islands: Caroline Atoll channel between

west side of Long Island and Nake Island.

Banaba
Tarawa Atoll
Northern Gilbert Islands
Central Gilbert Island
Southern Gilbert Islands
Line Islands.

The island groups include:

Gilbert Islands
Phoenix Islands, the second largest protected marine reserve in the world since the establishment of the Chagos
Archipelago as a marine reserve.
Line Islands.
Four of the former districts (including Tarawa) lie in the Gilbert Islands, where most of the country's population
lives. Five of the Line Islands are uninhabited (Malden Island, Starbuck Island, Caroline Island, Vostok Island and
Flint Island). The Phoenix Islands are uninhabited except for Kanton, and have no representation. Banaba itself is
sparsely inhabited now. There is also a non-elected representative of the Banabans on Rabi Island in Fiji. Each of the
21 inhabited islands has a local council that takes care of the daily affairs. Tarawa Atoll has three councils: Betio
Town Council, Te Inainano Urban Council (for the rest of South Tarawa) and Eutan Tarawa Council (for North
Tarawa).

Kiribati

Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Kiribati
Kiribati was admitted as the 186th member of the United Nations in September 1999.

Regional relations
Kiribati maintains cordial relations with most countries and has close relations with its Pacific neighbours, Japan,
Australia and New Zealand, which provide the majority of the country's foreign aid. Taiwan and Japan also have
specified-period licences to fish in Kiribati's waters. Wikipedia:Citation needed
In November 1999 it was announced that Japan's National Space Development Agency planned to lease land on
Kiritimati (Christmas Island) for 20 years, on which to build a spaceport. Wikipedia:Citation needed The agreement
stipulated that Japan was to pay US$840,000 per year and would also pay for any damage to roads and the
environment. A Japanese-built downrange tracking station operates on Kiritimati and an abandoned airfield on the
island was designated as the landing strip for a proposed reusable unmanned space shuttle called HOPE-X. HOPE-X,
however, was eventually cancelled by Japan in 2003. Wikipedia:Citation needed

International relations of climate change

As one of the world's most vulnerable nations to the effects of climate change, Kiribati has been an active participant
in international diplomatic efforts relating to climate change, most importantly the UNFCCC conferences of the
parties (COP). Kiribati is a member of the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS), an intergovernmental
organisation of low-lying coastal and small island countries. Established in 1990, the main purpose of the alliance is
to consolidate the voices of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) to address global warming. AOSIS has been very
active from its inception, putting forward the first draft text in the Kyoto Protocol negotiations as early as 1994.
In 2009, President Tong attended the Climate Vulnerable Forum (V11) in the Maldives, with 10 other countries that
are vulnerable to climate change, and signed the Bandos Island declaration on 10 November 2009, pledging to show
moral leadership and commence greening their economies by voluntarily committing to achieving carbon neutrality.
In November 2010, Kiribati hosted the Tarawa Climate Change Conference (TCCC) to support the president of
Kiribati's initiative to hold a consultative forum between vulnerable states and their partners. The conference strove
to create an enabling environment for multi-party negotiations under the auspices of the UNFCCC. The conference
was a successor event to the Climate Vulnerable Forum.[17] The ultimate objective of TCCC was to reduce the
number and intensity of fault lines between parties to the COP process, explore elements of agreement between the
parties and thereby to support Kiribati's and other parties' contribution to COP16 held in Cancun, Mexico, from 29
November to 10 December 2010.
More recently, President Tong has spoken of climate-change induced sea level rise as "inevitable". "For our people
to survive, then they will have to migrate. Either we can wait for the time when we have to move people en masse or
we can prepare thembeginning from now ..."

131

Kiribati

132

Geography
Main article: Geography of Kiribati
Kiribati consists of about 32 atolls and one
solitary island (Banaba), extending into the
eastern and western hemispheres. The
groups of islands are:
Banaba: an isolated island between
Nauru and the Gilbert Islands
Gilbert Islands: 16 atolls located some
1,500 kilometres (932mi) north of Fiji
Phoenix Islands: 8 atolls and coral
islands located some 1,800 kilometres
(1,118mi) southeast of the Gilberts
Line Islands: 8 atolls and one reef,
located about 3,300 kilometres
(2,051mi) east of the Gilberts
Banaba (or Ocean Island) is a raised-coral
island. It was once a rich source of
phosphates, but was mostly mined out
before independence. The rest of the land in
Kiribati consists of the sand and reef rock
islets of atolls or coral islands, which rise
only one or two metres above sea level.

Map of Kiribati.

The soil is thin and calcareous. It has a low

water-holding capacity and low organic
matter and nutrient contentexcept for
calcium, sodium, and magnesium. Banaba is
one of the least suitable places for
agriculture in the world.
Kiritimati (Christmas Island) in the Line
Islands is the world's largest atoll. Based on
a 1995 realignment of the International Date
Line, the Line Islands are the first area to
Coconut palms in Abaiang
enter into a new year, including year 2000.
For that reason, Caroline Island has been renamed Millennium Island. The majority of Kiribati, including the capital,
is not first, for example New Zealand (UTC+13 in January) has an earlier new year.
According to the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (previously South Pacific Regional Environment
Programme (SPREP)), two small uninhabited Kiribati islets, Tebua Tarawa and Abanuea, disappeared underwater in
1999. The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change predicts that sea levels will rise by about
50cm (20in) by 2100 due to global warming and a further rise would be inevitable. It is thus likely that within a
century the nation's arable land will become subject to increased soil salination and will be largely submerged.
However, sea-level rise may not necessarily inundate Kiribati. Paul Kench at the University of Auckland in New
Zealand and Arthur Webb at the South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission in Fiji released a study in 2010 on
the dynamic response of reef islands to sea level rise in the central Pacific. Kiribati was mentioned in the study, and
Webb and Kench found that the three major urbanised islands in KiribatiBetio, Bairiki and Nanikaiincreased by

Kiribati

133

30% (36 hectares), 16.3% (5.8 hectares) and 12.5% (0.8 hectares), respectively.
The Kiribati Adaptation Program (KAP) is a US $5.5 million initiative that was originally enacted by the national
government of Kiribati with the support of the Global Environment Facility (GEF), the World Bank, the United
Nations Development Program, and the Japanese government. Australia later joined the coalition, donating US $1.5
million to the effort. The program aims to take place over six years, supporting measures that reduce Kiribati's
vulnerability to the effects of climate change and sea level rise by raising awareness of climate change, assessing and
protecting available water resources, and managing inundation. At the start of the Adaptation Program,
representatives from each of the inhabited atolls identified key climatic changes that had taken place over the past
2040 years and proposed coping mechanisms to deal with these changes under four categories of urgency of need.
The program is now focusing on the country's most vulnerable sectors in the most highly populated areas. Initiatives
include improving water supply management in and around Tarawa; coastal management protection measures such
as mangrove re-plantation and protection of public infrastructure; strengthening laws to reduce coastal erosion; and
population settlement planning to reduce personal risks.[18]
Kiribati is the only country in all four nominal hemispheres.

Climate
The climate is pleasant from April to October, with predominant northeastern winds and stable temperatures close to
30C (86F). From November to March, western gales bring rain and occasional hurricanes.[]
Precipitation varies significantly between islands. For example, the annual average is 3,000mm (120in) in the north
and 500mm (20in) in the south of the Gilbert Islands. Most of these islands are in the dry belt of the equatorial
oceanic climatic zone and experience prolonged droughts.
Climate data for Tarawa
Month

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

Average high C (F)

31.3
31.3
31.3
31.4
31.4
31.5
31.6
31.6
31.4
31.8
31.7
31.5
31.48
(88.4) (88.3) (88.3) (88.6) (88.5) (88.7) (88.9) (88.8) (88.6) (89.2) (89.1) (88.7) (88.68)

Average low C (F)

24.5
25
25.3
25.4
25.7
25.5
25.6
25.7
25.7
25.5
25.4
25.1
25.37
(76.1) (77.0) (77.5) (77.7) (78.2) (77.9) (78.1) (78.2) (78.3) (77.9) (77.7) (77.2) (77.65)

Precipitation mm (inches)

220
180
180
190
170
(8.66) (7.09) (7.09) (7.48) (6.69)

160
(6.3)

160
(6.3)

160
(6.3)
[19]

Source: Pacific Climate Change Science Program

120
140
120
220
2,020
(4.72) (5.51) (4.72) (8.66) (79.52)

Kiribati

134

Flora and fauna

Because of the young geological age of the islands and atolls and high
level of soil salination the flora of Kiribati is relatively poor. It contains
about 83 indigenous and 306 introduced plants on Gilbert Islands,
whereas the corresponding numbers for Line and Phoenix Islands are
67 and 283. None of these species are endemic, and about half of the
indigenous ones have a limited distribution and became endangered or
nearly extinct due to human activities such as phosphate mining.[20]
Coconut and pandanus palms and breadfruit trees are most common
wild plants,[] whereas the five most cultivated crops are Chinese
cabbage, pumpkin, tomato, watermelon and cucumber.[21]
Seaweed farming is an important part of economy, with two major
species Eucheuma alcarezii and Eucheuma spinosium introduced to the
local lagoons from the Philippines in 1977. It competes with collection
of the black-lipped pearl oyster (Pinctada margaritifera) and
shellfish,[22] which are dominated by the strombid gastropod
(Strombus luhuanus) and Anadara cockles (Anadara uropigimelana),
whereas the stocks of the giant clam (Tridacna gigas) have been
largely exhausted.[23]
Kiribati has a few land mammals, none being indigenous or endemic.
They include the Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans), dogs and pigs.
Among the 75 bird species, the Bokikokiko (Acrocephalus
aequinoctialis) is endemic to Kiritimati.

The Bokikokiko (Acrocephalus aequinoctialis)

is the only land wildlife species endemic to
Kiribati.

There are 600800 species of inshore and pelagic finfish, some 200 species of corals and about 1000 species of
shellfish.[24] Fishing mostly targets the family Scombridae, particularly the skipjack tuna and yellowfin tuna as well
as flying fish (Cypselurus spp.). [25]

Economy
Main article: Economy of Kiribati
Kiribati is one of the world's poorest countries. It has few natural
resources. Commercially viable phosphate deposits on Banaba were
exhausted at the time of independence. Copra and fish now represent
the bulk of production and exports. Kiribati is considered one of the
least developed countries in the world. In one form or another, Kiribati
gets a large portion of its income from abroad. Examples include
fishing licenses, development assistance, worker remittances, and
tourism. Given Kiribati's limited domestic production ability, it must
import nearly all of its essential foodstuffs and manufactured items; it
depends on these external sources of income for financing.

A Bosj's warehouse in Kiribati.

The economy of Kiribati benefits from international development assistance programs. The multilateral donors
providing development assistance in 2009 were the European Union (A$9 million), the United Nations Development
Programme (A$3.7 million), UNICEF, and the World Health Organisation (A$100,000). The bilateral donors
providing development assistance in 2009 were Australia (A$11 million), Japan (A$2 million), New Zealand (A$6.6
million), Taiwan (A$10.6 million), and other donors providing A$16.2 million, including technical assistance grants

Kiribati
from the Asian Development Bank.
The major donors in 2010/2011 were Australia (A$15 million), Taiwan (A$11 million); New Zealand (A$6 million),
the World Bank (A$4 million), and the Asian Development Bank.
In 1956 Kiribati established a sovereign wealth fund to act as a store of wealth for the country's earnings from
phosphate mining. In 2008, the Revenue Equalization Reserve Fund was valued at US$400 million.[26] The RERF
assets declined from A$637 million (420% of GDP) in 2007 to A$570.5 million (350% of GDP) in 2009. As the
result of the global financial crisis (GFC) the RERF was exposed to failed Icelandic banks, as well drawdowns were
made by the government of Kiribati to finance budgetary shortfalls.
In May 2011 the IMF country report assessment of the Economy of Kiribati is that: After two years of contraction,
the economy recovered in the second half of 2010 and inflation pressure dissipated. It is estimated to have grown by
1.75% for the year. Despite a weather-related drop in copra production, private sector activity appears to have picked
up, especially in retail. Tourist arrivals rebounded by 20% compared to 2009, although from a very low base.
Despite the rise in world food and fuel prices, inflation has bounced from 2008 crisis-highs into negative territory,
reflecting the strong appreciation of the Australian dollar, which is used as the domestic currency, and a decline in
the world price of rice. Credit growth in the overall economy declined in 2009 as economic activity stalled. But it
started to pick up in the second half of 2010 as the recovery gained traction.

Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Kiribati
The native people of Kiribati are called I-Kiribati.
Ethnically, the I-Kiribati are Micronesians. Recent archaeological
evidence indicates that Austronesians originally settled the islands
thousands of years ago. Around the 14th century, Fijians, Samoans,
and Tongans invaded the islands, thus diversifying the ethnic range and
introducing Polynesian linguistic traits. Intermarriage among all
ancestral groups, however, has led to a population reasonably
homogeneous in appearance and traditions.
The people of Kiribati speak an Oceanic language called "Gilbertese".
I-Kiribati children in South Tarawa
Although English is also an official language, it is not used very often
outside the island capital of Tarawa. It is more likely that English is mixed in its use with Gilbertese. Older
generations of I-Kiribati tend to use more complicated versions of the language.
Christianity is the major religion, having been introduced by missionaries in the 19th century. The population is
predominantly Roman Catholic (56%), although a substantial portion of the population is Congregationalist
Protestant (34%). Many other Protestant denominations, including more evangelical types, are also represented. The
Bah' Faith religion also exists in Kiribati (2.2%), along with Jehovah's Witnesses and the Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-day Saints (Mormons) (4.7%). The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints self-reports a membership of
15,364 (14.6%) at the end of 2011.[27]

Human development
The Kiribati Census in 2010 enumerated the population at 103,058. The vast majority (>90%) of people inhabit the
Gilbert Islands, with more than 33% populating an area of about 16km2 (6.2sqmi) on South Tarawa. Until recently,
the people of Kiribati mostly lived in villages with populations between 50 and 3,000 on the outer islands. Most
houses are made of materials obtained from coconut and pandanus trees. Frequent droughts and infertile soil hinder
reliable large-scale agriculture, so the islanders have largely turned to the sea for livelihood and subsistence. Most
are outrigger sailors and fishermen. Copra plantations serve as a second source of employment. However, in recent

135

Kiribati

136

years large numbers of citizens have moved to the more urban island capital of Tarawa; increasing urbanisation has
raised the population of South Tarawa to 50,182.

Health
The population of Kiribati has a life expectancy at birth of 60 years (57 for males, and 63 for females) and an infant
mortality rate of 54 deaths per 1,000 live births. Tuberculosis is present in the country.[28] Government expenditure
on health was at US$268 per capita (PPP) in 2006. In 19902007, there were 23 physicians per 100,000 persons.
Since the arrival of Cuban doctors, the infant mortality rate has decreased significantly.
Most health problems are related to consumption of semi-raw seafood, limited amount of food storage facilities, and
bacterial contamination of fresh water supplies. In the early 2000s, between 1 and 7% of the population, depending
on the island, were annually treated for food poisoning in a hospital. Modernization and cross-cultural exchange of
the late 1900s brought new issues of unhealthy diet and lifestyle; heavy smoking, especially among the young
population; and external infections, including HIV/AIDS.[29]
Kiribati is the country with the third highest prevalence of smoking, with 54% of the population reported as smokers.
[30]

Education
Primary education is free and compulsory for the first six years, now being extended to nine years. Mission schools
are slowly being absorbed into the government primary school system. Higher education is expanding; students may
seek technical, teacher or marine training, or study in other countries. To date, most choosing to do the latter have
gone to Fiji, and those wishing to complete medical training have been sent to Cuba.[31]

Transport
Main article: List of airports in Kiribati
Beginning in January 2009, Kiribati has two domestic airlines: Air Kiribati and
Coral Sun Airways. Both airlines are based in Tarawa's Bonriki International
Airport and serve destinations across the Gilbert Islands only.

Bonriki International Airport

Neither the Phoenix nor Line Islands are served by the domestic carriers. Fiji's
national carrier Fiji Airways provides an international service to Cassidy
International Airport on Kiritimati from Fiji's main airport, Nadi International
Airport.
Internationally, Our Airline, the national airline of Nauru, also provides a weekly
service on behalf of Air Kiribati from Tarawa to Nadi International Airport, as
well as a service to Nauru International Airport, connecting to Honiara, the
capital of the Solomon Islands, and further to Brisbane, Australia.

Culture
Bonriki International Airport

Main article: Culture of Kiribati

Songs (te anene) and above all dances (te mwaie) are held in high regard.

Kiribati

137

Music
Main article: Music of Kiribati
Kiribati folk music is generally based on chanting or other forms of vocalising, accompanied by body percussion.
Public performances in modern Kiribati are generally performed by a seated chorus, accompanied by a guitar.
However, during formal performances of the standing dance (Te Kaimatoa) or the hip dance (Te Buki) a wooden box
is used as a percussion instrument. This box is constructed so as to give a hollow and reverberating tone when struck
simultaneously by a chorus of men sitting around it. Traditional songs are often love-themed, but there are also
competitive, religious, children's, patriotic, war and wedding songs Wikipedia:Citation needed. There are also stick
dances which accompany legends and semi-historical stories Wikipedia:Citation needed. These stick dances or
'tirere' (pronounced seerere) are only performed during major festivals.

Dance
Main article: Dance in Kiribati
The uniqueness of Kiribati when compared with other forms of Pacific
island dance is its emphasis on the outstretched arms of the dancer and
the sudden birdlike movement of the head. The Frigate bird (Fregata
minor) on the Kiribati flag refers to this bird-like style of Kiribati
dancing. Most dances are in the standing or sitting position with
movement limited and staggered. Smiling whilst dancing is generally
considered vulgar within the context of Kiribati dancing. This is due to
its origin of not being solely as a form of entertainment but as a form
of storytelling and a display of the skill, beauty and endurance of the
dancer.[32]

A welcome display

Outside perspectives
Edwardo Carlyon Eliot, who was Resident Commissioner of the Gilbert & Ellice Islands (now Kiribati & Tuvalu)
from 1913 to 1920 describes this period in his book "Broken Atoms" (autobiographical reminiscences) Pub. G. Bles,
London, 1938.
Sir Arthur Grimble wrote about his time working in the British colonial service in Kiribati (then the Gilbert Islands)
from 1914 to 1932 in two popular books A Pattern of Islands (1952) and Return to the Islands (1957). He also
undertook academic studies of Gilbertese culture.
J. Maarten Troost's more recent autobiographical experiences on the Tarawa Atoll are documented in his book The
Sex Lives of Cannibals (2004).[33]

Kiribati

References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]

http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Kiribati& params=1_28_N_173_2_E_type:country

New Oxford American Dictionary 3rd edition, 2010, Oxford University Press, Inc.
http:/ / www. archontology. org/ nations/ kiribati/ 01_polity. php
Both maps, published in 1820, were written in French. In English, the archipelago was named Kingsmill during most of the 19th century. The
name began to change to Gilberts only in 1892.
[5] Sabatier, Ernest. Dictionnaire gilbertin-franais Tabuiroa, 1954 says that "Kiribati" is already the meaning for all the Gilberts District of
GEIC.
[6] Reilly Ridgell. Pacific Nations and Territories: The Islands of Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia. 3rd Edition. Honolulu: Bess Press,
1995. ISBN 1573060011 p. 95.
[7] Macdonald, Barrie (2001) Cinderellas of the Empire: towards a history of Kiribati and Tuvalu, Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the
South Pacific, Suva, Fiji, ISBN 982-02-0335-X, p. 1
[8] Thomas, 5
[9] Background Note: Kiribati (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20091014051525/ http:/ / www. mfep. gov. ki/ Facts and Background. htm).
mfep.gov.ki
[10] Reilly Ridgell. "Pacific Nations and Territories: The Islands of Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia". 3rd Edition. Honolulu: Bess Press,
1995. p. 95.
[11] "Leader of disappearing island nation says climate change an issue of survival, not economics" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/
20080605183737/ http:/ / www. iht. com/ articles/ ap/ 2008/ 06/ 05/ asia/ AS-GEN-New-Zealand-World-Environment-Day. php), the
Associated Press, 5 June 2008.
[12] "Kiribati's President: 'Our Lives Are At Stake': For the Islands of Kiribati, Global Warming Poses Immediate Dangers" (http:/ / www.
abcnews. go. com/ WNT/ story?id=3002001& page=1), Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 2 April 2007.
[13] Marks, Kathy (6 June 2008) "Paradise lost: climate change forces South Sea islanders to seek sanctuary abroad" (http:/ / www. independent.
co. uk/ news/ world/ australasia/ paradise-lost-climate-change-forces-south-sea-islanders-to-seek-sanctuary-abroad-841409. html), The
Independent.
[14] Nair, Suchit (6 June 2008) "Tiny atoll in Pacific cries out for help" (http:/ / articles. timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ 2008-06-06/ us/
27767721_1_climate-change-achim-steiner-r-k-pachauri), The Times of India.
[15] Spektor, Dina (7 March 2012) Rising Sea Levels Threaten South Pacific Nation Of Kiribati (http:/ / www. businessinsider. com/
kiribati-rising-sea-levels-climate-change-2012-3). Business Insider. Retrieved on 2 March 2013.
[16] Kiribati: A Nation Going Under (http:/ / www. theglobalmail. org/ feature/ kiribati-a-nation-going-under/ 590/ ), The Global Mail, 15 April
2013
[17] Government of Kiribati announces the Tarawa Climate Change Conference (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20120202030155/ http:/ / www.
climate. gov. ki/ tarawa_climate_change_conference. html). climate.gov.ki, 12 November 2010.
[18] Government of Kiribati Climate Change Strategies (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20120202030155/ http:/ / www. climate. gov. ki/
Kiribati_climate_change_strategies. html#apm1_2). climate.gov.ki
[19] Climate, climate variability and change of Kiribati (http:/ / www. cawcr. gov. au/ projects/ PCCSP/ pdf/ posters2011/ 4. Kiribati_GH_poster.
pdf). Pacific Climate Change Science Program, cawcr.gov.au
[20] Thomas, 22
[21] Thomas, 14
[22] Thomas, 17
[23] Thomas, 1719
[24] Thomas, 23
[25] Thomas, 15
[26] Sovereign Wealth Fund Institute (http:/ / www. swfinstitute. org/ fund/ kiribati. php). Swfinstitute.org. Retrieved on 2 March 2013.
[27] Kiribati LDS Statistics and Church Facts | Total Church Membership (http:/ / www. mormonnewsroom. org/ facts-and-statistics/ country/
kiribati/ ). Mormonnewsroom.org. Retrieved on 2 March 2013
[28] Kiribiati (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20100713063006/ http:/ / apps. who. int/ globalatlas/ predefinedReports/ TB/ PDF_Files/ kir. pdf).
Country Profile, WHO.
[29] Thomas, 89
[30] Number of smokers up by 35 million in 30 years, study finds - The Times of India (http:/ / articles. timesofindia. indiatimes. com/
2014-01-08/ india/ 45990577_1_smokeless-tobacco-smokers-tobacco-use)
[31] Pacific Magazine: I-Kiribati Students Perform Well In Cuba (http:/ / www. highbeam. com/ doc/ 1G1-172788770. html), Pacific Islands
Broadcasting Association, 24 December 2007.
[32] Robert Louis Stevenson's In the South Seas and the Montana New Zealand Book Awards winner Akekeia! by Tony & Joan Whincup,
Wellington, 2001.
[33] Troost, J. Maarten (2004) The Sex Lives of Cannibals, Broadway, ISBN 0-7679-1530-5.

138

Kiribati

139

Bibliography
Thomas, Frank R. (2003). "Kiribati: "Some aspects of human ecology," forty years later" (http://www.sil.si.
edu/DigitalCollections/AtollResearchBulletin/issues/00501.pdf). Atoll Research Bulletin (Natural Museum of
Natural History Smithsonian Institution) 501: 140. doi: 10.5479/si.00775630.501.1 (http://dx.doi.org/10.
5479/si.00775630.501.1).

External links

Kiribati National Tourism Office (http://www.kiribatitourism.gov.ki/)

Parliament of Kiribati (http://www.parliament.gov.ki/)
Kiribati National Climate Change Portal (http://www.climate.gov.ki/)
Chief of State and Cabinet Members (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/
world-leaders-k/kiribati.html)

General information
Kiribati (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/kr.html) entry at The World
Factbook
Kiribati (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/kiribati.htm) from UCB Libraries GovPubs

Kiribati (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Oceania/Kiribati) at DMOZ

Kiribati (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-16431122) from the BBC News
Wikimedia Atlas of Kiribati
Phoenix Islands Protected Area (http://www.phoenixislands.org/)
Paradise Lost? (A recent PBS/NOW program on global warming) (http://www.pbs.org/now/shows/449/)
Exhibit: The Alfred Agate Collection: The United States Exploring Expedition, 18381842 (http://www.history.
navy.mil/ac/exploration/wilkes/wilkes.html) from the Navy Art Gallery

Marshall Islands

140

Marshall Islands
Republic of the Marshall Islands
Aolepn Aorkin Maje

Flag

Seal

Motto:"Jepilpilin ke ejukaan"
"Accomplishment through joint effort"
Anthem:Forever Marshall Islands

[1]

Capital
and largest city

Majuro
[2]
77N 1714E

Official languages
Ethnicgroups (2006)

Demonym
Government
- President
Legislature

Marshallese
English

92.1% Marshallese
5.9% mixed Marshallese
2% others

Marshallese
Unitary parliamentary republic
Christopher Loeak
Nitijela
Independence

- Self-government

1979

- Compact of Free Association October 21, 1986

Area

Marshall Islands

141
- Total

181km2 (213th)
70sqmi

- Water(%)

n/a (negligible)
Population

- 2009estimate

68,000 (205th)

- 2003census

56,429

- Density

342.5/km2 (28th)
885.7/sqmi

GDP(PPP)

2001estimate

- Total

$115 million (220th)

- Per capita

$2,900a (195th)

a.

Currency

United States dollar (USD)

Time zone

MHT (UTC+12)

Drives on the

right

Calling code

+692

ISO 3166 code

MH

Internet TLD

.mh

2005 estimate.

The Marshall Islands, officially the Republic of the Marshall Islands (Marshallese: Aolepn Aorkin Maje),[3] is
an island country located in the northern Pacific Ocean. Geographically, the country is part of the larger island group
of Micronesia, with the population of 68,480 people spread out over 24 low-lying coral atolls, comprising 1,156
individual islands and islets. The islands share maritime boundaries with the Federated States of Micronesia to the
west, Wake Island to the north,[4] Kiribati to the south-east, and Nauru to the south. The most populous atoll is
Majuro, which also acts as the capital.
Micronesian colonists gradually settled the Marshall Islands during the 2nd millennium BC, with inter-island
navigation made possible using traditional stick charts. Islands in the archipelago were first explored by Europeans
in the 1520s, with Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar sighting an atoll in August 1526. Other expeditions by
Spanish and English ships followed, with the islands' current name stemming from British explorer John Marshall.
Recognised as part of the Spanish East Indies in 1874, the islands were sold to the German Empire in 1884, and
became part of German New Guinea in 1885. The Empire of Japan occupied the Marshall Islands in World War I,
which were later joined with other former German territories in 1919 by the League of Nations to form the South
Pacific Mandate. In World War II, the islands were conquered by the United States in the Gilbert and Marshall
Islands campaign. Along with other Pacific Islands, the Marshall Islands were then consolidated into the
United-States-governed Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. Self-government was achieved in 1979, and full
sovereignty in 1986, under a Compact of Free Association with the United States.
Politically, the Marshall Islands is a presidential republic in free association with the United States, with the US
providing defense, funding grants, and access to social services. Having few natural resources, the islands' wealth is
based on a service economy, as well as some fishing and agriculture, with a large percentage of the islands' gross
domestic product coming from United States aid. The country uses the United States dollar as its currency. The
majority of citizens of the Marshall Islands are of Marshallese descent, with small numbers of immigrants from the
Philippines and other Pacific islands. The two official languages are Marshallese, a member of the
Malayo-Polynesian languages, and English. Almost the entire population of the islands practises some religion, with

Marshall Islands
three-quarters of the country either following the United Church of Christ Congregational in the Marshall Islands
(UCCCMI) or the Assemblies of God.

History
Main article: History of the Marshall Islands
The Marshall Islands were settled by Micronesians in the 2nd millennium BC. Little is known of this early history.
People traveled by canoe between islands using traditional stick charts.[5]

Spanish exploration
Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar was the first European to see the islands in 1526, commanding the ship Santa
Maria de la Victoria, the only surviving vessel of the Loasa Expedition. On August 21, he sighted an island at 14N
that they named "San Bartolome" (probably Taongi).[6]
On September 21, 1529, lvaro de Saavedra Cern commanded the Spanish ship Florida, on his second attempt to
recross the Pacific from the Maluku Islands. He stood off a group of islands from which several natives came off and
hurled stones at his ship. These islands, named by him "Los Pintados," may have been Ujelang. On October 1, he
found another group of islands where he went ashore for eight days, exchanged gifts with natives and took on water.
These islands, "Los Jardines," could be Eniwetok or Bikini Atoll.[7][8]
The Spanish ship San Pedro and two other vessels in an expedition commanded by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi on
January 9, 1530, discovered an island at 10N where they went ashore and traded with natives and named it "Los
Barbudos" (possibly Mejit). On January 10, they sighted another island that they named "Placeres" (perhaps Ailuk),
ten leagues away, they sighted another island that they called "Pajares" (perhaps Jemo). On January 12, they sighted
another island at 10N which they called "Corrales" (possibly Wotho). On January 15, another low island was
sighted at 10N (perhaps Ujelang) where they made a good description of the people on "Barbudos."[9][10] After that,
ships like San Jeronimo, Los Reyes, Todos los Santos also visited the islands in different years.

Other European exploration

Captain John Charles Marshall together with Thomas Gilbert came to the islands in 1788. The islands were named
after John Marshall by the Russian explorer Adam Johann von Krusenstern and the French explorer Louis Isidore
Duperrey, who drew maps of the islands circa 1820. The designation was repeated later on British
maps.Wikipedia:Citation needed Spain claimed sovereignty over the islands as part of the Spanish East Indies. In
1874, Spanish sovereignty was recognized by the international community. Spain sold the islands to Germany in
1884 through papal mediation.

German protectorate
See also: German New Guinea
Although Spain had a residual claim on the Marshalls in 1874, when she began asserting her sovereignty over the
Carolines, she made no effort to prevent Germany from gaining a foothold there. Britain in turn raised no objection
to a German protectorate over the Marshalls in exchange for German recognition of Britain's rights in the Gilbert and
Ellice Islands.[11] On October 13, 1885, SMS Nautilus under Captain Rtger brought German emissaries to Jaluit.
They signed a treaty with Kabua, whom the Germans had earlier recognised as "King of the Ralik Islands", on
October 15. The treaty in German and Marshallese was subsequently signed by seven other chiefs (on seven other
islands) and a final copy witnessed by Rtger on November 1 was sent to the German Foreign Office.[12] A sign
declaring "Imperial German Protectorate" was erected at Jaluit. It has been speculated that the crisis over the
Carolines with Spain, which almost provoked a war, was in fact "a feint to cover the acquisition of the Marshall
Islands", which went almost unnoticed at the time, despite their being the largest source of copra in Micronesia.[13]

142

Marshall Islands

143

A German trading company, the Jaluit Gesellschaft, administered the islands from 1887 until 1905. After the
GermanSpanish Treaty of 1899, in which Germany acquired the Carolines, Palau, and the Marianas, Germany
placed all of its Micronesian islands, including the Marshalls, under the governor of German New Guinea.

Japanese mandate
See also: South Pacific Mandate
Under German control, and even before then, Japanese traders and fishermen from time to time visited the Marshall
Islands, although contact with the islanders was irregular. After the Meiji Restoration (1868), the Japanese
government adopted a policy of turning Japan into a great economic and military power in East Asia.
In 1914, Japan joined the Entente during World War I, and captured various German colonies including several in
Micronesia. On September 29, 1914, Japanese troops occupied the Enewetak Atoll, and on September 30, 1914, the
Jaluit Atoll, the administrative center of the Marshall Islands. After the war, on June 28, 1919, Germany renounced
all of its Pacific possessions, including the Marshall Islands. On December 17, 1920, the Council of the League of
Nations approved the mandate for Japan to take over all former German colonies in the Pacific Ocean located north
of the equator. The Administrative Center of the Marshall Islands atoll remained Jaluit.
The German Empire had primarily economic interests in Micronesia. The Japanese interests were in land. Despite
the Marshalls' small area and few resources, the absorption of the territory by Japan would to some extent alleviate
Japan's problem of an increasing population with a diminishing amount of available land to house it. During its years
of colonial rule, Japan moved more than 1,000 Japanese to the Marshall Islands although they never outnumbered
the indigenous peoples as they did in the Mariana Islands and Palau.
The Japanese enlarged administration and appointed local leaders, which weakened the authority of local traditional
leaders. Japan also tried to change the social organization in the islands from Matrilineality to the Japanese
Patriarchal system, but with no success. Moreover, during the 1930s, one third of all land up to the high water level
was declared the property of the Japanese government. On the archipelago, before it banned foreign traders, the
activities of Catholic and Protestant missionaries were allowed. Indigenous people were educated in Japanese
schools, and studied Japanese language and Japanese culture. This policy was the government strategy not only in
the Marshall Islands, but on all the other mandated territories in Micronesia. On March 27, 1933, Japan left the
League of Nations, but continued to manage the islands, and in the late 1930s began building air bases on several
atolls. The Marshall Islands were in an important geographical position, being the easternmost point in Japan's
defensive ring at the beginning of World War II.

World War II
In the months before the attack on Pearl Harbor, Kwajalein Atoll was
the administrative center of the Japanese 6th Fleet Forces Service,
whose task was the defense of the Marshall Islands.
In World War II, the United States, during the Gilbert and Marshall
Islands campaign, invaded and occupied the islands in 1944,
destroying or isolating the Japanese garrisons. The US government
added the archipelago to the U.S. Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands,
along with several other island groups in the South Sea.
The battle in the Marshall Islands caused irreparable damage,
especially on Japanese bases. During the American bombing, the
islands' population suffered from lack of food and various injuries.

US troops inspecting an enemy bunker,

Kwajalein Atoll. 1944.

U.S. attacks started in mid-1943, and caused half the Japanese garrison of 5,100 people in the atoll Mili to die from
hunger by August 1945. In just one month in 1944, Americans captured Kwajalein Atoll, Majuro and Enewetak, and

Marshall Islands

144

in the next two months the rest of the Marshall Islands except Wotje, Mili, Maloelap and Jaluit.

Nuclear tests after World War II

See also: Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands

Shipping Lane Patrol Kwajalein Island (Marshall

Islands-April 1945)

From 1946 to 1958, as the site of the Pacific Proving Grounds, the U.S.
tested 67 nuclear weapons in the Marshall Islands,[14] including the
largest nuclear test the U.S. ever conducted, Castle Bravo. In 1956, the
United States Atomic Energy Commission regarded the Marshall
Islands as "by far the most contaminated place in the world".[15]
Nuclear claims between the U.S. and the Marshall Islands are ongoing,
and health effects from these nuclear tests linger. Project 4.1 was a
medical study conducted by the United States of those residents of the
Bikini Atoll exposed to radioactive fallout. From 1956 to August 1998,
at least $759 million was paid to the Marshallese Islanders in
compensation for their exposure to U.S. nuclear testing.

Mushroom cloud from the largest nuclear test the

United States ever conducted, Castle Bravo.

With the 1952 test of the first U.S. hydrogen bomb, code named "Ivy Mike", the island of Elugelab in the Enewetak
atoll was destroyed.

Independence
In 1979, the Government of the Marshall Islands was officially established and the country became self-governing.
In 1986, the Compact of Free Association with the United States entered into force, granting the Republic of the
Marshall Islands (RMI) its sovereignty. The Compact provided for aid and U.S. defense of the islands in exchange
for continued U.S. military use of the missile testing range at Kwajalein Atoll. The independence procedure was
formally completed under international law in 1990, when the UN officially ended the Trusteeship status.

Government
Main article: Politics of the Marshall Islands
The government of the Marshall Islands operates under a mixed
parliamentary-presidential system as set forth in its Constitution.
Elections are held every four years in universal suffrage (for all
citizens above 18), with each of the twenty-four constituencies (see
below) electing one or more representatives (senators) to the lower
house of RMIs bicameral legislature, the Nitijela. (Majuro, the capital

The Marshall Islands Capitol building

Marshall Islands
atoll, elects five senators.) The President, who is head of state as well as head of government, is elected by the 33
senators of the Nitijela. Four of the five Marshallese presidents who have been elected since the Constitution was
adopted in 1979 have been traditional paramount chiefs.
Legislative power lies with the Nitijela. The upper house of Parliament, called the Council of Iroij, is an advisory
body comprising twelve tribal chiefs. The executive branch consists of the President and the Presidential Cabinet,
which consists of ten ministers appointed by the President with the approval of the Nitijela. The twenty-four
electoral districts into which the country is divided correspond to the inhabited islands and atolls. There are currently
four political parties in the Marshall Islands: Aelon Kein Ad (AKA), United People's Party (UPP), Kien Eo Am
(KEA) and United Democratic Party (UDP). Rule is shared by the AKA and the UDP. The following senators are in
the legislative body:

Ailinglaplap Atoll 'H.E. President Christopher Loeak' (AKA), Ruben R. Zackhras (UDP)
Ailuk Atoll Maynard Alfred (UDP)
Arno Atoll Nidel Lorak (UDP), Jiba B. Kabua (AKA)
Aur Atoll Hilda C. Heine (AKA)
Ebon Atoll John M. Silk (UDP)
Enewetak Atoll Jack J. Ading (KEA)
Jabat Island Kessai H. Note (UDP)

Jaluit Atoll Rien J. Morris (UDP), Alvin T. Jacklick (KEA)

Kili Island Vice Speaker Tomaki Juda (UDP)
Kwajalein Atoll Michael Kabua (AKA), Tony A. deBrum (AKA), Jeban Riklon (AKA)
Lae Atoll Thomas Heine (AKA)
Lib Island Jerakoj Jerry Bejang (AKA)
Likiep Atoll Speaker Donald F. Capelle (UDP)
Majuro Atoll Phillip H. Muller (AKA), David Kramer (KEA), Brenson S. Wase (KEA), Anthony Muller
(KEA), Jurelang Zedkaia (KEA)
Maloelap Atoll Michael Konelios (UDP)
Mejit Island Dennis Momotaro (AKA)
Mili Atoll Wilbur Heine (AKA)
Namdrik Atoll Mattlan Zackhras (UDP)
Namu Atoll Tony Aiseia (AKA)
Rongelap Atoll Kenneth A. Kedi (IND)
Ujae Atoll Caious Lucky (AKA)
Utirik Atoll Hiroshi V. Yamamura (AKA)
Wotho Atoll David Kabua (AKA)
Wotje Atoll Litokwa Tomeing (UPP)

Foreign affairs and defense

Further information: Foreign relations of the Marshall Islands and Compact of Free Association
The Compact of Free Association with the United States gives the U.S. sole responsibility for international defense
of the Marshall Islands. It allows islanders to live and work in the United States, and establishes economic and
technical aid programs.
In international politics, Marshall Islands has often voted with the United States with respect to United Nations
General Assembly resolutions.[16]

145

Marshall Islands

146

Geography
Main articles: Geography of the Marshall Islands and Administrative divisions of the Marshall Islands
The islands are located north of Nauru and Kiribati, east of the
Federated States of Micronesia, and south of the U.S. territory of Wake
Island, to which it lays claim.
The country consists of 29 atolls and 5 isolated islands. The atolls and
islands form two groups: the Ratak Chain and the Ralik Chain
(meaning "sunrise" and "sunset" chains). 24 of them are inhabited (see
above section). The uninhabited atolls are:

Ailinginae Atoll
Bikar (Bikaar) Atoll
Bikini Atoll
Bokak Atoll
Erikub Atoll
Jemo Island
Nadikdik Atoll
Rongerik Atoll
Toke Atoll
Ujelang Atoll

Map of the Marshall Islands

A majority of the islands' land mass is at sea level.

Shark sanctuary

Beach scenery at Laura, Majuro.

In October 2011, the government declared that an area covering nearly

2,000,000 square kilometres (772,000sqmi) of ocean shall be reserved as a shark sanctuary. This is the world's
largest shark sanctuary, extending the worldwide ocean area in which sharks are protected from 2,700,000 to
4,600,000 square kilometres (1,042,000 to 1,776,000sqmi). In protected waters all shark fishing is banned and all
by-catch must be released. However, the ability of the Marshall Islands to enforce this zone has been questioned.

Territorial claim on Wake Island

The Marshall Islands also lays claim to Wake Island. While Wake has been administered by the United States since
1899, the Marshallese government refers to it by the name Enen-kio.

Climate

Marshall Islands

147
The climate is hot and humid, with a wet season from May to November. The
islands occasionally suffer from typhoons. Many Pacific typhoons start in the
Marshall Islands region and grow stronger as they move west toward the
Mariana Islands and the Philippines.

Climate-related emergencies

Average monthly temperatures (red) and

precipitation (blue) on Majuro.

In 2008, extreme waves and high tides caused widespread flooding in the
capital city of Majuro and other urban centres, located at 1 metre (3ft 3in)
above sea level. On Christmas morning in 2008, the government declared a
state of emergency.[17] In 2013, heavy waves once again breached the city
walls of Majuro.

In 2013, the northern atolls of the Marshall Islands experienced drought. The
drought left 6,000 people surviving on less than one litre of water per day. This resulted in the failure to grow food
crops and the spread of diseases such as diarrhea, pink eye and influenza. These emergencies resulted in the United
States President declaring an emergency in the MI. This declaration activated support from US government agencies,
under the Republics free association status with the United States, which provides humanitarian and other vital
support.[18]
Following the 2013 emergencies, the Minister of Foreign Affairs Tony de Brum called for countries to turn the crises
into an opportunity for climate leadership. He demanded new commitment and international leadership to stave off
further climate disasters from battering his country, and other similarly vulnerable countries. This September, the
Marshall Islands will host the 44th Pacific Islands Forum summit. de Brum is proposing a Majuro Declaration for
Climate Leadership to galvanize concrete action on climate change.[19]
The Marshall Islands are threatened by the potential effects of storm surges as well as sea level rise.[20] According to
the president of Nauru, the Marshall Islands are the nation ranked as the most endangered due to flooding from
climate change.

Economy
Main article: Economy of the Marshall Islands
The islands have few natural resources, and imports far exceed exports.

Labor
In 2007, the Marshall Islands joined the International Labor
Organization, which means its labor laws will comply with
international benchmarks. This may impact business conditions in the
islands.

Taxation

Graphical depiction of Marshall Islands's product

exports in 28 color-coded categories.

The income tax has two brackets, with rates of 8% and

12%.Wikipedia:Citation neededWikipedia:Please clarify The corporate
tax is 3% of revenue.Wikipedia:Citation needed The Majuro Atoll sales tax is 4% on goods and 3% on
services.Wikipedia:Citation needed There are no property taxes. There is an 8% import tax.Wikipedia:Citation
needed

Marshall Islands

Foreign assistance
United States government assistance is the mainstay of the economy. Under terms of the Amended Compact of Free
Association, the U.S. is committed to provide US$57.7 million per year in assistance to the Marshall Islands (RMI)
through 2013, and then US$62.7 million through 2023, at which time a trust fund, made up of U.S. and RMI
contributions, will begin perpetual annual payouts.
The United States Army maintains the Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site on Kwajalein Atoll.
Marshallese land owners receive rent for the base, and a large numberWikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers
of Marshallese work there. The main airport was built by the Japanese during World War II.Wikipedia:Citation
needed
The only tarmac road through the capital was built partly by the Taiwanese and partly by the
Americans.Wikipedia:Citation needed

Agriculture
Agricultural production is concentrated on small farms. The most-important commercial crops are coconuts,
tomatoes, melons, and breadfruit.

Industry
Small-scale industry is limited to handicrafts, fish processing, and copra.

Fishing
Fishing has been critical to the economy of this island nation since its settlement.
In 1999, a private company built a tuna loining plant with more than 400 employees, mostly women. But the plant
closed in 2005, after a failed attempt to convert it to produce tuna steaks, a process that requires half as many
employees. Operating costs exceeded revenue, and the plant's owners tried to partner with the government to prevent
closure. But government officials personally interested in an economic stake in the plant refused to help. After the
plant closed, it was taken over by the government, which had been the guarantor of a $2 million loan to the business.

Energy
On September 15, 2007, Witon Barry (of the Tobolar Copra processing plant in the Marshall Islands capital of
Majuro) said power authorities, private companies, and entrepreneurs had been experimenting with coconut oil as
alternative to diesel fuel for vehicles, power generators, and ships. Coconut trees abound in the Pacific's tropical
islands. Copra, the meat of the coconut, yields coconut oil (1 liter for every 6 to 10 coconuts). In 2009, a 57kW solar
power plant was installed, the largest in the pacific at the time, including New Zealand.[21] It is estimated that
330kW of solar and 450kW of wind power would be required to make the College of the Marshall Islands energy
self-sufficient.[22] Marshalls Energy Company (MEC), a government entity, provides the islands with electricity. In
2008, 420 solar home systems of 200 Wp each were installed on Ailinglaplap Atoll, sufficient for limited electricity
use.[23]

Demographics
Main article: Demographics of the Marshall Islands
There are 68,000 people living in the Marshall Islands. Most of these are Marshallese. The Marshallese are of
Micronesian origin and migrated from Asia several thousand years ago. A minority of Marshallese have some recent
Asian ancestry, mainly Japanese. Two-thirds of the nation's population lives on Majuro, the capital, and Ebeye, a
densely populated island.[24] The outer islands are sparsely populated due to lack of employment opportunities and
economic development. Life on the outer atolls is generally traditional.

148

Marshall Islands

149

The official language of the Marshall Islands is Marshallese, but it is common to speak the English language.

Religion
Main article: Religion in the Marshall Islands
Major religious groups in the Republic of the Marshall Islands include the United Church of Christ (formerly
Congregational), with 51.5 percent of the population; the Assemblies of God, 24.2 percent; the Roman Catholic
Church, 8.4 percent; and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), 8.3 percent.[25] Also
represented are Bukot Nan Jesus (also known as Assembly of God Part Two), 2.2 percent; Baptist, 1.0 percent;
Seventh-day Adventists, 0.9 percent; Full Gospel, 0.7 percent; and the Baha'i Faith, 0.6 percent. Persons without any
religious affiliation account for a very small percentage of the population. There is also a small community of
Ahmadiyya Muslims based in Majuro, with the first mosque opening in the capital in September 2012.[26]

Education
The Marshall Islands Ministry of Education operates the state schools in the Marshall Islands.[27] There are two
tertiary institutions operating in the Marshall Islands the College of the Marshall Islands[28] and The University of
the South Pacific.

Transportation
Main article: Transportation in the Marshall Islands
The Marshall Islands are served by the Marshall Islands International Airport in Majuro, the Bucholz Army Airfield
in Kwajalein, and other small airports and airstrips.[29]
In 2005, Aloha Airlines canceled its flight services to the Marshall Islands.

Media
The Marshall Islands have several AM and FM radio stations.
AM: V7AD 1098 1557
FM: V7AD 97.9 V7AA 104.1 (formerly 96.3)
AFRTS: AM 1224 (NPR) 99.9 (Country) 101.1 (Active Rock) 102.1 (Hot AC)

Culture
Main article: Culture of the Marshall Islands
Although the ancient skills are now in decline, the Marshallese were
once able navigators, using the stars and stick-and-shell charts.

Notes
[1] The largest cities in Marshall Islands, ranked by population (http:/ / population.
mongabay. com/ population/ marshall-islands). population.mongabay.com. Retrieved
on May 25, 2012.

Marshallese fans

[2] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Marshall_Islands&

params=7_7_N_171_4_E_type:country
[3] Pronunciations:
* English: Republic of the Marshall Islands
* Marshallese: ' ()
[4] Wake Island is claimed as a territory of the Marshall Islands, but is also claimed as an unorganized, unincorporated territory of the United
States, with de facto control vested in the Office of Insular Affairs.

Marshall Islands
[5] The History of Mankind (http:/ / www. inquirewithin. biz/ history/ american_pacific/ oceania/ orientation. htm) by Professor Friedrich Ratzel,
Book II, Section A, The Races of Oceania page 165, picture of a stick chart from the Marshall Islands. MacMillan and Co., published 1896.
[6] Sharp, pp. 113
[7] Wright 1951: 10910
[8] Sharp, pp. 1923
[9] Filipiniana Book Guild 1965: 468, 91, 240
[10] Sharp, pp. 369
[11] Hezel, Francis X. The First Taint of Civilization: A History of the Caroline and Marshall Islands in Pre-colonial Days, 15211885
University of Hawaii Press, 1994. pp. 30406.
[12] Dirk H. R. Spennemann, Marshall Islands History Sources No. 18: Treaty of friendship between the Marshallese chiefs and the German
Empire (1885) (http:/ / marshall. csu. edu. au/ Marshalls/ html/ history/ Treaty1885. html). marshall.csu.edu.au
[13] Hezel, Francis X. (2003) Strangers in Their Own Land: A Century of Colonial Rule in the Caroline and Marshall Islands, University of
Hawaii Press, pp. 4546, ISBN 0824828046.
[14] "Nuclear Weapons Test Map" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ amex/ bomb/ maps/ index. html), Public Broadcasting Service
[15] Stephanie Cooke (2009). In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age, Black Inc., p. 168, ISBN 978-1-59691-617-3.
[16] General Assembly Overall Votes Comparison with U.S. vote (http:/ / www. state. gov/ documents/ organization/ 82642. pdf) lists
Marshall Islands as in the country with the second high coincidence of votes. Micronesia has always been in the top two.
[17] "Marshall atolls declare emergency " (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ asia-pacific/ 7799566. stm), BBC News, December 25, 2008.
[18] President Obama Signs a Disaster Declaration for the Republic of the Marshall Islands | The White House (http:/ / www. whitehouse. gov/
the-press-office/ 2013/ 06/ 14/ president-obama-signs-disaster-declaration-republic-marshall-islands). Whitehouse.gov (June 14, 2013).
Retrieved on September 11, 2013.
[19] NEWS: Marshall Islands call for New wave of climate leadership at upcoming Pacific Islands Forum (http:/ / cdkn. org/ 2013/ 07/
news-marshall-islands-call-for-new-wave-of-climate-leadership-at-upcoming-pacific-islands-forum/ ?loclang=en_gb) Climate & Development
Knowledge Network. Downloaded July 31, 2013.
[20] Storm Surges, Rising Seas Could Doom Pacific Islands This Century (http:/ / www. scientificamerican. com/ article.
cfm?id=storm-surges-rising-seas-could-doom-pacific-islands-this-century) April 12, 2013 ClimateWire and Scientific American
[21] College of the Marshall Islands (http:/ / www. reidtechnology. co. nz/ site/ reidtech/ files/ / Marshall Islands Track 2012. pdf). (PDF) .
reidtechnology.co.nz. June 2009
[22] College of the Marshall Islands: Reiher Returns from Japan Solar Training Program with New Ideas (http:/ / www. yokwe. net/ index.
php?module=News& func=display& sid=2973). Yokwe.net. Retrieved on September 11, 2013.
[23] Republic of the Marshall Islands (http:/ / www. rep5. eu/ node/ 48). Rep5.eu. Retrieved on September 11, 2013.
[24] David Vine (January 7, 2004) Exile in the Indian Ocean: Documenting the Injuries of Involuntary Displacement (http:/ / web. archive. org/
web/ 20120930202543/ http:/ / web. gc. cuny. edu/ dept/ rbins/ IUCSHA/ fellows/ dv/ DV-link2. pdf). Ralph Bunche Institute for International
Studies. Web.gc.cuny.edu. Retrieved on September 11, 2013.
[25] International Religious Freedom Report 2009: Marshall Islands (http:/ / www. state. gov/ g/ drl/ rls/ irf/ 2009/ 127278. htm). United States
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor (September 14, 2007). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public
domain.
[26] First Mosque opens up in Marshall Islands (http:/ / www. rnzi. com/ pages/ news. php?op=read& id=71088) by Radio New Zealand
International, September 21, 2012
[27] Education (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070905231313/ http:/ / www. rmigovernment. org/ issues. jsp?docid=1). Office of the
President, Republic of the Marshall Islands. rmigovernment.org. Retrieved on May 25, 2012.
[28] College of the Marshall Islands (CMI) (http:/ / www. cmi. edu). Cmi.edu. Retrieved on September 11, 2013.
[29] Republic of the Marshall Islands Ports Authority: Airports (http:/ / rmipa. com/ airports/ )

150

Marshall Islands

References
Bibliography
Sharp, Andrew (1960). Early Spanish Discoveries in the Pacific.

Further reading
Barker, H. M. (2004). Bravo for the Marshallese: Regaining Control in a Post-nuclear, Post-colonial World.
Belmont, California: Thomson/Wadsworth.
Rudiak-Gould, P. (2009). Surviving Paradise: One Year on a Disappearing Island. New York: Union Square
Press.
Niedenthal, J. (2001). For the Good of Mankind: A History of the People of Bikini and Their Islands. Majuro,
Marshall Islands: Bravo Publishers.
Carucci, L. M. (1997). Nuclear Nativity: Rituals of Renewal and Empowerment in the Marshall Islands. DeKalb:
Northern Illinois University Press.
Hein, J. R., F. L. Wong, and D. L. Mosier (2007). Bathymetry of the Republic of the Marshall Islands and
Vicinity [Miscellaneous Field Studies; Map-MF-2324]. Reston, VA: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S.
Geological Survey.
Woodard, Colin (2000). Ocean's End: Travels Through Endangered Seas (http://www.amazon.com/dp/
0465015719). New York: Basic Books. (Contains extended account of sea-level rise threat and the legacy of U.S.
Atomic testing.)

External links
Government
Embassy of the Republic of the Marshall Islands Washington, DC (http://www.rmiembassyus.org/) official
government site
Chief of State and Cabinet Members (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/
world-leaders-m/marshall-islands.html)
General information
Marshall Islands (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rm.html) entry at The
World Factbook
Country Profile (http://www.newint.org/columns/country/2005/03/01/marshall-island/) from New
Internationalist
Marshall Islands (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/marshallislands.htm) from UCB Libraries
GovPubs
Marshall Islands (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Oceania/Marshall_Islands) at DMOZ
Marshall Islands (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-15595431) from the BBC News

Wikimedia Atlas of the Marshall Islands

News media
Marshall Islands Journal (http://www.marshallislandsjournal.com) Weekly independent national
newspaperWikipedia:Citation needed
Other
Digital Micronesia Marshalls (http://marshall.csu.edu.au/Marshalls/) by Dirk HR Spennemann, Associate
Professor in Cultural Heritage Management

151

Marshall Islands

152

Plants & Environments of the Marshall Islands (http://www.hawaii.edu/cpis/MI/Home.html) Book turned

website by Dr. Mark Merlin of the University of Hawaii
Atomic Testing Information (http://www.bikiniatoll.com/)
infoplease.com (http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0107767.html)
Pictures of victims of U.S. nuclear testing in the Marshall Islands on Nuclear Files.org (http://www.nuclearfiles.
org/menu/library/media-gallery/image/testing/marshall-islands.htm)
"Kenner hearing: Marshall Islands-flagged rig in Gulf oil spill was reviewed in February" (http://www.nola.
com/news/gulf-oil-spill/index.ssf/2010/05/kenner_hearing_marshall_island.html)
NOAA's National Weather Service Marshall Islands (http://www.prh.noaa.gov/majuro/)

Nauru
This article is about the island country. For the Tanzanian village, see Nauru, Tanzania.
Coordinates: 032S 16656E [1]

Republic of Nauru
Ripublik Naoero

Flag

Coat of arms

Motto:"God's Will shall be First"

Anthem:Nauru Bwiema
Nauru, our homeland

Capital

Yaren (de facto)[a]

Official languages
Demonym
Government

Nauruan (native)
English (widely spoken)

Nauruan
Parliamentary republic

Nauru

153
- President

Baron Waqa

- Speaker of the Parliament

Ludwig Scotty
Legislature

Parliament
Independence

- from UN trusteeship, (from the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand) 31 January 1968
Area
- Total

21km2 (239th)
8.1sqmi

- Water(%)

0.57
Population

- July 2011estimate

9,378 (216th)

- December 2006census

9,275

- Density

447/km (23rd)
1,158/sqmi

GDP(PPP)

2006estimate

- Total

$36.9million (192nd)

- Per capita

$2,500 (2006 est.)

$5,000 (2005 est.)
(135th141st)

a.

Currency

Australian dollar (AUD)

Time zone

(UTC+12)

Drives on the

left

Calling code

+674

ISO 3166 code

NR

Internet TLD

.nr

^ Nauru does not have an official capital, but Yaren is the largest settlement and the seat of parliament.

i
Nauru (English
/nuru/ nah-OO-roo), officially the Republic of Nauru and formerly known as Pleasant
Island, is an island country in Micronesia in the South Pacific. Its nearest neighbour is Banaba Island in Kiribati,
300 kilometres (186mi) to the east. With 9,378 residents in a 21 square kilometres (8.1sqmi) area, Nauru is the
smallest nation in the South Pacific and second smallest nation by population in the world, behind only Vatican City.

Settled by Micronesian and Polynesian people, Nauru was annexed and claimed as a colony by the German Empire
in the late 19th century. After World WarI, Nauru became a League of Nations mandate administered by Australia,
New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. During World WarII, Nauru was occupied by Japanese troops, who were
bypassed by the Allied advance across the Pacific. After the war ended, the country entered into trusteeship again.
Nauru gained its independence in 1968.
Nauru is a phosphate rock island with rich deposits near the surface, which allow easy strip mining operations. It has
some phosphate resources which, as of 2011, are not economically viable for extraction. Nauru boasted the highest
per-capita income enjoyed by any sovereign state in the world during the late 1960s and early 1970s. When the
phosphate reserves were exhausted, and the environment had been seriously harmed by mining, the trust that had
been established to manage the island's wealth diminished in value. To earn income, Nauru briefly became a tax
haven and illegal money laundering centre. From 2001 to 2008, it accepted aid from the Australian Government in
exchange for hosting the Nauru detention centre.

Nauru

154

The president of Nauru is Baron Waqa, who heads a 19-member unicameral parliament. The country is a member of
the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Asian Development Bank and the Pacific Islands Forum.
Nauru also participates in the Commonwealth and Olympic Games. Recently Nauru became a member country of
the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA).

History
Main article: History of Nauru
Nauru was first inhabited by Micronesian and Polynesian people at least 3,000
years ago. There were traditionally 12 clans or tribes on Nauru, which are
represented in the 12-pointed star on the country's flag. Traditionally, Nauruans
traced their descent matrilineally. Inhabitants practised aquaculture: they caught
juvenile ibija fish, acclimatised them to fresh water, and raised them in the
Buada Lagoon, providing a reliable source of food. The other locally grown
components of their diet included coconuts and pandanus fruit. The name
"Nauru" may derive from the Nauruan word Anoero, which means "I go to the
beach".
The British sea captain John Fearn, a whale hunter, became the first Westerner to
visit Nauru in 1798, naming it "Pleasant Island". From around 1830, Nauruans
had contact with Europeans from whaling ships and traders who replenished their
supplies (particularly fresh water) at Nauru. Around this time, deserters from
Nauruan warrior, 1880
European ships began to live on the island. The islanders traded food for
alcoholic palm wine and firearms. The firearms were used during the 10-year
Nauruan Tribal War that began in 1878.
Nauru was annexed by Germany in 1888 and incorporated into Germany's Marshall Islands Protectorate. The arrival
of the Germans ended the civil war, and kings were established as rulers of the island. The most widely known of
these was King Auweyida. Christian missionaries from the Gilbert Islands arrived in 1888. The German settlers
called the island Nawodo or Onawero. The Germans ruled Nauru for almost three decades. Robert Rasch, a German
trader who married a Nauruan woman, was the first administrator, appointed in 1890.
Phosphate was discovered on Nauru in 1900 by the prospector Albert Fuller Ellis. The Pacific Phosphate Company
began to exploit the reserves in 1906 by agreement with Germany, exporting its first shipment in 1907. In 1914,
following the outbreak of World WarI, Nauru was captured by Australian troops. Australia, New Zealand and the
United Kingdom signed the Nauru Island Agreement in 1919, creating a board known as the British Phosphate
Commission (BPC) that took over the rights to phosphate mining.
The island experienced an influenza epidemic in 1920, with a mortality rate of 18per cent among native Nauruans.
In 1923, the League of Nations gave Australia a trustee mandate over Nauru, with the United Kingdom and New
Zealand as co-trustees. On 6and 7December 1940, the German auxiliary cruisers Komet and Orion sank five supply
ships in the vicinity of Nauru. Komet then shelled Nauru's phosphate mining areas, oil storage depots, and the
shiploading cantilever.

Nauru

155

Japanese troops occupied Nauru on 25August 1942. The Japanese

built an airfield which was bombed for the first time on 25March
1943, preventing food supplies from being flown to Nauru. The
Japanese deported 1,200 Nauruans to work as labourers in the Chuuk
islands. Nauru, which had been bypassed and left to "wither on the
vine" by American forces, was finally liberated on 13September 1945,
when commander Hisayaki Soeda surrendered the island to the
Australian Army and the Royal Australian Navy. This surrender was
U.S. Army Air Force bombing the Japanese
accepted by Brigadier J. R. Stevenson, who represented Lieutenant
airstrip on Nauru
General Vernon Sturdee, the commander of the First Australian Army,
on board the warship HMAS Diamantina.[2] Arrangements were made
to repatriate from Chuuk the 737Nauruans who survived Japanese captivity there. They were returned to Nauru by
the BPC ship Trienza in January 1946. In 1947, a trusteeship was established by the United Nations, with Australia,
New Zealand, and the United Kingdom as trustees.
Nauru became self-governing in January 1966, and following a two-year constitutional convention it became
independent in 1968 under founding president Hammer DeRoburt. In 1967, the people of Nauru purchased the assets
of the British Phosphate Commissioners, and in June 1970 control passed to the locally owned Nauru Phosphate
Corporation. Income from the mines gave Nauruans one of the highest standards of living in the Pacific. In 1989,
Nauru took legal action against Australia in the International Court of Justice over Australia's administration of the
island, in particular Australia's failure to remedy the environmental damage caused by phosphate mining. Certain
Phosphate Lands: Nauru v.Australia led to an out-of-court settlement to rehabilitate the mined-out areas of Nauru.

Politics
Main article: Politics of Nauru
Nauru is a republic with a parliamentary system of government. The
president is both head of state and head of government. A 19-member
unicameral parliament is elected every three years.[3] The parliament
elects the president from its members, and the president appoints a
cabinet of five to six members. Nauru does not have any formal
structure for political parties, and candidates typically stand for office
as independents; fifteen of the 19members of the current Parliament
are independents. Four parties that have been active in Nauruan politics
are the Nauru Party, the Democratic Party, Nauru First, and the Centre
Party. However, alliances within the government are often formed on
the basis of extended family ties rather than party affiliation.

The Nauruan parliament

From 1992 to 1999, Nauru had a local government system known as the Nauru Island Council (NIC). This
nine-member council was designed to provide municipal services. The NIC was dissolved in 1999 and all assets and
liabilities became vested in the national government. Land tenure on Nauru is unusual: all Nauruans have certain
rights to all land on the island, which is owned by individuals and family groups. Government and corporate entities
do not own any land, and they must enter into a lease arrangement with landowners to use land. Non-Nauruans
cannot own land on the island.
Nauru had 17changes of administration between 1989 and 2003. Bernard Dowiyogo died in office in March 2003
and Ludwig Scotty was elected as the president, later being re-elected to serve a full term in October 2004.
Following a vote of no confidence on 19December 2007, Scotty was replaced by Marcus Stephen. Stephen resigned
in November 2011, and Freddie Pitcher became President. Sprent Dabwido then filed a motion of no confidence in

Nauru

156

Pitcher, resulting in him becoming president. Following parliamentary elections in 2013 Baron Waqa was elected
president.
Nauru has a complex legal system. Its Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice, is paramount on constitutional
issues. Other cases can be appealed to the two-judge Appellate Court. Parliament cannot overturn court decisions,
but Appellate Court rulings can be appealed to the High Court of Australia. In practice, however, this rarely happens.
Lower courts consist of the District Court and the Family Court, both of which are headed by a Resident Magistrate,
who also is the Registrar of the Supreme Court. There are two other quasi-courts: the Public Service Appeal Board
and the Police Appeal Board, both of which are presided over by the Chief Justice.

Administrative divisions
See also: List of settlements in Nauru
Nauru is divided into fourteen administrative districts which are grouped into eight electoral constituencies.

Nr.

District

Former Name Area Population No. of

Density
(ha)
(2005)
villages persons / ha

1 Aiwo

Aiue

100

1,092

10.9

2 Anabar

Anebwor

143

502

15

3.5

3 Anetan

Aeta

100

516

12

5.2

4 Anibare

Anybody

314

160

17

0.5

5 Baiti

Beidi

123

572

15

4.7

6 Boe

Boi

66

795

12.0

7 Buada

Arenibok

266

716

14

2.7

118

2,827

17

24.0

8 Denigomodu Denikomotu

Nauru

157
9 Ewa

Eoa

117

318

12

2.7

10 Ijuw

Ijub

112

303

13

2.7

11 Meneng

Mene

288

1,830

18

6.4

12 Nibok

Ennibeck

136

432

11

3.2

13 Uaboe

Ueboi

97

335

3.5

14 Yaren

Moqua

150

820

5.5

Naoero

2,130

11,218

169

5.3

Nauru

Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Nauru
Following independence in 1968, Nauru joined the Commonwealth of Nations as a Special Member; it became a full
member in 2000. The country was admitted to the Asian Development Bank in 1991 and to the United Nations in
1999. Nauru is a member of the Pacific Islands Forum, the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, the
South Pacific Commission, and the South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission. The American Atmospheric
Radiation Measurement Program operates a climate-monitoring facility on the island.
Nauru has no armed forces, though there is a small police force under civilian control. Australia is responsible for
Nauru's defence under an informal agreement between the two countries. The September 2005 Memorandum of
Understanding between Australia and Nauru provides the latter with financial aid and technical assistance, including
a Secretary of Finance to prepare the budget, and advisers on health and education. This aid is in return for Nauru's
housing of asylum seekers while their applications for entry into Australia are processed. Nauru uses the Australian
dollar as its official currency.
Nauru has used its position as a member of the United Nations to gain financial support from both Taiwan (ROC)
and China (PRC) by changing its recognition from one to the other under the One-China policy. On 21July 2002,
Nauru signed an agreement to establish diplomatic relations with the PRC, accepting $130million from the PRC for
this action. In response, the ROC severed diplomatic relations with Nauru two days later. Nauru later re-established
links with the ROC on 14May 2005, and diplomatic ties with the PRC were officially severed on 31May 2005.
However, the PRC continues to maintain a representative office on Nauru.
In 2008, Nauru recognised Kosovo as an independent country, and in 2009 Nauru became the fourth country, after
Russia, Nicaragua, and Venezuela, to recognise Abkhazia, a breakaway region of Georgia. Russia was reported to be
giving Nauru $50million in humanitarian aid as a result of this recognition. On 15July 2008, the Nauruan
government announced a port refurbishment programme, financed with US$9million of development aid received
from Russia. The Nauru government claims this aid is not related to its recognising Abkhazia and South Ossetia.
A significant portion of Nauru's income has been in the form of aid from Australia. In 2001, the MV Tampa, a
Norwegian ship that had rescued 438refugees from a stranded 20-metre-long boat, was seeking to dock in Australia.
In what became known as the Tampa affair, the ship was refused entry and boarded by Australian troops. The
refugees were eventually loaded onto Royal Australian Navy vessel HMASManoora and taken to Nauru to be held
in detention facilities which later became part of the Howard government's Pacific Solution. Nauru operated two
detention centres known as State House and Topside for these refugees in exchange for Australian aid. By November
2005, only two refugees, Mohammed Sagar and Muhammad Faisal, remained on Nauru from those first sent there in
2001, with Sagar finally resettling in early 2007. The Australian government sent further groups of asylum-seekers
to Nauru in late 2006 and early 2007. The refugee centre was closed in 2008, but, following the Australian
government's re-adoption of the Pacific Solution in August 2012, it has re-opened it.

Nauru

158

Geography
Main article: Geography of Nauru
Nauru is a 21 square kilometres (8sqmi) oval-shaped island in the
southwestern Pacific Ocean, 42 kilometres (26mi) south of the
Equator. The island is surrounded by a coral reef, which is exposed at
low tide and dotted with pinnacles. The presence of the reef has
prevented the establishment of a seaport, although channels in the reef
allow small boats access to the island. A fertile coastal strip 150 to 300
metres (490 to 980ft) wide lies inland from the beach.
Coral cliffs surround Nauru's central plateau. The highest point of the
plateau, called the Command Ridge, is 71 metres (233ft) above sea
Aerial view of Nauru
level. The only fertile areas on Nauru are on the narrow coastal belt,
where coconut palms flourish. The land surrounding Buada Lagoon supports bananas, pineapples, vegetables,
pandanus trees, and indigenous hardwoods such as the tomano tree.
Nauru was one of three great phosphate rock islands in the Pacific Ocean (the others were Banaba (Ocean Island) in
Kiribati and Makatea in French Polynesia). The phosphate reserves on Nauru are now almost entirely depleted.
Phosphate mining in the central plateau has left a barren terrain of jagged limestone pinnacles up to 15 metres (49ft)
high. Mining has stripped and devastated about 80per cent of Nauru's land area, and has also affected the
surrounding Exclusive Economic Zone; 40per cent of marine life is estimated to have been killed by silt and
phosphate runoff.
There are limited natural fresh water resources on Nauru. Rooftop storage tanks collect rainwater, but the islanders
are mostly dependent on three desalination plants housed at Nauru's Utilities Agency. Nauru's climate is hot and very
humid year-round because of its proximity to the equator and the ocean. Nauru is hit by monsoon rains between
November and February, but does not typically experience cyclones. Annual rainfall is highly variable and is
influenced by the El Nio-Southern Oscillation, with several significant recorded droughts. The temperature on
Nauru ranges between 26 and 35C (79 and 95F) during the day and between 22 and 34C (72 and 93F) at night.
As an island, Nauru is vulnerable to climate and sea level change. Nauru is the seventh most global warming
threatened nation due to flooding.Wikipedia:Verifiability At least 80per cent of the land of Nauru is well elevated,
but this area will be uninhabitable until the phosphate mining rehabilitation programme is implemented.
Climate data for Yaren District, Nauru
Month

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

Record high C (F)

34
(93)

37
(99)

35
(95)

35
(95)

32
(90)

32
(90)

35
(95)

33
(91)

35
(95)

34
(93)

36
(97)

35
(95)

37
(99)

Average high C (F)

30
(86)

30
(86)

30
(86)

30
(86)

30
(86)

30
(86)

30
(86)

30
(86)

30
(86)

31
(88)

31
(88)

31
(88)

30.3
(86.5)

Average low C (F)

25
(77)

25
(77)

25
(77)

25
(77)

25
(77)

25
(77)

25
(77)

25
(77)

25
(77)

25
(77)

25
(77)

25
(77)

25
(77)

Record low C (F)

21
(70)

21
(70)

21
(70)

21
(70)

20
(68)

21
(70)

20
(68)

21
(70)

20
(68)

21
(70)

21
(70)

21
(70)

20
(68)

Precipitation mm (inches)
Avg. precipitation days

280
250
190
190
120
110
150
130
120
100
120
280
2,080
(11.02) (9.84) (7.48) (7.48) (4.72) (4.33) (5.91) (5.12) (4.72) (3.94) (4.72) (11.02) (81.89)
16

14

13

11

9
Source: [4]

12

14

11

10

13

15

152

Nauru

159

Economy
Main article: Economy of Nauru
The Nauruan economy peaked in the early 1980s, as it was dependent
almost entirely on the phosphate deposits that originate from the
droppings of sea birds. There are few other resources, and most
necessities are imported. Small-scale mining is still conducted by
RONPhos, formerly known as the Nauru Phosphate Corporation. The
government places a percentage of RONPhos's earnings into the Nauru
Phosphate Royalties Trust. The Trust manages long-term investments,
which were intended to support the citizens once the phosphate
reserves were exhausted. However, because of mismanagement, the
Trust's fixed and current assets were reduced considerably, and many
never fully recovered. The failed investments included financing
Leonardo the Musical in 1993, which was a financial failure. The
Mercure Hotel in Sydney and Nauru House in Melbourne were sold in
A satellite image of Nauru in 2002 from the U.S.
2004 to finance debts and Air Nauru's only Boeing737 was
Department of Energy's Atmospheric Radiation
repossessed in December 2005. Normal air service resumed after the
Measurement Program
aircraft was replaced with a Boeing 737300 airliner in June 2006. In
2005, the corporation sold its property asset in Melbourne, the vacant Savoy Tavern site, for $7.5million.
The value of the Trust is estimated to have shrunk from A$1.3billion in 1991 to $138million in 2002. Nauru
currently lacks money to perform many of the basic functions of government; for example, the National Bank of
Nauru is insolvent. The CIA World Factbook estimated a GDP per capita of $5,000 in 2005. The Asian Development
Bank 2007 economic report on Nauru estimated GDP per capita at $2,400 to $2,715.
There are no personal taxes in Nauru. The unemployment rate is estimated to be 90 percent, and of those who have
jobs, the government employs 95 percent. The Asian Development Bank notes that although the administration has a
strong public mandate to implement economic reforms, in the absence of an alternative to phosphate mining, the
medium-term outlook is for continued dependence on external assistance. Tourism is not a major contributor to the
economy.

Limestone pinnacles remain after phosphate

mining.

In the 1990s, Nauru became a tax haven and offered passports to

foreign nationals for a fee. The inter-governmental Financial Action
Task Force on Money Laundering (FATF) identified Nauru as one of
15 "non-cooperative" countries in its fight against money laundering.
During the 1990s, it was possible to establish a licensed bank in Nauru
for only $25,000 with no other requirements. Under pressure from
FATF, Nauru introduced anti-avoidance legislation in 2003, after
which foreign hot money left the country. In October 2005, after
satisfactory results from the legislation and its enforcement, FATF
lifted the non-cooperative designation.

From 2001 to 2007, the Nauru detention centre provided a significant source of income for the country. The Nauruan
authorities reacted with concern to its closure by Australia. In February 2008, the Foreign Affairs minister, Dr.
Kieren Keke, stated that the closure would result in 100Nauruans losing their jobs, and would affect 10per cent of
the island's population directly or indirectly: "We have got a huge number of families that are suddenly going to be
without any income. We are looking at ways we can try and provide some welfare assistance but our capacity to do
that is very limited. Literally we have got a major unemployment crisis in front of us." The detention centre was
re-opened in August 2012.

Nauru

160

Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Nauru
Nauru had 9,378residents as of July 2011. The population was
previously larger, but in 2006 some 1,500people left the island during
a repatriation of immigrant workers from Kiribati and Tuvalu. The
repatriation was motivated by wide-scale reductions-in-force in the
phosphate mining industry. The official language of Nauru is Nauruan,
a distinct Pacific island language, which is spoken by 96percent of
ethnic Nauruans at home. English is widely spoken and is the language
of government and commerce, as Nauruan is not common outside of
the country.

Nauruan districts of Denigomodu and Nibok

The top ethnic groups of Nauru are Nauruan (58%), other Pacific
Islander (26%), European (8%), and Chinese (8%). The main religion practised on the island is Christianity
(two-thirds Protestant, one-third Roman Catholic). There is also a sizeable Bah' population (10%) the largest
proportion of any country in the world and Buddhist (9%) and Muslim (2.2%) populations. The Constitution
provides for freedom of religion. However, the government has restricted the religious practices of The Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and the Jehovah's Witnesses, most of whom are foreign workers employed by the
government-owned Nauru Phosphate Corporation.
Literacy on Nauru is 96percent. Education is compulsory for children from six to sixteen years old, and two more
non-compulsory years are offered (years 11 and 12). There is a campus of the University of the South Pacific on
Nauru. Before this campus was built in 1987, students would study either by distance or abroad.
Nauruans are the most obese people in the world: 97percent of men and 93percent of women are overweight or
obese. As a result, Nauru has the world's highest level of type 2 diabetes, with more than 40per cent of the
population affected. Other significant dietary-related problems on Nauru include kidney disease and heart disease.
Life expectancy on Nauru in 2009 was 60.6years for males and 68.0years for females.

Culture
Main article: Culture of Nauru
Nauruans descended from Polynesian and Micronesian seafarers who believed in a female deity, Eijebong, and a
spirit land, an island called Buitani. Two of the 12original tribal groups became extinct in the 20th century. Angam
Day, held on 26October, celebrates the recovery of the Nauruan population after the two World Wars and the 1920
influenza epidemic. The displacement of the indigenous culture by colonial and contemporary western influences is
significant. Few of the old customs have been preserved, but some forms of traditional music, arts and crafts, and
fishing are still practised.
There are no daily news publications on Nauru, although there is one
fortnightly publication, Mwinen Ko. There is a state-owned television
station, Nauru Television (NTV), which broadcasts programmes from
New Zealand and Australia, and a state-owned non-commercial radio
station, Radio Nauru, which carries programmes from Radio Australia
and the BBC.
Australian rules football is the most popular sport in Nauru; it and
weightlifting are considered the country's national sports. There is a

Australian rules football, played at Linkbelt Oval

Nauru
football league with eight teams. Other sports popular in Nauru include volleyball, netball, fishing and tennis. Nauru
participates in the Commonwealth Games and the Summer Olympic Games.

Wildlife
Fauna is sparse on the island due to a combination of a lack of vegetation and the consequences of phosphates
mining. Many indigenous birds have disappeared or become rare owing to destruction of their habitat.[5] There are
only about 60recorded vascular plant species native to the island, none of which are endemic. Coconut farming,
mining, and introduced species have caused serious disturbance to the native vegetation. There are no native land
mammals, but there are native insects, land crabs, and birds, including the endemic Nauru Reed Warbler. The
Polynesian rat, cats, dogs, pigs, and chickens have been introduced to Nauru from ships. The diversity of the reef
marine life makes fishing a popular activity for tourists on the island, as well as SCUBA diving and snorkeling.[6]

References
[1] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Nauru& params=0_32_S_166_56_E_type:country& title=Nauru
[2] The Times, 14September 1945
[3] Matau, Robert (6 June 2013) "President Dabwido gives it another go" (http:/ / www. islandsbusiness. com/ news/ nauru/ 1413/
president-dabwido-gives-it-another-go/ ). Islands Business.
[4] http:/ / www. weatherbase. com/ weather/ weather. php3?s=542049& refer=& cityname=Yaren-District-Yaren-Nauru& units=metric
[5] NAURU Information on Government, People, History, Economy, Environment, Development (http:/ / www. un. int/ nauru/ countryprofile.
html)
[6] Nauru Ecotourism Tours Sustainable Tourism & Conservation Laws (http:/ / www. internationalwildlifelaw. org/ NauruFish. html)

This article incorporates public domain text from the websites of the United States Department of State (http://
www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/16447.htm) & CIA World Factbook.

Further reading
Gowdy, John M; McDaniel, Carl N (2000). Paradise for Sale: A Parable of. University of California Press.
ISBN978-0-520-22229-8.

External links
Government of Nauru (http://www.naurugov.nr/)
Nauru (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/nr.html) entry at The World
Factbook
Nauru (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Oceania/Nauru) at DMOZ

Wikimedia Atlas of Nauru

Nauru (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/nauru.htm) from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Nauru profile (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-15433616) from the BBC News
Discover Nauru (http://www.discovernauru.com/) The Official Nauru Tourism Website

161

Northern Mariana Islands

162

Northern Mariana Islands

This article is about the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. For the Mariana Archipelago, see Mariana
Islands.

Commonwealth of the Northern

Mariana Islands
Sankattan Siha Na Islas Marinas

Flag

Seal

Anthem:Gi Talo Gi Halom Tasi(Chamorro)

Satil Matawal Pacifiko(Carolinian)

Capital

Official languages

Demonym
Government

Capitol Hill (Saipan)

[1]
1514N 14545E

English
Chamorro
Carolinian
[2]

Northern Mariana Islander

Presidential representativedemocracy
[3]

- President

Barack Obama (D)

- Governor

Eloy Inos (R)

- Lt. Governor

Jude Hofschneider (R)

- Delegate

Gregorio Sablan (D)

Legislature

Commonwealth Legislature

- Upper house

Senate

- Lower house

House of Representatives

Commonwealth in union with the UnitedStates

- Covenant

1975

Northern Mariana Islands

163
- Commonwealth

1978

- End of trusteeship 1986

Area
- Total

463.63km2 (196th)
179.01sqmi

- Water(%)

negligible
Population

- 2007estimate

77,000 (211th)

- 2010census

53,833

- Density

116.1/km2 (93rd)
300.7/sqmi

Currency

United States dollar (USD)

Time zone

ChST (UTC+10)

Calling code

+1 670

ISO 3166 code

MP

Internet TLD

.mp
Website
[4]
www.gov.mp

The Northern Mariana Islands, officially the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI;
Chamorro: Sankattan Siha Na Islas Marinas), is one of the five inhabited U.S. island territories (the other four are
Guam, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands and American Samoa). It is one of two territories with "Commonwealth"
status; the other is Puerto Rico).[5] It consists of fifteen islands in the western Pacific Ocean, about three-quarters of
the way from Hawaii to the Philippines. The United States Census Bureau reports the total land area of all islands as
183.5 square miles (475.26km2).[6] As of the 2010 census, the Northern Mariana Islands had a population of
53,883,[7] of whom over 90% live on the island of Saipan. Of the 14 other islands, only two Tinian and Rota are
permanently inhabited.
The Commonwealth's center of government is in the village of Capitol Hill on Saipan. As the island is governed as a
single municipality, most publications name Saipan as the Commonwealth's capital.

Northern Mariana Islands

164

History
Arrival of Chamorros and Refaluwasch
The first people of the Northern Mariana Islands navigated to the islands at some period between 4000 BC to 2000
BC from Southeast Asia. They became known as the Chamorros, and spoke an Austronesian language called
Chamorro. The ancient Chamorros left a number of megalithic ruins, including Latte stone. The Refaluwasch, or
Carolinian, people came to the Marianas in the 1800s from the Caroline Islands.

Spanish possession
The first European explorer of the area was
Ferdinand Magellan in 1521. He landed on
nearby Guam and claimed the islands for
Spain. The Spanish ships were met offshore
by the native Chamorros, who delivered
refreshments and then helped themselves to
a small boat belonging to Magellan's fleet.
This led to a cultural clash: in Chamorro
tradition there was little private property and
taking something one needed, such as a boat
for fishing, was not considered stealing. The
Spanish did not understand this custom. The
Spanish fought the Chamorros until the boat
was recovered. Three days after he had been
welcomed on his arrival, Magellan fled the
archipelago under attack.Wikipedia:Citation needed

The island of Saipan.

In 1565, Miguel Lpez de Legazpi arrived in Guam and took possession of the islands in the name of the Spanish
Crown.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Guam was an important stopover for the Manila Galleons, a convoy of ships carrying passengers and cargo such as
silver, plants and animals from Acapulco (Mexico) to Manila. On the return trip from the Philippines to Mexico, the
galleons did not call at Guam as the eastern winds were farther north, near the coast of Japan.Wikipedia:Citation
needed
Most of the islands' native population (9095%) died from Spanish diseases or married non-Chamorro settlers under
Spanish rule. New settlers, primarily from the Philippines and the Caroline Islands, were brought to repopulate the
islands. The Chamorro population gradually recovered, and Chamorro, Filipino and Carolinian languages and other
ethnic differences remain in the Marianas.
Spanish colonists forcibly moved the Chamorros to Guam to encourage assimilation and conversion to Roman
Catholicism. By the time they were allowed to return to the Northern Marianas, many Carolinians from present-day
eastern Yap State and western Chuuk State had settled in the Marianas. Carolinians and Chamorros are now both
considered as indigenous and both languages are official in the Commonwealth.

Northern Mariana Islands

German and Japanese possession

Following the SpanishAmerican War of 1898, Spain ceded Guam to the United States and sold the remainder of the
Marianas, along with the Caroline Islands, to the German Empire under the GermanSpanish Treaty of 1899.
Germany administered the islands as part of the colony of German New Guinea and did little in terms of
development.
Early in World War I, the Empire of Japan declared war on Germany and invaded the Northern Marianas. In 1919,
the League of Nations awarded the islands to Japan, and the Japanese administered them as part of the South Pacific
Mandate. During the Japanese period, sugar cane became the main industry of the islands. Garapan on Saipan was
developed as a regional capital, and numerous Japanese (including ethnic Koreans, Okinawan and Taiwanese)
migrated to the islands. In the December 1939 census, the total population of the South Pacific Mandate was
129,104, of whom 77,257 were Japanese (including ethnic Taiwanese and Koreans). On Saipan the pre-war
population comprised 29,348 Japanese settlers and 3,926 Chamorro and Caroline Islanders; Tinian had 15,700
Japanese settlers (including 2700 ethnic Koreans and 22 ethnic Chamorro).
On December 8, 1941, hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Japanese forces from the Marianas launched an
invasion of Guam. Chamorros from the Northern Marianas, which had been under Japanese rule for more than 20
years, were brought to Guam to assist the Japanese administration. This, combined with the harsh treatment of
Guamanian Chamorros during the 31-month occupation, created a rift that would become the main reason
Guamanians rejected the reunification referendum approved by the Northern Marianas in the 1960s.

World War II
On June 15, 1944, near the end of World War II, the United States military invaded the Mariana Islands, starting the
Battle of Saipan, which ended on July 9. Of the 30,000 Japanese troops defending Saipan, fewer than 1,000 remained
alive at the battle's end.[8] Over 20,000 Japanese civilians were also killed, or committed suicide rather than be
captured. U.S. forces then recaptured Guam on July 21, and invaded Tinian on July 24; a year later Tinian was the
take off point for the Enola Gay, the plane which dropped the atomic bomb on Hiroshima. Rota was left untouched
(and isolated) until the Japanese surrender in August 1945, due to its military insignificance.
The war did not end for everyone with the signing of the armistice. The last group of Japanese holdouts surrendered
on Saipan on December 1, 1945. On Guam, Japanese soldier Shoichi Yokoi, unaware that the war had ended, hid in
a jungle cave in the Talofofo area until 1972.
Japanese nationals were eventually repatriated to the Japanese home islands.

Commonwealth
After Japan's defeat, the islands were administered by the United States as part of the United Nations Trust Territory
of the Pacific Islands; which gave responsibility for defense and foreign affairs to the United States. Four referenda
offering integration with Guam or changes to the islands' status were held in 1958, 1961, 1963 and 1969. On each
occasion a majority voted in favor of integration with Guam. But this did not happen: Guam rejected integration in a
1969 referendum. The people of the Northern Mariana Islands decided in the 1970s not to seek independence, but
instead to forge closer links with the United States. Negotiations for territorial status began in 1972 and a covenant to
establish a commonwealth in political union with the United States[9] was approved in a 1975 referendum. A new
government and constitution came into effect in 1978 after being approved in a 1977 referendum. Like other U.S.
territories, the islands do not have representation in the U.S. Senate, but since 2009 are represented in the U.S. House
of Representatives by a delegate who may vote in committee but not on the House floor.[10]

165

Northern Mariana Islands

166

Geography
See also: Extreme points of the Northern Mariana Islands
The Northern Mariana Islands, together with Guam to the
south, compose the Mariana Islands archipelago. The
southern islands are limestone, with level terraces and
fringing coral reefs. The northern islands are volcanic, with
active volcanoes on several islands, including Anatahan,
Pagan and Agrihan. The volcano on Agrihan has the highest
elevation at 3,166 feet (965m).
Anatahan Volcano is a small volcanic island 80 miles
(130km) north of Saipan. It is about 6 miles (10km) long
and 2 miles (3km) wide. Anatahan began erupting from its
east crater on May 10, 2003. It has since alternated between eruptive and calm periods. On April 6, 2005, about
1,800,000 cubic feet (51,000m3) of ash and rock were ejected, causing a large, black cloud to drift south over Saipan
and Tinian.
Anatahan Island.

Climate
The North Mariana Islands have a tropical marine climate
moderated by seasonal northeast trade winds. There is little
seasonal temperature variation. The dry season runs from
December to June; the rainy season runs from July to November
and can include typhoons. The Guinness Book of World Records
has cited Saipan as having the most equable temperature in the
world.[11]

Politics and government

Main article: Politics of the Northern Mariana Islands

Map of the Northern Mariana Islands.

Northern Mariana Islands

167

The Northern Mariana Islands have a multi-party presidential

representative democratic system. The Northern Mariana Islands
are a Commonwealth of the United States. Federal funds to the
Commonwealth are administered by the Office of Insular Affairs
of the U.S. Department of the Interior.
Replicating the separation of powers in other U.S. territories and
state governments, executive power is exercised by the Governor
of the Northern Mariana Islands. Legislative power is vested in the
bicameral Northern Mariana Islands Commonwealth Legislature.
The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislative
branches.
Some critics, including the author of the political website Saipan
Sucks, say that politics in the Northern Mariana Islands is often
"more a function of family relationships and personal loyalties"
where the size of one's extended family is more important than a
candidate's personal qualifications. They charge that this is
nepotism carried out within the trappings of democracy.[12]

Benigno Fitial, the former Governor of the Northern

Mariana Islands.

In April 2012, anticipating a loss of funding by 2014, the Commonwealth's public pension fund declared Chapter 11
bankruptcy.[13] The retirement fund is a defined benefit type pension plan and was only partially funded by the
government, with only $268.4 million in assets and $911 million in liabilities. The plan experienced low investment
returns and a benefit structure that had been increased without raises in funding.
In August 2012, cries for impeachment arose, as the sitting governor Benigno Fitial (Republican) was being held
responsible for withholding payments from the pension fund, not paying the local utility (Commonwealth Utilities or
"CUC") for government offices, cutting off funding to the only hospital in the Northern Marianas, interfering with
the delivery of a subpoena to his attorney general, withholding required funds from the public schools, and for
signing a sole source $190 million contract for power generation.
Further information: Political party strength in the Northern Mariana Islands

Administrative divisions
The islands total 179.01 square miles (463.63km2). The table gives an overview, with the individual islands from
north to south:
No.

Island

Area
sqmi

km2

Population
(2010
census)

Height
feet

Highest peak

Location

Northern Islands (Northern Islands Municipality)

1

Farallon de Pajaros
(Urracas)

0.985

2.55

1,047

319

2033N 14454E
(http:/ / tools.
wmflabs. org/
geohack/ geohack.
php?pagename=Northern_Mariana_Islands&
params=20_33_N_144_54_E_&
title=Farallon+ de+
Pajaros)

Northern Mariana Islands

168
[15]

Maug Islands

0.822

2.13

745

227 (North Island)

2002N 14519E
(http:/ / tools.
wmflabs. org/
geohack/ geohack.
php?pagename=Northern_Mariana_Islands&
params=20_02_N_145_19_E_&
title=Maug+
Islands)

Asuncion

2.822

7.31

2,923

891

1943N 14541E
(http:/ / tools.
wmflabs. org/
geohack/ geohack.
php?pagename=Northern_Mariana_Islands&
params=19_43_N_145_41_E_&
title=Asuncion)

Agrihan
[18]
(Agrigan)

16.80

43.51

3,166

965

Mount
Agrihan

1846N 14540E
(http:/ / tools.
wmflabs. org/
geohack/ geohack.
php?pagename=Northern_Mariana_Islands&
params=18_46_N_145_40_E_&
title=Agrihan)

[20]

Pagan

18.24

47.24

1,900

579

Mount Pagan

180836N
1454739E (http:/
/ tools. wmflabs.
org/ geohack/
geohack.
php?pagename=Northern_Mariana_Islands&
params=18_08_36_N_145_47_39_E_&
title=Pagan)

Alamagan

4.29

11.11

2,441

744

Alamagan

1735N 14550E
(http:/ / tools.
wmflabs. org/
geohack/ geohack.
php?pagename=Northern_Mariana_Islands&
params=17_35_N_145_50_E_&
title=Alamagan)

Guguan

1.494

3.87

988

301

1720N 14551E
(http:/ / tools.
wmflabs. org/
geohack/ geohack.
php?pagename=Northern_Mariana_Islands&
params=17_20_N_145_51_E_&
title=Guguan)

Northern Mariana Islands

Zealandia Bank

169
>0.0

>0.0

>0

>0

1645N 14542E
(http:/ / tools.
wmflabs. org/
geohack/ geohack.
php?pagename=Northern_Mariana_Islands&
params=16_45_N_145_42_E_)

[25]

Sarigan

1.92

4.97

1,801

549

1643N 14547E
(http:/ / tools.
wmflabs. org/
geohack/ geohack.
php?pagename=Northern_Mariana_Islands&
params=16_43_N_145_47_E_&
title=Sarigan)

10

Anatahan

12.05

31.21

2,582

787

1622N 14540E
(http:/ / tools.
wmflabs. org/
geohack/ geohack.
php?pagename=Northern_Mariana_Islands&
params=16_22_N_145_40_E_&
title=Anatahan)

11

Farallon de
Medinilla

0.328

0.85

266

81

1601N 14604E
(http:/ / tools.
wmflabs. org/
geohack/ geohack.
php?pagename=Northern_Mariana_Islands&
params=16_01_N_146_04_E_&
title=Farallon+ de+
Medinilla)

Southern Islands (3 municipalities)

12

Saipan

44.55

115.38

48,220

1,555

474

Mount
Tapochau

151106N
1454428E (http:/
/ tools. wmflabs.
org/ geohack/
geohack.
php?pagename=Northern_Mariana_Islands&
params=15_11_06_N_145_44_28_E_&
title=Saipan)

13

Tinian

39.00

101.01

3,136

558

170

Kastiyu
(Lasso Hill)

145712N
1453854E (http:/
/ tools. wmflabs.
org/ geohack/
geohack.
php?pagename=Northern_Mariana_Islands&
params=14_57_12_N_145_38_54_E_&
title=Tinian)

Northern Mariana Islands

14

Aguijan
[31]
(Agiguan)

170
2.74

7.10

515

157

Alutom

1442N 14518E
(http:/ / tools.
wmflabs. org/
geohack/ geohack.
php?pagename=Northern_Mariana_Islands&
params=14_42_N_145_18_E_&
title=Aguijan)

15

Rota

32.97

85.39

2,527

1,611

491

Mt. Manira

140837N
1451108E (http:/
/ tools. wmflabs.
org/ geohack/
geohack.
php?pagename=Northern_Mariana_Islands&
params=14_08_37_N_145_11_08_E_&
title=Rota)

Northern Mariana
Islands

179.01

463.63

53,883

3,166

965

Mount
Agrihan

1408' to 2033'N,
14454 to 14604'E

Notes

Administratively, the CNMI is divided into four municipalities:

The Northern Islands (north of Saipan) form the Northern Islands Municipality. The three main islands of the
Southern Islands form the municipalities of Saipan, Tinian, and Rota, with uninhabited Aguijan forming part of
Tinian municipality.
Because of volcanic threat, the northern islands have been evacuated. Human habitation was limited to Agrihan,
Pagan, and Alamagan, but population varied due to various economic factors, including children's education. The
2010 census showed no residents in Northern Islands municipality and the Northern Islands' mayor office is located
in "exile" on Saipan.
Saipan, Tinian, and Rota have the only ports and harbors, and are the only permanently populated islands.

Political status
In 1947, the Northern Mariana Islands became part of the postWorld War II United Nations Trust Territory of the
Pacific Islands (TTPI). The United States became the TTPI's administering authority under the terms of a trusteeship
agreement. In 1976, Congress approved the mutually negotiated Covenant to establish a Commonwealth of the
Northern Mariana Islands in Political Union with the United States of America. The Commonwealth of the
Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) government adopted its own constitution in 1977, and the constitutional
government took office in January 1978. The Covenant was fully implemented November 3, 1986, pursuant to
Presidential Proclamation no. 5564, which conferred United States citizenship on legally qualified CNMI residents.
This led to CNMI being represented in the United States (and especially Washington, D.C.) by a Resident
Representative who was elected at-large by CNMI voters and whose office was paid for by the CNMI government.
The Consolidated Natural Resources Act of 2008 ("CNRA), approved by the U.S. Congress on May 8, 2008,
established a CNMI delegate's seat; Democrat Gregorio Sablan was elected in November 2008 as the first CNMI
delegate and took office in the 111th Congress.
On December 22, 1990, the United Nations Trusteeship Council terminated the TTPI as it applied to the CNMI and
five other of the TTPI's original seven districts (the Marshall Islands and the Federated States of Micronesia (Chuuk,
Kosrae, Pohnpei and Yap)), this was acknowledged in United Nations Security Council Resolution 683 passed on
the same day.

Northern Mariana Islands

Under the Covenant, in general, United States federal law applies to CNMI. However, the CNMI is outside the
customs territory of the United States and, although the internal revenue code does apply in the form of a local
income tax, the income tax system is largely locally determined. According to the Covenant, the federal minimum
wage and federal immigration laws "will not apply to the Northern Mariana Islands except in the manner and to the
extent made applicable to them by the Congress by law after termination of the Trusteeship Agreement."[1] The local
control of minimum wage was superseded by the United States Congress in 2007.
Prior to November 28, 2009, U.S. immigration laws did not apply in the CNMI. Rather, a separate immigration
system existed in the CNMI. This system was established under the Covenant to Establish a Commonwealth of the
Northern Mariana Islands in Political Union with the United States of America ("Covenant"), which was signed in
1975 and codified as 48 U.S.C. 1801. The Covenant was unilaterally amended by the CNRA, thus altering the
CNMI's immigration system. Specifically, CNRA 702(a) amended the Covenant to state that "the provisions of the
'immigration laws' (as defined in section 101(a)(17) of the Immigration and Nationality Act (8 U.S.C. 1101(a)(17)))
shall apply to the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands." Further, under CNRA 702(a), the
"immigration laws," as well as the amendments to the Covenant, "shall...supersede and replace all laws, provisions,
or programs of the Commonwealth relating to the admission of aliens and the removal of aliens from the
Commonwealth."[2] Transition to U.S. immigration laws began November 28, 2009.[3][4]
The CNMI has a United States district court which exercises jurisdiction over the District of the Northern Mariana
Islands (DNMI), which is coterminous with the CNMI. The United States District Court for the Northern Mariana
Islands was established by act of Congress in 1977 and began operations in January 1978. The court sits on the
island of Saipan, but may sit other places within the Commonwealth. The district court has the same jurisdiction as
all other United States district courts, including diversity jurisdiction and bankruptcy jurisdiction. Appeals are taken
to the Ninth Circuit. The district court's local rules specifically require lawyers to wear shoes to court.[5]

Economy
Main article: Economy of the Northern Mariana Islands
The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands benefits from
substantial subsidies and development assistance from the federal
government of the United States. The economy also relies heavily on
tourism, especially from Japan, and the rapidly dwindling garment
manufacturing sector. The tourism industry has also been dwindling
since late 2005. As of late 2006, tourist arrivals fell 15.23% (73,000
potential visitors) from the eleven months prior.
The Northern Mariana Islands had successfully used its position as a
Pagan island
free trade area with the U.S., while at the same time not being subject
to the same labor laws. For example, the $3.05 per hour minimum
wage in the Commonwealth, which lasted from 1997 to 2007, was lower than in the U.S. and some other worker
protections are weaker, leading to lower production costs. That allowed garments to be labeled "Made in USA"
without having to comply with all U.S. labor laws. However, the U.S. minimum wage law signed by President Bush
on May 25, 2007, resulted in stepped increases in the Northern Marianas' minimum wage, which will allow it to
reach the U.S. level by 2015. The first step (to $3.55) became effective July 25, 2007, and a yearly increase of $0.50
will take effect every May thereafter until the CNMI minimum wage equals the nationwide minimum wage.
However, a law signed in December 2009 delayed the yearly increase from May to September. As of September 30,
2010, the minimum wage is $5.05 per hour.[6]
In the extreme, the island's exemption from U.S. labor laws had led to many alleged exploitations including recent
claims of sweatshops, child labor, child prostitution, and even forced abortions.

171

Northern Mariana Islands

172

An immigration system mostly outside of federal U.S. control (which ended on November 28, 2009) resulted in a
large number of Chinese migrant workers (about 15,000 during the peak years) employed in the islands' garment
trade. However, the lifting of World Trade Organization restrictions on Chinese imports to the U.S. in 2005 had put
the Commonwealth-based trade under severe pressure, leading to a number of recent factory closures. Adding to the
U.S.-imposed scheduled wage increases, the garment industry became extinct by 2009.
Agricultural production, primarily of tapioca, cattle, coconuts, breadfruit, tomatoes, and melons exists but is
relatively unimportant in the economy.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Non-native islanders are not allowed to own land, but can lease it.[7]

Infrastructure
The islands have over 220 miles (350km) of highways, three airports with paved runways (one about 9,800 feet
[3,000 m] long; two around 6,600 feet [2,000 m]), three airports with unpaved runways, and one heliport.
Mail service for the islands is provided by the U.S. Postal Service (USPS). Each major island has its own zip code in
the 96950-96952 range, and the USPS two-letter abbreviation for the CNMI is "MP". For phone service, the islands
are included in the North American Numbering Plan, using area code 670.
Television service is provided by KPPI-LP, Channel 7, which simulcasts Guam's ABC affiliate KTGM, as well as
WSZE, Channel 10, which simulcasts Guam's NBC affiliate KUAM-TV. About 10 radio stations broadcast within
the CNMI.

Exemptions from some federal regulations

See also: Jack Abramoff CNMI scandal
Although the CNMI is part of the United States, several members of Congress have fought hard to keep labor
regulation out of the CNMI.
Some extreme labor practices, not common elsewhere in the United States, had occurred. Some of these labor
practices include forcing women to have abortions, as exposed in the March 18, 1998, episode of ABC News' 20/20,
and enslaving women and forcing them into prostitution, as the U.S. Department of Justice conviction of several
CNMI traffickers in 1999 attests. In 2005 and 2006, the issue of these regulatory exemptions in the CNMI was
brought up during the American political scandals of Congressman Tom DeLay and lobbyist Jack Abramoff.

Demographics
Main article: Demographics of the Northern Mariana Islands
See also: List of U.S. states and territories by population

Historical
population
Census

Pop.

1960

6,000

1970

9,436

57.3%

1980

16,780

77.8%

1990

43,345

158.3%

2000

69,221

59.7%

2010

53,883

22.2%

Northern Mariana Islands

According to the 2010 census, the population of the CNMI as of April 1, 2010 was 53,883, down from 69,221 in
2000, a decrease of 22.2%.[8] The decrease was reportedly due to a combination of factors including the demise of
the garment industry (the vast majority of whose employees were females from China), economic crises, and a
decline in tourism, one of the CNMI's primary sources of revenue.[9]
The Northern Mariana Islands are the least populous area in the United States (with fewer people than any of the
other 55 states and territories).

Education
The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Public School System operates public schools in the
commonwealth and there are numerous private schools. Northern Marianas College is accredited by the Western
Association of Schools and Colleges and offers a range of programs similar to other small U.S. community colleges.

Culture
Much of the Chamorro culture in the Mariana Islands was heavily influenced by the Spanish during the Spanish era,
as well as by the Germans and Japanese. In Chamorro culture, respect is the biggest thing taught, and one common
display is the tradition of "fani'i". This tradition has been around for centuries and involves an elder and a young
Chamorro child. The child takes the hand of the elder, places it on their nose and says nout to the men and noura to
the women with the elders responding dios tayudei, meaning "walk with God".
The Carolinian culture is very similar to the Chamorro culture with respect being very important. The Carolinian
culture can be traced back to Yap and Chuuk, where the Carolinians are originally from.

Cuisine
Much of Chamoru cuisine is influenced by various cultures. Examples of popular foods of foreign origin include
various types of sweet or savory empanada, originally introduced from Spain, and pancit, a noodle dish from the
Philippines.
Archeological evidence reveals that rice has been cultivated in the Marianas since prehistoric times. Red rice made
with achoti is a distinct staple food that strongly distinguishes Chamoru cuisine from that of other Pacific islands. It
is commonly served for special events, such as parties (gupot or "fiestas"), novenas, and high school or college
graduations. Fruits such as lemmai, mangga, niyok, and bilimbines are included in various local recipes. Korean,
Chinese, Japanese, and American cuisine are also commonly available.
Local specialities include kelaguen, a dish in which meat is cooked in whole or in part by the action of citric acid
rather than heat; Tinaktak, a meat dish made with coconut milk; and k'du fanihi (flying fox/fruit bat soup). Fruit
bats and local birds have become scarce in modern times, primarily due to the World War II-era introduction of the
brown tree snake, which decimated the populations of local birds and threatens the fanihi population as well; hunting
them is now illegal.
Guam has highest per capita consumption of tabasco sauce in the world: almost two 2-ounce bottles per person per
year. Tabasco and Spam united to create Hot & Spicy Spam, which debuted on Guam. Cans of Hot & Spicy Spam
sold throughout the world feature a recipe for Spam Fried Rice from Guam-based restaurant Shirley's.
The Marianas and the Hawaiian islands are the world's foremost consumers, per capita, of Spam, with Guam at the
top of the list, and Hawaii second (details regarding the rest of the Marianas are often absent from statistics). Spam
was introduced to the islands by the American military as war rations during the World War II era.

173

Northern Mariana Islands

174

Religion
Due to the Spanish missionaries in the Marianas, a large majority of Chamorros and Carolinians practice Roman
Catholicism, including the use of Rosaries and novenas.

Sports
Team sports popular in the United States were introduced to the Northern Mariana Islands by American soldiers
during World War II. Baseball is the islands' most popular sport. CNMI teams have made appearances in the Little
League World Series (in the Little, Junior, Senior and Big league divisions) as well as winning gold medals in the
Micronesian Games and South Pacific Games.
Basketball and mixed martial arts are also popular in the islands. Trench Wars is the CNMI's Mixed Martial Arts
brand.Wikipedia:Citation needed Fighters from the CNMI have competed in the Pacific Xtreme Combat contest, and
in 2012 a Chamorro fighter from Saipan, Frank "The Crank" Camacho, became the first Chamorro fighter to fight in
the UFCWikipedia:Please clarify when he fought on the television program The Ultimate Fighter.
Other sports in the CNMI include volleyball, tennis, soccer, outrigger sailing, softball, beach volleyball, rugby, golf,
boxing, kickboxing, tae kwon do, track and field, Swimming, Triathlon, and American football.

Notes
[1] doi.gov (http:/ / www. doi. gov/ oia/ Islandpages/ cnmipage. htm)
[2] U.S. Department of Justice Memorandum (http:/ / www. justice. gov/ eoir/ vll/ benchbook/ tools/ CNMI/ CNMI Memo (3-29-10). pdf)
[3] A Lesser-Known Immigration Crisis: Federal Immigration Law in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (http:/ / digital. law.
washington. edu/ dspace-law/ bitstream/ handle/ 1773. 1/ 488/ 20pacrimlpoly211. pdf)
[4] CNMI loses immigration control in 2009 (http:/ / www. saipantribune. com/ newsstory. aspx?newsID=96195& cat=1)
[5] DNMI Local Rule 83.3
[6] $5.05 hourly minimum wage today, Saipan Tribune, September 30, 2010 (http:/ / www. saipantribune. com/ newsstory.
aspx?newsID=103448& cat=1)
[7] " Northern Marianas Retains constitutional land ownership provisions (http:/ / overseasreview. blogspot. com/ 2012/ 06/
northern-marianas-retains. html)" Overseas Territories Review. Accessed July 24, 2012
[8] "Census 2010 News | U.S. Census Bureau Releases 2010 Census Population Counts for the Northern Mariana Islands" (http:/ / 2010. census.
gov/ news/ releases/ operations/ cb11-cn178. html)
[9] "2010 CENSUS RESULT | CNMI population down 22.2 pct." (http:/ / www. saipantribune. com/ newsstory. aspx?newsID=112164& cat=1)

References

The World Factbook, 2000.

Land areas and population data from United States Census Bureau.
Northern Mariana Islands and constituent municipalities, United States Census Bureau (http://factfinder.census.
gov/servlet/DTTable?_bm=y&-show_geoid=Y&-tree_id=405&-_caller=geoselect&-context=dt&-errMsg=&
-all_geo_types=N&-mt_name=DEC_2000_IAMP_P001&-redoLog=true&-transpose=N&
-search_map_config=|b=50|l=en|t=4001|zf=0.0|ms=sel_00dec|dw=0.9528487917191559|dh=0.
6838460131961157|dt=gov.census.aff.domain.map.EnglishMapExtent|if=gif|cx=-67.48042614595042|cy=18.
385966173167105|zl=6|pz=6|bo=318:317:316:314:313:323:319|bl=362:393:358:357:356:355:354|ft=350:349:335:389:388:332:33
-PANEL_ID=p_dt_geo_map&-_lang=en&-geo_id=04000US69&-geo_id=05000US69085&
-geo_id=05000US69100&-geo_id=05000US69110&-geo_id=05000US69120&-CONTEXT=dt&-format=&
-search_results=ALL&-ds_name=DEC_2000_IAMP)

Northern Mariana Islands

175

External links
Government

Gov.mp (http://www.gov.mp/) Official Government Website

The CNMI Covenant (http://www.paclii.org/pits/en/treaty_database/1975/2.html)
The CNMI Constitution (http://www.cnmilaw.org/constitution.htm)
CNMI Office of Resident Representative Pedro A. Tenorio (http://www.resrep.gov.mp/)
H.R. 873 The Northern Mariana Islands Delegate Act (http://www.theorator.com/bills109/hr873.html)
H.R. 5550 The United States-Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas Human Dignity Act (http://www.
theorator.com/bills109/hr5550.html)

General
U.S. Census Bureau: Island Areas Census 2000 (http://www.census.gov/population/www/cen2000/
islandareas/)
Northern Mariana Islands (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/cq.html) entry
at The World Factbook
Northern Mariana Islands (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Oceania/Northern_Mariana_Islands) at DMOZ

Wikimedia Atlas of Northern Mariana Islands

Northern Mariana Islands travel guide from Wikivoyage

News media

KSPN-TV Channel 2 News (http://www.kspn2.com/)

Saipan Tribune (http://saipantribune.com/)
Marianas Variety (http://www.mvariety.com/)
The Pacific Times (http://www.ptimes.net/)
Food for Thought Weekly commentary on CNMI society by KZMI and KCNM manager Harry Blalock (http://
www.chamorro.com/fft/)

Other
The Insular Empire: America in the Mariana Islands, PBS documentary film & website (http://www.
theinsularempire.com/)
Northern Mariana Islands Online Encyclopedia (http://cnmi.humanities.org.mp/encyclopedia/)
USA Department of the Interior Insular Area Summary for the Northern Mariana Islands (http://www.doi.
gov/archive/oia/Islandpages/cnmipage.htm)
Coordinates:
17N
146E
(http:/
/
tools.
wmflabs.
org/
geohack/
php?pagename=Northern_Mariana_Islands&params=17_N_146_E_region:MP_scale:3000000)

geohack.

Palau

176

Palau
This article is about the country. For other uses, see Palau (disambiguation).

Republic of Palau
Beluu er a Belau

Flag

Seal

Anthem:Belau rekid
Our Palau

Location of Palau (circled) in the western Pacific Ocean.

[1]

Capital

Ngerulmud, Melekeok Statea

[2]
721N 13428E
Largest city
Official languages

Koror

English
Palauan

Recognised regionallanguages

Japanese (in Angaur)

Sonsorolese (in Sonsoral)
Tobian (in Hatohobei)

Ethnicgroups (2000)

69.9% Palauan
15.3% Filipino
4.9% Chinese
2.4% other Asian
1.9% White
1.4% Carolinian
1.1% other Micronesian
3.2% other/ unspecified

Demonym
Government

Palauan
Unitary presidential republic

Palau

177

President

Tommy Remengesau

Vice President

Antonio Bells
Legislature

National Congress
Independence

Compact of Free Association with the United States

1 October 1994
Area

Total

459km2 (196th)
177sqmi

Water(%)

negligible
Population

2011estimate

20,956 (218th)

Density

28.4/km
45.5/sqmi

GDP(PPP)

2008estimate

Total

$164 million

Per capita

$8,100 (119th)

[3]

[4]

HDI (2011)

a.

(notranked)

0.782
high 49th
Currency

United States dollar (USD)

Time zone

(UTC+9)

Drives on the

right

Calling code

+680

ISO 3166 code

PW

Internet TLD

.pw

On 7 October 2006, government officials moved their offices in the former capital of Koror to Ngerulmud in Melekeok
State, located 20km (12mi) northeast of Koror on Babelthaup Island and 2km (1mi) northwest of Melekeok village.

i
Palau (
/pla/, sometimes spelled Belau or Pelew), officially the Republic of Palau (Palauan: Beluu er a
Belau),[5] is an island country located in the western Pacific Ocean. It is geographically part of the larger island
group of Micronesia. The country's population of around 21,000 is spread across 250 islands forming the western
chain of the Caroline Islands. The most populous island is Koror. The islands share maritime boundaries with
Indonesia, the Philippines, and the Federated States of Micronesia. The capital Ngerulmud is located in Melekeok
State on the nearby island of Babeldaob.

The country was originally settled around 3,000 years ago by migrants from the Philippines and sustained a Negrito
population until around 900 years ago. The islands were first visited by Europeans in the 18th century, and were
made part of the Spanish East Indies in 1885. Following Spain's defeat in the SpanishAmerican War in 1898, the
islands were sold to Imperial Germany in 1899 under the terms of the GermanSpanish Treaty, where they were
administered as part of German New Guinea. The Imperial Japanese Navy conquered Palau during World War I, and
the islands were later made a part of the Japanese-ruled South Pacific Mandate by the League of Nations. During
World War II, skirmishes, including the major Battle of Peleliu, were fought between American and Japanese troops
as part of the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign. Along with other Pacific Islands, Palau was made a part of the
United States-governed Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands in 1947. Having voted against joining the Federated
States of Micronesia in 1979, the islands gained full sovereignty in 1994 under a Compact of Free Association with

Palau
the United States.
Politically, Palau is a presidential republic in free association with the United States, which provides defense,
funding, and access to social services. Legislative power is concentrated in the bicameral Palau National Congress.
Palau's economy is based mainly on tourism, subsistence agriculture and fishing, with a significant portion of gross
national product (GNP) derived from foreign aid. The country uses the United States dollar as its currency. The
islands' culture mixes Japanese, Micronesian and Melanesian elements. The majority of citizens are of mixed
Micronesian, Melanesian, and Austronesian descent, with significant groups descended from Japanese and Filipino
settlers. The country's two official languages are Palauan (member of the wider SundaSulawesi language group)
and English, with Japanese, Sonsorolese, and Tobian recognised as regional languages.

Name
The name for the islands in the Palauan language, Belau, likely derives from either the Palauan word for "village",
beluu,[6] or from aibebelau ("indirect replies"), relating to a creation myth.[7] The name "Palau" entered the English
language from the Spanish Los Palaos, via the German Palau. An archaic name for the islands in English was the
"Pelew Islands".[8] It should not be confused with Pulau, which is a Malay word meaning "island".

History
Main article: History of Palau
Palau was originally settled between the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC, most likely from the Philippines or Indonesia.[9]
The islands sustained a population of short-statured Negrito or Pygmy people until the 12th century, when they were
replaced.Wikipedia:Citation needed The modern population, judging by its language, may have come from the
Sunda Islands.
Sonsorol, part of the Southwest Islands, an island chain approximately 600 kilometres (370mi) from the main island
chain of Palau, was sighted by Europeans as early as 1522, when the Trinidad, the flagship of Ferdinand Magellan's
voyage of circumnavigation, sighted two small islands around the 5th parallel north, naming them "San Juan".[10]
British traders became prominent visitors to Palau in the 18th century, followed by expanding Spanish influence in
the 19th century. Following its defeat in the SpanishAmerican War, Spain sold Palau and most of the rest of the
Caroline Islands to Germany in 1899. Control passed to Japan in 1914 and during World War II the islands were
taken by the United States in 1944, with the costly Battle of Peleliu between 15 September and 25 November when
more than 2,000 Americans and 10,000 Japanese were killed. The islands passed formally to the United States under
United Nations auspices in 1947 as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands.
Four of the Trust Territory districts formed a single federated Micronesian state in 1979, but the districts of Palau
and the Marshall Islands declined to participate. Palau, the westernmost cluster of the Carolines, instead opted for
independent status in 1978. It approved a new constitution and became the Republic of Palau in 1981. It signed a
Compact of Free Association with the United States in 1982. After eight referenda and an amendment to the Palauan
constitution, the Compact was ratified in 1993. The Compact went into effect on 1 October 1994, marking Palau de
jure independent, although it had been de facto independent since 25 May 1994, when the trusteeship ended.
Legislation making Palau an "offshore" financial center was passed by the Senate in 1998. In 2001, Palau passed its
first bank regulation and anti-money laundering laws.

178

Palau

Politics and government

Main article: Politics of Palau
Palau is a multi-party democratic republic. The President of Palau is both head of state and head of government.
Executive power is exercised by the government, while legislative power is vested in both the government and the
Palau National Congress. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The capital is Ngerulmud.
Palau adopted its own constitution in 1981.
The governments of the United States and Palau concluded a Compact of Free Association in 1986, similar to
compacts that the United States had entered into with the Federated States of Micronesia and the Republic of the
Marshall Islands. The compact entered into force on 1 October 1994, concluding Palau's transition from trusteeship
to independence as the last portion of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands to secure its independence.

Free association
Main article: Compact of Free Association
The Compact of Free Association between the United States and Palau[11] sets forth the free and voluntary
association of their governments. It primarily focuses on the issues of government, economic, security and defense
relations.[12] Palau has no independent military, relying on the United States for its defense. Under the compact, the
American military was granted access to the islands for 50 years. The US Navy role is minimal, limited to a handful
of Navy Seabees (construction engineers.) The United States Coast Guard patrols in national waters.

Foreign relations
As a sovereign nation, Palau conducts its own foreign relations. Since independence, Palau has established
diplomatic relations with a number of nations, including many of its Pacific neighbors. Palau was admitted to the
United Nations on 15 December 1994 and has since joined several other international organizations. In September
2006, Palau hosted the first Taiwan-Pacific Allies Summit. Its President has made official visits to other Pacific
countries, including Taiwan.
The United States maintains a diplomatic delegation and an embassy in Palau, but most aspects of the countries'
relationship have to do with Compact-funded projects, which are the responsibility of the U.S. Department of the
Interior's Office of Insular Affairs.[13] This has led to some ambiguity in the official status of
Palau.Wikipedia:Citation needed
In international politics, Palau often votes with the United States with respect to United Nations General Assembly
resolutions.[14]
Palau is a member of the Nauru Agreement.

Nuclear-free constitution
In 1981, Palau voted for the world's first nuclear-free constitution. This constitution banned the use, storage and
disposal of nuclear, toxic chemical, gas and biological weapons without first being approved by a 3/4 majority in a
referendum. This ban delayed Palau's transition to independence, because while negotiating the Compact, the U.S.
insisted on the option to operate nuclear propelled vessels and store nuclear weapons within the territory. After
several referendums that failed to achieve a 3/4 majority, the people of Palau finally approved the Compact in 1994.

179

Palau

180

Asylum for former Guantanamo prisoners

See also: Uyghur captives in Guantanamo
On 10 June 2009, Palau announced that it would accept up to all 17 of the remaining Uyghurs detained in
Guantanamo "as a humanitarian gesture". Five Uyghur captives were released without being prosecuted in 2004 and
transferred to Albania in 2006. The remaining seventeen were released due to lack of evidence in
2008.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Stuart Beck, Palau's representative to the United Nations, published an op-ed in the New York Times disputing the
widely distributed report that Palau's agreement to accept the Uyghurs was tied to Palau's receipt of US$200 million
in foreign aid. Beck asserted that Palau had received funds from the USA connected with accepting the Uyghurs, but
it was $90,000 per Uyghur, not "$12 million". Beck asserted that the $90,000 was to compensate Palau for its
"relocation costs" and was "to cover transportation, food, housing and medical help until the men can get oriented
and get jobs". ABC News confirmed that the United States would be paying Palau for each captive who was resettled
and quoted a senior official who described the amount as "not very substantial".
William Cleary, writing in the Pacific Daily News, reported that Palau was in a poor bargaining position to decline
the American request:
"The detainee transfer deal comes at a time when generous U.S. financial aid and economic
development grants to Palau under a 15 year old treaty of free association between the two nations have
expired. Palauan leaders apparently wanted to demonstrate their commitment to sharing mutual interests
and burdens with the U.S., as they make the case for renewal of U.S. grant assistance."
However, Cleary also described the assertions that the captive resettlement was a straight quid pro quo as
"misleading". He listed the USA's desire to continue to be able to base U.S. military personnel on Palau, to balance
the growing military force of the People's Republic of China, as one complicating factor. He also listed Palau's desire
for an exemption from proposed restrictions on immigration from former protectorates like Palau.Wikipedia:Citation
needed
An official "technical working group" from Palau traveled to Guantanamo to meet with the Uyghurs in mid-June
2009. On 23 June, the Palau government published a press release which said only eight of the thirteen Uyghurs
agreed to meet with the delegation. Their report stated: "The team advised President Toribiong that in their opinion
only a few of the detainees that were interviewed had any real interest in being relocated to Palau." On 30 June,
Radio New Zealand International reported only one Uyghur agreed to be temporarily resettled in Palau. On 10
September, The Times reported that three of the Uyghurs have accepted the invitation to be transferred to asylum in
Palau. On 19 September, Fox News reported that in the week since the first announcement three further Uyghurs
agreed to be transferred to Palau. Fox reported that five of the other Uyghurs had refused to speak with Palau
officials. On 31 October, six Uyghurs were reported to have been transferred to Palau. Twelve of the thirteen
remaining Uyghurs were offered asylum. The thirteenth man was not offered asylum because his mental health had
deteriorated beyond the nation's mental health resources to care for him.
The United States agreed to give Palau additional aid in January 2010. Palau had rejected an earlier aid package of
US$156 million. The new aid package was for US$250 million. President Toribiong asserted that the increase in aid
was unrelated to Palau agreement to host the Uyghurs.Wikipedia:Citation needed

Palau

181

States
Main article: States of Palau
Palau is divided into sixteen states (until 1984
called municipalities). These are listed below
with their areas (in square kilometres) and 2005
Census populations:

The sixteen states of Palau.

State

Area (km2) Census 2005

Aimeliik

52

270

Airai

44

2,723

Angaur

320

Hatohobei

44

Kayangel

188

Koror

18

12,676

Melekeok

28

391

Ngaraard

36

581

Ngarchelong

10

488

Ngardmau

47

166

Ngaremlengui

65

317

Ngatpang

47

464

Ngchesar

41

254

Ngiwal

26

223

Peleliu

13

702

100

Sonsorol

Palau

182

Historically, Palau's uninhabited Rock Islands have been part of the State of Koror.

Geography
Main article: Geography of Palau
Palau's most populous islands are Angaur, Babeldaob, Koror and
Peleliu. The latter three lie together within the same barrier reef, while
Angaur is an oceanic island several miles to the south. About
two-thirds of the population live on Koror. The coral atoll of Kayangel
is north of these islands, while the uninhabited Rock Islands (about
200) are west of the main island group. A remote group of six islands,
known as the Southwest Islands, some 375 miles (604km) from the
main islands, make up the states of Hatohobei and Sonsorol.
Republic of Palau.

Climate
Palau has a tropical climate with an annual mean temperature of 82F (28C). Rainfall is heavy throughout the year,
averaging 150 inches (3,800mm). The average humidity is 82% and although rain falls more frequently between
July and October, there is still much sunshine. Typhoons are rare, as Palau is outside the main typhoon zone.
Climate data for Palau Islands (19611990)
Month

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

Average
high C
(F)

30.6
(87.1)

30.6
(87.1)

30.9
(87.6)

31.3
(88.3)

31.4
(88.5)

31.0
(87.8)

30.6
(87.1)

30.7
(87.3)

30.9
(87.6)

31.1
(88)

31.4
(88.5)

31.1
(88)

30.97
(87.74)

Daily mean
C (F)

27.3
(81.1)

27.2
(81)

27.5
(81.5)

27.9
(82.2)

28.0
(82.4)

27.6
(81.7)

27.4
(81.3)

27.5
(81.5)

27.7
(81.9)

27.7
(81.9)

27.9
(82.2)

27.7
(81.9)

27.62
(81.72)

Average
low C (F)

23.9
(75)

23.9
(75)

24.1
(75.4)

24.4
(75.9)

24.5
(76.1)

24.2
(75.6)

24.1
(75.4)

24.3
(75.7)

24.5
(76.1)

24.4
(75.9)

24.4
(75.9)

24.2
(75.6)

24.24
(75.63)

231.6
208.3
220.2
304.5
438.7
458.2
379.7
301.2
352.3
287.5
304.3
3,758.3
Precipitation 271.8
(10.701) (9.118) (8.201) (8.669) (11.988) (17.272) (18.039) (14.949) (11.858) (13.87) (11.319) (11.98) (147.964)
mm
(inches)

Avg.
precipitation
days

19.0

15.9

16.7

14.8

20.0

21.9

21.0

19.8

16.8

20.1

18.7

19.9

224.6

Mean
monthly
sunshine
hours

198.4

194.9

244.9

234.0

210.8

168.0

186.0

176.7

198.0

179.8

183.0

182.9

2,357.4

Source: Hong Kong Observatory,

Palau

183

Environment

Rock Islands in Palau.

WCTC Shopping Centre

While much of Palau remains free of

environmental degradation, areas of concern
include illegal dynamite fishing, inadequate
solid waste disposal facilities in Koror and
extensive sand and coral dredging in the
Palau lagoon. As with other Pacific island
nations, rising sea level presents a major
environmental threat. Inundation of
low-lying areas threatens coastal vegetation,
agriculture and already-insufficient water
supply. Wastewater treatment is a problem,
along with the handling of toxic waste from
fertilizers and biocides.
Saltwater crocodiles are also residents of
Palau and occur in varying numbers
throughout the various mangroves and even
in parts of the beautiful rock islands.
Although this species is generally
considered extremely dangerous, there has
only been one fatal human attack in Palau
within modern history, and that was in the
1960s. In Palau the largest crocodile
measured
in
at
4.5
metres
(15ft).Wikipedia:Citation needed
The nation is also vulnerable to earthquakes,
volcanic activity, and tropical storms. Palau
already has a problem with inadequate water
supply and limited agricultural areas to
support its population.

Leadership
On 5 November 2005, President Tommy E.
Remengesau, Jr. took the lead on a regional
environmental
initiative
called
the
Micronesia challenge, which would
Aerial view of limestone islands
conserve 30% of near-shore coastal waters
and 20% of forest land by 2020. Following
Palau, the initiative was joined by the Federated States of Micronesia and Marshall Islands, and the U.S. territories of
Guam and Northern Mariana Islands. Together, this combined region represents nearly 5% of the marine area of the
Pacific Ocean and 7% of its coastline.
On 25 September 2009, Palau announced that it would create the world's first shark sanctuary. Palau banned all
commercial shark fishing within its EEZ waters. The sanctuary protects about 600,000 square kilometres
(230,000sqmi) of ocean,[15] a similar size to France. President Johnson Toribiong announced the sanctuary at a
meeting of the United Nations. President Toribiong proposed a worldwide ban on fishing for sharks. In 2012, Palau

Palau

184

received the Future Policy Award from World Future Council, because "Palau is a global leader in protecting marine
ecosystems".

Economy
Main article: Economy of Palau
Palau's economy consists primarily of tourism, subsistence agriculture
and fishing. Tourist activity focuses on scuba diving and snorkeling in
the islands' rich marine environment, including its barrier reefs walls
and World War II wrecks. The government is the major employer,
relying heavily on US financial assistance. Business and tourist arrivals
numbered some 50,000 in financial year 2000/2001. The population
enjoys a per capita income twice that of Micronesia as a whole.
Long-term prospects for the key tourist sector have been greatly
KororBabeldaob Bridge
bolstered by the expansion of air travel in the Pacific, the rising
prosperity of leading East Asian countries and the willingness of foreigners to finance infrastructure development.
Air service has at times been spotty. Palau Micronesia Air, Asian Spirit and Pacific Flier provided service to the
Philippines and other destinations at various times during the 2000s, but all suspended service. United Airlines now
provides near-daily service to and from Guam, and once-weekly service to Yap. Also, Delta Airlines provides
service three times per week to Tokyo.
In November 2006, Palau Saving Bank officially announced bankruptcy. On 13 December of the same year the
Palau Horizon reported that 641 depositors had been affected. Among them 398 held less than $5000 USD, with the
remainder ranging from $5000 to 2 million USD. On 12 December 79 affected people received compensation. Mr.
Toribiong said, "The fund for the payout came from the balance of Palau government's loan from Taiwan." From a
total of $1 million USD, which originally was for assisting Palau's development, $955,000 USD was left at the time
of bankruptcy. Toribiong requested the Taiwanese government use the balance to repay its loans. Taiwan agreed to
the request. The compensation would include those who held less than $4,000 USD in an account.
The income tax has three brackets with rates of 9.3%, 15% and 19.6%. Corporate tax is 4% and general sales tax is
7.5%. There are no property taxes.

Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Palau

A desert island in Palau.

Palau

185

Historical
population
Year

Pop.

1970

11,210

1980

12,116

1990

15,122

2000

21,000

The population of Palau is approximately 21,000, of whom 70% are native Palauans of mixed Melanesian,
Micronesian, and Austronesian descent. Many Palauans also have some Asian ancestry, from intermarriage between
settlers and Palauans beginning in the 19th and 20th centuries. Palauans with mixed Japanese ancestry accounted for
the largest group. Some also had some Chinese or Korean ancestry. Filipinos form the second largest ethnic group.
The official languages of Palau are Palauan and English, except for two states (Sonsorol and Hatohobei) where the
local language, along with Palauan, is official. Japanese is spoken widely amongst older Palauans and is an official
language in the State of Angaur. Tagalog is not official in Palau, but is the fourth-largest spoken
language.Wikipedia:Citation needed

Culture
See also: Music of Palau and Palauan language

Religion
Main article: Religion in Palau
The German and Japanese occupations of Palau both subsidized missionaries to follow the Spanish. Three quarters
of the population are Christians (mainly Roman Catholics and Protestants), while Modekngei (a combination of
Christianity, traditional Palauan religion and fortune telling) and the ancient Palauan religion are commonly
observed. Japanese rule brought Mahayana Buddhism and Shinto to Palau, which were the majority religions among
Japanese settlers. However, following Japan's World War II defeat, the remaining Japanese largely converted to
Christianity, while the remainder continued to observe Buddhism, but stopped practicing Shinto rites.[16] According
to the 2005 census[17] 49.4% of the population is Roman Catholic, 21.3% Protestant, 8.7% Modekngei and 5.3%
Seventh-day Adventist. Only 1% of the population was estimated to be Buddhist in 2010, with the Chinese
community also practicing Chinese folk religion as well. The small Jewish community in 2009 sent 3 members to the
18th Maccabiah Games. A branch of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints holds services in Koror and
operates a Family History Center there. There are also approximately 400 Bengali Muslims in Palau.

Society
Palauan society, much like the island's language, has always been unique to the islands. Palauan society follows a
very strict matrilineal system. Matrilineal practices are seen in nearly every aspect of Palauan traditions, especially in
funeral, marriage, inheritance and the passing of traditional titles.
The cuisine includes local foods such as cassava, taro, yam, potato, fish and pork. Western cuisine is favored among
young Palauans and the locals are joined by foreign tourists. Restaurants on the main island of Koror consist mainly
of Korean food, as well as Chinese, burgers, pizza and pasta. Indigenous cuisine consists mainly of root vegetables,
fish, pigs and chicken. The rest of Micronesia is similar with much less tourism, leading to fewer restaurants.
Tourists eat mainly at their hotels on such islands. Some local foods include an alcoholic drink made from coconut
on the tree; the drink made from the roots of the kava; and the chewing of betel nuts. The Filipino presence in the

Palau
islands supports the presence of that cuisine.
The Palauan people respect their traditions. The traditional government system still influences the nation's affairs,
leading the federal government to repeatedly attempt to limit its power. Many of these attempts took the form of
amendments to the constitution that were supported by the corporate sector to protect what they deemed should be
free economic zones. One such example occurred in early 2010, where the Idid clan, the ruling clan of the Southern
Federation, under the leadership of Bilung, the Southern Federation's queen, raised a civil suit against the Koror
State Public Lands Authority (KSPLA). The Idid clan laid claim over Malakal Island, a major economic zone and
Palau's most important port, citing documents from the German Era. The verdict held that the Island belonged to the
KSPLA.

Traditional government
The present day "traditional" government of Palau is a continuation of its ancestor, composed of practices that span
thousands of years. Traditionally, Palau was organized hierarchically. The lowest level is the village or hamlet, then
the chiefdom (now politically referred to as a state) and finally alliances of chiefdoms. In ancient times, numerous
federations divided power, but upon the 17th century introduction of firearms by the British, an imbalance of power
occurred. Palau became divided into northern and southern federations. The Northern Federation is headed by the
high chief and chiefess of the ruling clan Uudes of Melekeok state, the Reklai and Ebilreklai. They are commonly
referred to as the king and queen of the Northern Federation. This northern federation comprises the state of
Kayangel, Ngerchelong, Ngardmau, Ngiwal, Ngaraard, Ngatpang, Ngeremlengui, Melekok, Aimeliik, Ngchesar and
Airai. The Southern Federation is likewise represented by the high chief and chiefess of the ruling Idid of Koror
state. The Southern Federation comprises the states of Koror, Peleliu and Angaur. However, fewer and fewer
Palauans have knowledge of the concept of federations, and the term is slowly dying out. Federations were
established as a way of safeguarding states and hamlets who shared economic, social, and political interests, but with
the advent a federal government, safeguards are less meaningful. It is interesting to note however, that in
international relations, the king of Palau is synonymous with the Ibedul of Koror. This is because Koror is the
industrial capital of the nation, elevating his position over the Reklai of Melekeok.
It is a misconception that the king and queen of Palau, or any chief and his female counterpart for that matter are
married. Traditional leaders and their female counterparts have always been related and unmarried (marrying
relatives was a traditional taboo). Usually, a chief and his female counterpart are brother and sister, or close cousins,
and have their own spouses.

Sports
See also: Baseball in Palau
Baseball is a popular sport in Palau after its introduction by the Japanese in the 1920s. The Palau national baseball
team won the gold medal at the 1990, 1998 and 2010 Micronesian Games, as well as at the 2007 Pacific Games.
Palau also has a National football team organised by the Palau Soccer Association but is not a member of FIFA. The
Association also organizes the Palau Soccer League.

186

Palau

Education
Some fields of study are available at Palau Community College. For professional and graduate programs, students
must travel to a larger institution.

Cuisine
See also: List of Oceanian cuisines
Palauan cuisine includes local foods such as cassava, taro, yam, potato, fish and pork. Western cuisine is favored
among young Palauans.
Restaurants on the main island of Koror consist mainly of Korean food, as well as Chinese, burgers, pizza, pasta, etc.
Indigenous cuisine consists mainly of root vegetables, fish, pigs and chicken.
The rest of Micronesia has a similar cuisine except that the rest of Micronesia has less tourism and fewer restaurants.
Tourists eat mainly at their hotels on less visited islands. Some local foods include an alcoholic drink made from
coconut on the tree, the drink made from the roots of the Kava Plant, and the chewing of betel nuts.
Filipino immigrants added their cuisine to Palau's mixture.

Transport
Palau International Airport provides scheduled direct flights to Guam, Manila, Seoul and Taipei and since December
2010, Tokyo-Narita. In addition, the states of Angaur and Peleliu have regular service to international destinations.
Freight, military and cruise ships often call at Malakal Harbor, on Malakal Island outside Koror. The country has no
railways, and of the 61km or 38mi of highways, only 36km or 22mi are paved. Driving is on the right and the
speed limit is 40km/h (25mph). Taxis are available in Koror. They are not metered and fares are negotiable. Only
Koror offers bus service. Transportation between islands mostly relies on private boats and domestic air services.

Foreign media
The 1968 World War II movie Hell in the Pacific starring Lee Marvin and Toshiro Mifune was filmed on Palau's
Rock Islands.
Palau was the site for the reality television program Survivor. Japanese Survivor used the islands for its first
season in 2002. It was also the location of Survivor: Palau, the tenth edition of the American Survivor, which
aired from 17 February to 15 May 2005 in United States, and Survivor: Micronesia, the sixteenth edition, which
aired from 7 February to 11 May 2008. In August 2009, Survivor Philippines also used the islands for its second
season.
The islands are mentioned in the song "Orinoco Flow" performed by Irish singer Enya.
Palau was featured in an episode of the children's TV show Toot and Puddle, based on the book series by
American children's author Holly Hobbie.
Palau has been featured a few times by National Geographic.
A fictional version of Palau was featured in Journey 2: The Mysterious Island.
Peleliu was used in Call of Duty: World at War as a map for a mission.
Palau is featured prominently in the popular blog, "It Just Gets Stranger", written by Eli McCann.

187

Palau

References
[1] "Government offices moved to a new National Capitol Building complex located at Ngerulmud, Melekeok State" US Department of State.
Palau (02/09) (http:/ / www. state. gov/ outofdate/ bgn/ palau/ 119480. htm). Retrieved 24 February 2013.
[2] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Palau& params=7_21_N_134_28_E_type:country
[3] 2008 estimate.
[4] Human Development Index and its components (http:/ / hdr. undp. org/ en/ media/ HDR_2011_EN_Table1. pdf). undp.org (2011).
[5] Constitution of palau (http:/ / www. palauembassy. com/ Documents/ ConstitutionP. pdf). (PDF). palauembassy.com. Retrieved on 1 June
2013.
[6] Culture of Palau (http:/ / www. everyculture. com/ No-Sa/ Palau. html) Every Culture. Retrieved 25 May 2012.
[7] The Bais of Belau (http:/ / www. underwatercolours. com/ bai/ bais. html) Underwater Colours. Retrieved 25 May 2012.
[8] Palau: Portrait of Paradise (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20010419154512/ http:/ / www. underwatercolors. com/ neco. html). Underwater
Colours. Retrieved 25 May 2012.
[9] Palau (http:/ / histclo. com/ country/ oce/ pal/ co-pal. html) Historical Boys' Clothing. Retrieved 25 May 2012.
[10] Palau (http:/ / www. micsem. org/ pubs/ articles/ historical/ forships/ palau. htm) Foreign Ships in Micronesia. Retrieved 25 May 2012.
[11] Compact of Free Association Between the Government of the United States of America and the government of Palau (http:/ / palau.
usembassy. gov/ rop_cofa. pdf), preamble
[12] Compact of Free Association Between the Government of the United States of America and the government of Palau (http:/ / palau.
usembassy. gov/ rop_cofa. pdf), Table of Contents
[13] Responsibilities and Authorities (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071024234958/ http:/ / www. doi. gov/ oia/ Firstpginfo/
oia_responsibilities. html). USDOI Office of Insular Affairs. doi.gov
[14] General Assembly Overall Votes Comparison with U.S. vote (http:/ / www. state. gov/ documents/ organization/ 82642. pdf) lists Palau
as in the country with the third high coincidence of votes. Palau has always been in the top three.
[15] Richard Black (25 September 2009). Palau pioneers 'shark sanctuary' (http:/ / usproxy. bbc. com/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 8272508. stm). BBC
News.
[16] Brigham Young UniversityHawaii Campus (1981), p. 36
[17] Office of Planning and Statistics, Republic of Palau: Census of Population and Housing (http:/ / www. spc. int/ prism/ country/ pw/ stats/
PalauStats/ Publication/ publications. htm2005), Table 59, Retrieved 1 March 2007

External links
Palau (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ps.html) entry at The World
Factbook
Palau (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/Palau.htm) from the University of Colorado at Boulder
Libraries (USA) Government Publications.
Australian library online (http://librariesaustralia.nla.gov.au/apps/kss), subscription, or membership via
institutional access, is required.
Palau (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Oceania/Palau) at DMOZ
Palau profile (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15446659) from the BBC News
Palau (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/439255/Palau) Encyclopdia Britannica entry

Wikimedia Atlas of Palau

NOAA's National Weather Service Palau (http://www.prh.noaa.gov/koror/)
The Interesting History of Prince Lee Boo, Brought to England from the Pelew Islands (http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.
rbc/general.09673.1) From the Collections at the Library of Congress

188

Palau

189

Government

Official Site of the Republic of Palau (http://www.palaugov.net)

Official Site of the Consulate of the Republic of Palau to United Kingdom (http://www.palauconsulate.org.uk)
Official Site of the Consulate of the Republic of Palau to Belgium (http://www.palauconsulate.org.be)
Chief of State and Cabinet Members (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/
world-leaders-p/palau.html)

Wake Island
For other uses, see Wake Island (disambiguation).

Wake Island

Map of Wake Island

Geography
Location
Coordinates

North Pacific
1918N 16638E

[1]

Total islands

Area

2.85sqmi (7.4km2)

Coastline

12.0mi (19.3km)

Coordinates: 1918N 16638E [1]

[2]

Highestelevation 20ft (6m)

Highestpoint

Ducks Point
Country

United States of America

Wake Island is under the administration of the
United States Air Force
Demographics

Wake Island

190
Population

ca. 150 (2009)

Wake Island (/wek/; also known as Wake

Atoll) is a coral atoll with a coastline of 12
miles (19km) just north of the Marshall
Islands. It is an unorganized, unincorporated
territory of the United States, administered by
the Office of Insular Affairs, U.S. Department
of the Interior. There are about 150 people
living on its 2.85 square miles. Access to the
island is restricted, and all activities on the
Aerial view of the atoll, looking westward
island are managed by the United States Air
Force. There is also a missile facility operated
by the United States Army. The largest island, Wake Island, is the center of activity on the atoll and is the location of
Wake Island Airfield (IATA: AWK,ICAO: PWAK), which has a 9,800-foot (3,000m) runway.
On January 6, 2009, President George W. Bush included the atoll as a part of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine
National Monument. For statistical purposes, Wake is grouped as one of the United States Minor Outlying Islands.

Geography
Island

acres hectares

Wake Islet 1,367.04

553.22

Wilkes Islet

197.44

79.90

Peale Islet

256.83

103.94

Wake Island 1,821.31

737.06

Lagoon (water) 1,480.00

600.00

Sand Flat

910.00

370.00

Wake is located to the west of the International Date Line and sits in the Wake Island Time Zone (UTC+12), one day
ahead of the 50 U.S. states, two-thirds of the way between Honolulu, 2,300 statute miles (3,700km) to the east and
Guam, 1,510 statute miles (2,430km) to the west. The closest land is the uninhabited Bokak Atoll 348 miles to the
south east.
Although Wake is officially called an island in the singular form, it is actually an atoll comprising three islands and a
reef surrounding a central lagoon:
Referring to the atoll as an island is the result of a pre-World War II desire by the United States Navy to distinguish
Wake from other atolls, most of which were Japanese territory.Wikipedia:Citation needed

Wake Island

Climate
Wake Island lies in the tropical zone, but it is subject to periodic temperate storms during the winter. Sea surface
temperatures are warm all year long, reaching above 80F (27C) in summer and autumn. Typhoons occasionally
pass over the island.
Typhoons
On September 16, 1967, at 10:40 pm local time, the eye of Typhoon Sarah passed over the island. Sustained winds in
the eyewall were 130 knots (241km/h), from the north before the eye, and from the south afterward. All
non-reinforced structures were demolished. There were no serious injuries, and the majority of the civilian
population was evacuated after the storm.
On August 28, 2006, the United States Air Force evacuated all 188 residents and suspended all operations as
category 5 Super Typhoon Ioke headed toward Wake. By August 31, the southwestern eyewall of the storm passed
over the island, with winds well over 185 miles per hour (298km/h), driving a 20ft (6m) storm surge and waves
directly into the lagoon inflicting major damage.[3] A US Air Force assessment and repair team returned to the island
in September 2006 and restored limited function to the airfield and facilities leading ultimately to a full return to
normal operations.

History
Pre-European discovery
Indigenous Marshallese oral tradition suggests that before European
exploration, nearby Marshall Islanders traveled to what is now Wake
Island, which the travelers called Enen-kio (Marshallese new
orthography: nen-kio, [nn(e)-ii]) after a small orange
shrub-flower said to have been found on the atoll. In the ancient
Marshallese religion, rituals surrounding the tattooing of tribal chiefs,
called Iroijlaplap, were done using fresh human bones, which required
a human sacrifice. A man could save himself from being sacrificed if
he obtained a wing bone from a very large seabird said to have existed
Wake Island's main lagoon
on Enen-kio. Small groups would brave traveling to the atoll in hopes
of obtaining this bone, saving the life of the potential human
sacrifice.[4][5] No evidence exists to suggest there was ever a permanent settlement by Marshall Islanders on Wake
Island.
Based upon oral tradition,[6] along with concepts of first-usage land rights commonly held in Micronesian cultures as
legitimate for settling indigenous land disputes,[7][8] a group of Marshall Island descendants formed the Kingdom of
EnenKio to claim ownership of Wake Island. The Marshall Islands and U.S. governments, who have competing
claims to the island, vigorously deny this.

191

Wake Island

192

European and American discovery and exploration

On October 20, 1568, lvaro de Mendaa, a Spanish explorer with two
ships, Los Reyes and Todos los Santos, discovered "a low barren
island, judged to be eight leagues in circumference", to which he gave
the name of "San Francisco".[9][10][11] The island was eventually
named for Captain William Wake, master of the British trading
schooner, Prince William Henry, who visited in 1796.
Wake Island as depicted by the United States
Exploring Expedition, drawn by Alfred Thomas
Agate

Jeremiah N. Reynolds' 1828 report to the US House of Representatives

describes Capt. Edward Gardner's discovery of a 25-mile (40km) long
island situated at 1915' N, 16632' E, with a reef at the eastern edge
when he was captain of the HMS Bellona in 1823. The island was "covered with wood, having a very green and rural
appearance" and, Reynolds concluded, was probably Wake Island. It was placed on charts by John Arrowsmith.
On December 20, 1840, the United States Exploring Expedition, commanded by Commodore Charles Wilkes of the
U.S. Navy, landed on Wake and surveyed the island. Wilkes described the atoll as "a low coral one, of triangular
form and eight feet above the surface. It has a large lagoon in the centre, which was well filled with fish of a variety
of species among these were some fine mullet." He also noted that Wake had no fresh water but was covered with
shrubs, "the most abundant of which was the tournefortia." The expedition's naturalist, Titian Peale, collected many
new specimens, including an egg from a short-tailed albatross and various marine life specimens.Wikipedia:Citation
needed

Wreck of the Libelle

Wake Island first received international attention with the wreck of the barque Libelle. On the night of March 4,
1866, the 650 ton Libelle, of Bremen, Germany, struck the eastern reef of Wake Island during a gale. Commanded
by Captain Tobias, the ship was en route from San Francisco to Hong Kong. Among its passengers were the
English-born opera singer Anna Bishop (this occurred on the first leg of a world tour), her second husband Martin
Schultz (a New York diamond merchant), and three other members of an English opera troupe.Wikipedia:Citation
needed
After 21 days on Wake, the 30 stranded passengers and crewmen sailed in a longboat and the gig for the then
Spanish island of Guam. The longboat, containing the opera troupe, Schultz and other passengers, reached Guam on
April 8. Unfortunately, the gig, commanded by the captain, was lost at sea. Captain Tobias had buried valuable cargo
on Wake, including 1,000 flasks (34,500kg) of mercury, as well as coins and precious stones worth about
US$150,000. At least five ships conducted salvage operations for its recovery. The plight of the Libelle's passengers
and the buried cargo was reported by newspapers around the world.Wikipedia:Citation needed

American possession
Brigadier General Francis Greene stopped at Wake in 1898 and raised
the American flag while en route to the Philippines during the
SpanishAmerican War. On January 17, 1899 Commander Taussig of
the U.S. Navy landed on Wake and took possession of the island for
the United States as a planned telegraph cable station.
In 1935, Pan American Airways constructed a small village,
nicknamed "PAAville", to service flights on its U.S.China route. The
village was the first human settlement on the island, and relied upon

Flag of Wake Island

Wake Island

193

the U.S. mainland for much of its food and water supplies. However, Wake Island is credited as being one of the
early successes of hydroponics, which enabled Pan American Airways to grow vegetables for its passengers, as it
was prohibitively expensive to airlift in fresh vegetables and the island lacked natural soil.
A major air and naval base was built in 1940-41.
PAAville remained in operation up to the day of the first Japanese air raid in World War II (see below).

Military buildup
In January 1941, the United States Navy constructed a military base on the atoll. On August 19, the first permanent
military garrison, elements of the 1st Marine Defense Battalion, totaling 449 officers and men, were stationed on the
island, commanded by Navy Commander Winfield Scott Cunningham. Also on the island were 68 U.S. Naval
personnel and about 1,221 civilian workers from the U.S. firm Morrison-Knudsen Corporation.
They were armed with six used 5inch/51 cal (127mm) cannons, removed from a scrapped battleship; twelve
3inch/50 cal (76.2mm) M3 anti-aircraft guns (with only a single working anti-aircraft director among them);
eighteen Browning M2 .50 caliber heavy machine guns; and thirty heavy, medium, and light, water or air-cooled
Browning M1917 .30 caliber machine guns in various conditions but all operational.

World War II
Wake Island
U.S. National Register of Historic Places
U.S. National Historic Landmark

The formal surrender of the Japanese garrison on Wake Island September 7, 1945. Shigematsu Sakaibara is the Japanese officer
in the right-foreground.
Location

Pacific Ocean

Governing body

U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Insular Affairs

NRHPReference#

85002726
Significant dates

Added to NRHP

September 16, 1985

DesignatedNHL

September 16, 1985

Wake Island

194

Battle of Wake Island

Main article: Battle of Wake Island
On December 8, 1941, the day of the Attack on Pearl Harbor (December 7 in Hawaii, which is on the other side of
the International Date Line), at least 27 Japanese Mitsubishi G3M medium "Nell" bombers flown from bases on
Kwajalein in the Marshall Islands attacked Wake Island, destroying eight of the 12 F4F Wildcat fighter aircraft
belonging to United States Marine Corps Fighter Squadron 211 (VMF-211) on the ground. The Marine garrison's
defensive emplacements were left intact by the raid, which primarily targeted the aircraft.
The garrison supplemented by civilian construction workers employed by Morrison-Knudsen Corporation
repelled several Japanese landing attempts. An American journalist reported that after the initial Japanese
amphibious assault was beaten back with heavy losses on December 11, the American commander was asked by his
superiors if he needed anything. The commander sent back the message, "Send us more Japs!" a reply which
became a popular legend. However, when Major James Devereux, USMC, learned after the war that he was credited
with that message, he pointed out that contrary to reports he was not the commander on Wake Island and denied
sending that message. "As far as I know, it wasn't sent at all. None of us was that much of a damn fool. We already
had more Japs than we could handle."
In reality, Commander Winfield S. Cunningham, USN, was in overall charge of Wake Island, not Devereux.
Cunningham ordered that coded messages be sent during operations, and a junior officer had added "send us" and
"more Japs" to the beginning and end of a message to confuse Japanese code breakers. This was put together at Pearl
Harbor and passed on as part of the message. Cunningham and Deveraux both wrote books about the battle and their
Japanese imprisonment ordeal.
The US Navy attempted to provide support from Hawaii, but had suffered great losses at Pearl Harbor. The relief
fleet they managed to organize was delayed by bad weather. The isolated U.S. garrison was overwhelmed by a
reinforced and greatly superior Japanese invasion force on December 23. American casualties numbered 52 military
personnel (Navy and Marine) and approximately 70 civilians killed. Japanese losses exceeded 700 dead, with some
estimates ranging as high as 1,000. Wake's defenders sank two Japanese destroyers and one submarine, and shot
down 24 Japanese aircraft. The relief fleet, enroute, on hearing of the island's loss, turned back.
In the aftermath of the battle, most of the captured civilians and military personnel were sent to POW camps in Asia,
though some of the civilian laborers were enslaved by the Japanese and tasked with improving the island's defenses.
Captain Henry T. Elrod, USMC, one of the pilots from VMF-211, was awarded the Medal of Honor posthumously
for shooting down two Japanese Zero fighters, sinking a destroyer and later fighting on foot, when his plane was
destroyed, to defend the island. Many of his comrades were also highly decorated for their part in the fighting. The
Wake Island Device was created for American veterans of the battle to wear on their Navy or Marine Corps
Expeditionary Medals.
Japanese occupation and surrender
The island's Japanese garrison was composed of the IJN 65th Guard
Unit (2,000 men), Japan Navy Captain Shigematsu Sakaibara and the
IJA units which became 13th Independent Mixed Regiment (1,939
men) under command of Colonel Shigeji Chikamori. The
Japanese-occupied island (called by them Otori-Shima ( ) or
"Big Bird Island" for its birdlike shape) was bombed several times by
American aircraft; one of these raids was the first mission for future
United States President George H. W. Bush.
The 98 rock

Wake Island

After a successful American air raid on October 5, 1943, Sakaibara ordered the
execution of all of the 98 captured Americans who remained on the island. They
were taken to the northern end of the island, blindfolded, and machine-gunned.
One prisoner escaped, carving the message "98 US PW 5-10-43" on a large coral
rock near where the victims had been hastily buried in a mass grave. This
unknown American was soon recaptured and beheaded. Sakaibara and his
subordinate, Lieutenant Commander Tachibana, were later sentenced to death
after conviction for this and other war crimes. Tachibana's sentence was later
commuted to life in prison. Shigematsu Sakaibara was executed on June 18, 1947
on Guam. The remains of the murdered civilians were exhumed and reburied at
the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific in section G.
U.S. Civilian POWs Memorial
On September 4, 1945, the Japanese garrison surrendered to a detachment of
United States Marines. The handover of Wake was conducted in a brief
ceremony. After the war, a speckled granite memorial stone inscribed with the words, "The 98 Rock / Inscribed by
an unknown P.O.W.," was attached to the The 98 Rock. A bronze plaque nearby lists the names of the 98.

The hard conditions for the Japanese garrison during the late part of the war led to the extinction of the Wake Island
Rail

Postwar
On October 15, 1950 U.S. President Harry S. Truman and General
Douglas MacArthur met on Wake Island (Wake Island Conference) to
confer about the progress of the Korean War. They chose to meet at
Wake Island because of its closer proximity to Korea so that General
MacArthur would not have to be away from the troops in the field for
long.
Subsequently the island was used for strategic defense and operations
President Harry S. Truman reads citation to
during the Cold War. In 1952 or 1953, a young Kris Kristofferson
General Douglas MacArthur following their
meeting at Wake Island. In the background are
worked for a dredging contractor on the island.[12] It was administered
from
left: Press Secretary Charles Griffith Ross,
by the United States Army Space and Missile Defense Command
Commander in Chief Pacific Admiral Arthur
(formerly known as the United States Army Space and Strategic
Radford, Secretary of the Army Frank Pace, and
Defense Command). Since 1974, Wake Island has served as a launch
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs General Omar
Bradley. October 15, 1950.
platform for military rockets involved in testing anti-missile systems
and atmospheric re-entry trials. Launches take place from 191724N
1663705E [13]. In conjunction with the aerospace use, the island's airstrip, Wake Island Airfield, has been used by
the U.S. military and some commercial cargo planes, as well as for emergency landings. There are over 700 landings
of all types a year on the island. There are also two offshore anchorages for large ships.
From late April until the middle of August 1975, Wake Island was used as a refugee camp for more than 8,000
Vietnamese refugees who fled their homeland after the fall of Saigon ended the Vietnam War with a communist
victory.
The island remains a strategic location in the North Pacific Ocean and serves as an emergency landing location for
twin-engined ETOPS commercial transpacific flights passing overhead.[14] Some World War II facilities and
wreckage remain on the island.

195

Wake Island

Protected statuses
On September 16, 1985, the World War IIrelated resources on Peale, Wilkes, and Wake Islands were designated a
National Historic Landmark. Preserving the remains of World War II items from the Battle of Wake Island was the
goal of the designation. It is thereby also listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
On January 16, 2009, Secretary of the Interior Dirk Kempthorne created Wake Island National Wildlife Refuge in
consultation with the Air Force. The refuge covers a total of 495,515 acres (2,005.28km2), nearly all of which is
submerged lands within 12 nautical miles (22km) of the island. Under the refuge a rare grass species, Lepturus
gasparricensis, is protected and the black footed and laysan albatrosses have been reintroduced. However, the one
species endemic to Wake Island, the Wake Island Rail, became extinct between 1942 and 1945 as a result of hunting
for food by the large contingent of occupying Japanese troops. On January 6, 2009, President George W. Bush
included the atoll as a part of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument.

Territorial claim by the Marshall Islands

The territorial claim by the Republic of the Marshall Islands on Wake Atoll leaves some ambiguity regarding the
actual or hypothetical role of the U.S. military, responsible under agreement for the defense of Marshallese territory
in the event of any strategic crisis or hostilities involving Wake. A small separatist group is known as the Kingdom
of EnenKio also claims the island. However, the atoll was formally annexed by the United States at the end of the
19th century and is administered by the U.S. Department of the Interior's Office of Insular Affairs.

Popular cultural references

Wake Island is a recurring map in the Battlefield first-person shooter series. It appears in Battlefield 1942, Battlefield
2, Battlefield 2142, Battlefield Heroes, Battlefield 1943 and Battlefield 3, as a principal game map. It also appears in
the game War Thunder.
In the 1999 PC Game System Shock 2, Wake Island Station is a space station used by futuristic Marines.
The Hollywood movie, Wake Island, 1942, starring Brian Donlevy, Robert Preston and Macdonald Carey, tells the
story of the U.S. fight to hold the island from invading Japanese at the beginning of the Second World War.[15]
The Battle of Wake Island is also mentioned in Pulp Fiction, as the place where the grandfather of Butch Coolidge
fought and died.
It has been made into a 'Workshop' map in the game 'Company of Heroes 2', this is playable online and in skirmish
mode.

Notes
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]

http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Wake_Island& params=19_18_N_166_38_E_type:isle_region:UM-79

Coastline for Wake Islet: ; Coastline for Wake Atoll:
'Monster' Typhoon Ioke Makes Direct Hit on Wake Island (http:/ / www. voanews. com/ english/ 2006-08-31-voa11. cfm)
Tons of Books Online (http:/ / www. enenkio. org/ adobe/ Kio_Island. pdf)
http:/ / www. angelfire. com/ nv/ micronations/ images/ marshall2b. jpg
EnenKio Introduction (http:/ / www. enenkio. org/ intro. htm#reference1)
Land disputes (http:/ / www. forumsec. org. fj/ division/ DEPD/ Economic_ Issues/ Land Issues in the Pacific. pdf#search="land disputes first
usage micronesia")
[8] http:/ / www. austlii. edu. au/ au/ other/ alrc/ publications/ reform/ reform80/ 07. rtf
[9] Sharp, Andrew The discovery of the Pacific Islands Oxford, 1960, p.47.
[10] Brand, Donald D. The Pacific Basin: A History of its Geographical Explorations The American Geographical Society, New York, 1967,
p.133.
[11] Kelly, Celsus, O.F.M. La Austrialia del Espiritu Santo. The Journal of Fray Martn de Munilla O.F.M. and other documents relating to the
Voyage of Pedro Fernndez de Quirs to the South Sea (1605-1606) and the Franciscan Missionary Plan (1617-1627) Cambridge, 1966,
p.110.

196

Wake Island
[12] interview on Hawaii Public Radio, June 2, 2011
[13] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Wake_Island&
params=19_17_24_N_166_37_05_E_type:landmark_region:UM-79
[14] https:/ / airports-gis. faa. gov/ airportsgis/ airportLookup/ index. jsp?category=etops
[15] Leonard Maltin, Leonard Maltins 2007 Movie Guide, New York, The New American Library, 2007, p. 1441.

References
Drechsler, Bernd; Begerow, Thomas; Pawlik, Peter-Michael (2007). Den Tod vor Augen : die unglckliche Reise
der Bremer Bark Libelle in den Jahren 1864 bis 1866 (in German). Bremen: Hauschild.
ISBN978-3-89757-333-8.
Heine, Dwight; Anderson, Jon A. (1971). "Enen-kio: Island of the Kio Flower". Micronesian Reporter 14 (4):
3437. ISSN 0026-2781 (http://www.worldcat.org/issn/0026-2781).
L, Klemen (19992000). "Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 19411942" (http://www.
dutcheastindies.webs.com/index.html).
Sloan, Bill (2003). Given Up for Dead: America's Heroic Stand at Wake Island. New York: Bantam Books.
ISBN0-553-58567-3.
Urwin, Gregory J. W. (2002) [1997]. Facing Fearful Odds: The Siege of Wake Island. Lincoln: University of
Nebraska Press. ISBN0-8032-9562-6.

Further reading
Further information: Bibliography of Wake Island

External links
Current Weather, Wake Island (http://weather.noaa.gov/weather/current/PWAK.html)
AirNav Wake Island Airfield (http://www.airnav.com/airport/PWAK) Airport details, facilities and
navigational aids
Rocket launches at Wake Island (http://www.astronautix.com/sites/waksland.htm)
The Defense of Wake (http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USMC/USMC-M-Wake.html) United States
Marine Corps historical monograph
Surrender of Wake by the Japanese (http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USMC/Wake/USMC-M-Wake-VI.
html) Marines in World War II
U.S. Army Strategic and Missile Defense Command (http://www.smdc.army.mil/KWAJ/logistics/wake.
html) Logistics, flight schedules, facilities
Photographic history of the 1975 Vietnamese refugee camp on Wake Island (http://www.wakeisland1975.com)

Wake Island travel guide from Wikivoyage

Wake Island (http://www.pacificwrecks.com/provinces/wake.html) Pacific Wreck Database
Wake Island (1942) (http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0035530/) at the Internet Movie Database
Wake Island: Alamo of the Pacific (2003) (http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0372021/) at the Internet Movie
Database

197

Polynesia

198

Polynesia
This article is about the wider region in the Pacific. For the French collectivity, see French Polynesia. For other uses,
see Polynesian (disambiguation).
Polynesia (from Greek: "poly" many
+ Greek: "nsos" island) is a
subregion of Oceania, made up of over
1,000 islands scattered over the central and
southern Pacific Ocean. The indigenous
people who inhabit the islands of Polynesia
are termed Polynesians and they share many
similar traits including language, culture and
beliefs. Historically, they were experienced
sailors and used stars to navigate during the
night.
The term "Polynesia" was first used in 1756
by French writer Charles de Brosses, and
originally applied to all the islands of the
Pacific. In 1831, Jules Dumont d'Urville
proposed a restriction on its use during a
lecture to the Geographical Society of Paris.

Polynesia is the largest of three major cultural areas in the Pacific Ocean. Polynesia
is generally defined as the islands within the Polynesian triangle.

Geography
Geology
Polynesia is characterized by a small
amount of land spread over a very large
portion of the mid and southern Pacific
Ocean. Most Polynesian islands and
archipelagos, including the Hawaiian islands
and Samoa, are composed of volcanic
islands built by hotspots. New Zealand,
Norfolk Island, and Ouva, the Polynesian
outlier near New Caledonia, are the
unsubmerged portions of the largely sunken
continent of Zealandia. Zealandia is
believed to have mostly sunk by 23 mya and
Geographic definition of Polynesia
resurfaced geologically recently due to a
change in the movements of the Pacific Plate in relation to the Indo-Australian plate, which served to uplift the New
Zealand portion. At first, the Pacific plate was subducted under the Australian plate. The Alpine Fault that traverses
the South Island is currently a transform fault while the convergent plate boundary from the North Island northwards
is a subduction zone called the Kermadec-Tonga Subduction Zone. The volcanism associated with this subduction
zone is the origin of the Kermadec and Tongan island archipelagos.

Polynesia

199

Out of about 117,000 or 118,000 square miles of land, over 103,000 square miles are within New Zealand; the
Hawaiian archipelago comprises about half the remainder. The Zealandia continent has approximately 1.4 million
square miles of continental shelf. The oldest rocks in the region are found in New Zealand and are believed to be
about 510 million years old. The oldest Polynesian rocks outside of Zealandia are to be found in the Hawaiian
Emperor Seamount Chain, and are 80 million years old.

Geographic area
Polynesia is generally defined as the islands within the Polynesian Triangle, although there are some islands that are
inhabited by Polynesian people situated outside the Polynesian Triangle. Geographically, the Polynesian Triangle is
drawn by connecting the points of Hawaii, New Zealand and Easter Island. The other main island groups located
within the Polynesian Triangle are Samoa, Tonga, the Cook Islands, Tuvalu, Tokelau, Niue, Wallis and Futuna and
French Polynesia.
There are also small Polynesian settlements in Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, the Caroline Islands, and in
Vanuatu. An island group with strong Polynesian cultural traits outside of this great triangle is Rotuma, situated
north of Fiji. The people of Rotuma have many common Polynesian traits but speak a non-Polynesian language.
Some of the Lau Islands to the southeast of Fiji have strong historic and cultural links with Tonga.
However, in essence, Polynesia is a cultural term referring to one of the three parts of Oceania (the others being
Micronesia and Melanesia). DNA studies suggest that the indigenous Pacific Islands population migrated from
Taiwan thousands of years ago and dispersed throughout the region into three distinct cultural groups.

Island groups
The following are the islands and island groups, either nations or
overseas territories of former colonial powers, that are of native
Polynesian culture or where archaeological evidence indicates
Polynesian settlement in the past.[1] Some islands of Polynesian origin
are outside the general triangle that geographically defines the region.
Main Polynesia
Mokolii Isle near Oahu, Hawaii

American Samoa (territory of the United States)

Cook Islands (self-governing state in free association with New
Zealand)
Easter Island (called Rapa Nui in the Rapa Nui language, politically
part of Chile)
French Polynesia (overseas country, a collectivity of France)
Hawaii (a state of the United States)
New Zealand (independent nation)
Niue (self-governing state in free association with New Zealand)
Norfolk Island (an Australian External Territory)
Pitcairn Islands (a British Overseas Territory)
Samoa (independent nation)
Tokelau (overseas dependency of New Zealand)
Tonga (independent nation)
Tuvalu (independent nation)
Wallis and Futuna (collectivity of France)
Rotuma (Fijian dependency)

Cook's Bay on Moorea, French Polynesia

Polynesia

200

The Phoenix Islands and Line Islands, most of which are part of Kiribati, are geographically Polynesian islands, but
they had no permanent settlements until European colonization.
Polynesian outliers
In Melanesia

Anuta (in the Solomon Islands)

Bellona Island (in the Solomon Islands)
Emae (in Vanuatu)
Fiji
Mele (in Vanuatu)
Nuguria (in Papua New Guinea)
Nukumanu (in Papua New Guinea)
Ontong Java (in the Solomon Islands)
Pileni (in the Solomon Islands)
Rennell (in the Solomon Islands)
Sikaiana (in the Solomon Islands)
Takuu (in Papua New Guinea)

Tikopia (in the Solomon Islands)

The United States Minor Outlying Islands
In Micronesia
Kapingamarangi (in the Federated States of Micronesia)
Nukuoro (in the Federated States of Micronesia)
Subantarctic Islands
Auckland Islands (the most southerly known evidence of Polynesian settlement)[2][3][4][5]

History of the Polynesian people

Mainstream theories
The Polynesian people are considered by
linguistic, archaeological and human genetic
ancestry a subset of the sea-faring
Austronesian people and tracing Polynesian
languages places their prehistoric origins in
Taiwan. Those people, the natives, are
thought to have arrived through South China
about 8000 years ago. They were a different
people and linguistically unrelated to the
Han Chinese who now form the majority of
people in China and Taiwan. Taiwan,
previously inhabited mostly by these
non-Han aborigines, was Sinicized via
large-scale Han immigration accompanied
with assimilation during the 17th century.

Austronesians expansion map (French)

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201

After about 2000 BC speakers of Austronesian languages began

spreading from Taiwan into Island Southeast Asia,.
By about 1500 BC they found the western edges of Micronesia were
moving into Melanesia through a route further south by way of the
Birds Head of New Guinea.
There are three theories regarding the spread of humans across the
Pacific to Polynesia. These are outlined well by Kayser et al. (2000)
and are as follows:

Moai at Ahu Tongariki on Rapa Nui

Express Train model: A recent (c. 30001000 BC) expansion out of Taiwan, via the Philippines and eastern
Indonesia and from the northwest ("Bird's Head") of New Guinea, on to Island Melanesia by roughly 1400 BC,
reaching western Polynesian islands right about 900 BC. This theory is supported by the majority of current
human genetic data, linguistic data, and archaeological data.
Entangled Bank model: Emphasizes the long history of Austronesian speakers' cultural and genetic interactions
with indigenous Island Southeast Asians and Melanesians along the way to becoming the first Polynesians.
Slow Boat model: Similar to the express-train model but with a longer hiatus in Melanesia along with admixture,
both genetically, culturally and linguistically with the local population. This is supported by the Y-chromosome
data of Kayser et al. (2000), which shows that all three haplotypes of Polynesian Y chromosomes can be traced
back to Melanesia.
In the archaeological record there are well-defined traces of this expansion which allow the path it took to be
followed and dated with some certainty. It is thought that by roughly 1400 BC,[6] "Lapita Peoples", so-named after
their pottery tradition, appeared in the Bismarck Archipelago of northwest Melanesia. This culture is seen as having
adapted and evolved through time and space since its emergence "Out of Taiwan". They had given up rice
production, for instance, after encountering and adapting to breadfruit in the Bird's Head area of New Guinea. In the
end, the most eastern site for Lapita archaeological remains recovered so far has been through work on the
archaeology in Samoa. The site is at Mulifanua on Upolu. The Mulifanua site, where 4,288 pottery shards have been
found and studied, has a "true" age of c. 1000 BC based on C14 dating. A 2010 study places the beginning of the
human archaeological sequences of Polynesia in Tonga at 900 B.C., the small differences in dates with Samoa being
due to differences in radiocarbon dating technologies between 1989 and 2010, the Tongan site apparently predating
the Samoan site by some few decades in real time.
Within a mere three or four centuries between about 1300 and 900 BC, the Lapita archaeological culture spread
6,000km further to the east from the Bismarck Archipelago, until it reached as far as Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa which
were first populated around 3,000 years ago as mentioned previously. A cultural divide began to develop between
Fiji to the west, and the distinctive Polynesian language and culture emerging on Tonga and Samoa to the east.
Where there was once faint evidence of uniquely shared developments in Fijian and Polynesian speech, most of this
is now called "borrowing" and is thought to have occurred in those and later years more than as a result of continuing
unity of their earliest dialects on those far flung lands. Contacts were mediated especially through the eastern Lau
Islands of Fiji and this is where most Fijian-Polynesian linguistic interaction occurred.Wikipedia:Citation needed

Polynesia

Tiny populations seem to have been involved at first.

They were matrilineal and matrilocal peoples upon arrival to Fiji,
Tonga and Samoa and had been through at least some goodly portion
of their time in the Bismarck Archipelago. The modern Polynesians, in
their profound isolation from the world beyond, still show the human
genetic results of a culture, when their ancestors were still in
Melanesia, that allowed indigenous men, but not women, to "marry in"
useful evidence for matrilocality.
Matrilocality and matrilineality went by-the-bye at some early time but
Polynesians and most other Austronesian speakers in the Pacific
Islands were/are still highly "matricentric" in their traditional
Grinding stones discovered from archaeology in
jurisprudence. The Lapita pottery for which the general archaeological
Samoa
complex of the earliest "Oceanic" Austronesian speakers in the Pacific
Islands are named also went by-the-bye in Western Polynesia and
language, social life and material culture were very distinctly "Polynesian" by the time Eastern Polynesia began to be
settled after a "pause" of 1000 years or perhaps well more in Western Polynesia.
The dating of the settlement of Eastern Polynesia including Hawai'i, Easter Island, and New Zealand is not agreed
upon in every instance. Most recently a 2010 study using meta-analysis of the most reliable radiocarbon dates
available suggested that the colonization of Eastern Polynesia (including Hawaii and New Zealand) proceeded in two
short episodes: in the Society Islands from 10251120 AD and further afield from 11901290 AD, with Easter
Island being settled around 1200. Other archeological models developed in recent decades, which are challenged by
that recent set of radiocarbon dating interpretations, have pointed to dates of between 300 and 500 AD, or
alternatively 800 AD (as supported by Jared Diamond) for the settlement of Easter Island, and similarly, a date of
500 AD has been suggested for Hawaii. Linguistically, there is a very distinct "East Polynesian" subgroup with many
shared innovations not seen in other Polynesian languages. The Marquesas dialects are perhaps the source of the
oldest Hawaiian speech which is overlaid by Tahitian variety speech, as Hawaiian oral histories would suggest. The
earliest varieties of New Zealand Maori speech may have had multiple sources from around central Eastern
Polynesia as Maori oral histories would suggest.Wikipedia:Citation needed

Political history of Polynesia

Perhaps the oldest extensive political entity was that of the Samoa-based Tu'i Manu'a Confederacy, ruled by the
holders of the Tu'i Manu'a title, which may well be the oldest chieftain title in Polynesia. This confederacy likely
included much of Western Polynesia and some outliers at the height of its power in the 10th and 11th centuries; most
notably: the Samoa, Tonga, Lau Islands and perhaps the main islands of Fiji. The Tongans revolted around 1000
years ago and formed their own Tu'i Tonga empire that came to dominate Samoa, Tonga, and Fiji, with an influence
stretching from Nauru in the Northwest, to Niue in the East. The empire ruled for much of the Medieval period, until
the Samoan revolt and subsequent rise of the Malietoa dynasties in Samoa, and ended with their capitulation to the
Tongan Tu'i Ha'atakalaua dynasty in the 15th century.

202

Polynesia

203

Tonga 1500spresent
After a bloody civil war, political power in Tonga eventually fell under the Tu'i Kanokupolu dynasty in the 16th
century.
In 1845 the ambitious young warrior, strategist, and orator Tufahau united Tonga into more Western-style
kingdom. He held the chiefly title of Tui Kanokupolu, but had been baptised with the name Jiaoji ("George") in
1831. In 1875, with the help of missionary Shirley Waldemar Baker, he declared Tonga a constitutional monarchy,
formally adopted the western royal style, emancipated the "serfs", enshrined a code of law, land tenure, and freedom
of the press, and limited the power of the chiefs.
Tonga became a British-protected state under a Treaty of Friendship on 18 May 1900, when European settlers and
rival Tongan chiefs tried to oust the second king. Within the British Empire, which posted no higher permanent
representative on Tonga than a British Consul (19011970), Tonga formed part of the British Western Pacific
Territories (under a colonial High Commissioner, residing on Fiji) from 1901 until 1952. Despite being under the
protectorate, Tonga retained its monarchy without interruption.
On June 4, 1970 the Kingdom of Tonga received independence from the British protectorate.
Samoa Malietoapresent
Samoa remained under Malietoa chieftains until its East-West division by Tripartite Convention (1899) subsequent
annexation by the German Empire and the United States. The German-controlled Western portion of Samoa (the
consisting of the bulk of Samoan territory) was occupied by New Zealand in WWI, and administered by it under a
Class C League of Nations Mandate until receiving independence on January 1, 1962. The new Independent State of
Samoa was not a monarchy, though the Malietoa title-holder remained very influential. It officially ended, however
with the death of Malietoa Tanumafili II on May 11, 2007.
Tahiti
See: Pomare Dynasty
Hawaii
See: Kingdom of Hawaii
New Zealand Maori
On October 28, 1835 members of the Ng Puhi and surrounding iwi
issued a "declaration of independence", as a "confederation of tribes"
to resist potential French colonization efforts and to prevent the ships
and cargo of Maori merchants from being seized at foreign ports. They
received recognition from the British monarch in 1836. (See United
Tribes of New Zealand, New Zealand Declaration of Independence,
James Busby.)
Using the Treaty of Waitangi and right of discovery as a basis, the
United Kingdom annexed New Zealand as a part of New South Wales
in 1840.

Outrigger canoes at Waikiki beach, late 1800s

In response to the actions of the colonial government, Maori looked to form monarchy inclusive of all Maori tribes
in order to reduce vulnerability to the British divide-and-conquer strategy. Ptatau Te Wherowhero high priest and
chief of the Ngti Mahuta tribe of the Waikato iwi was crowned as the Maori king in 1858. The king's territory
consisted primarily of the lands in the center of the North Island, and the iwi constituted from the most powerful
non-signatories of the Treaty of Waitangi, with Te Wherowhero also never having signed it. (See Kingitanga.)

Polynesia

204

All tribes were pressed into subjection to the colonial government by the late 19th century. Although Maori were
given the privilege of being legally enfranchised subjects of the British Empire under the Treaty, Maori culture and
language were actively suppressed by the colonial government and by economic and social pressures from the
Pakeha society until efforts were made to preserve indigenous culture starting in the late 1950s and culminating in
the Waitangi Tribunal's interpretation of language and culture being included in the treasures set to be preserved
under the Treaty of Waitangi. Moving from a low point of 15,000 speakers in the 1970s, there are now over 157,000
people who have some proficiency in the standard Mori language according to the 2006 census[7] in New Zealand,
due in large part to government recognition and promotion of the language.
Maori are very much integrated into New Zealand society, and many are of mixed Maori and European, Asian, or
Pacific Islander heritage. The New Zealand Defence forces are over half Maori, and the New Zealand Special Forces
are 2/3 Maori. Jerry Mateparae, the former chief of the armed forces, now serves as Governor-General of New
Zealand. However, despite major achievements towards equality, Maori are still under-represented in many fields.
Fiji
(See: History of Fiji, Seru Epenisa Cakobau, Fiji during the time of Cakobau.)
The Lau islands had after the Tu'i Mana'u dynasty were subject to periods of Tongan and then Fijian control until
their eventual conquest by Seru Epenisa Cakobau of the Kingdom of Fiji by 1871. In around 1855 a Tongan prince,
Enele Ma'afu, proclaimed the Lau islands as his kingdom, and took the title Tui Lau.
Fiji itself had been ruled by numerous divided chieftains until Cakobau unified the landmass. The Lapita culture, the
ancestors of the Polynesians, existed in Fiji from 3500 BCE until they were displaced by the Melanesians about a
thousand years later. (Interestingly, Samoans and subsequent Polynesian cultures adopted Melanesian face painting
methods.)
In 1873, Cakobau ceded a Fiji heavily indebted to foreign creditors to the United Kingdom. It became independent
on 10 October 1970 and a republic on 28 September 1987.
Cook Islands
See: Kingdom of Rarotonga.
Tuvalu
See: History of Tuvalu.
The reef islands and atolls of Tuvalu are identified as being part of West
Polynesia. The pattern of settlement that is believed to have occurred is that the
Polynesians spread out from the Samoan Islands into the Tuvaluan atolls, with
Tuvalu providing a stepping stone to migration into the Polynesian Outlier
communities in Melanesia and Micronesia.
The stories as to the ancestors of the Tuvaluans vary from island to island. On
Niutao, Funafuti and Vaitupu the founding ancestor is described as being from
Samoa; whereas on Nanumea the founding ancestor is described as being from
Tonga. These stories can be linked to what is known about the Samoa-based Tu'i
Manu'a Confederacy, ruled by the holders of the Tu'i Manu'a title, which
confederacy likely included much of Western Polynesia and some outliers at the
height of its power in the 10th and 11th centuries.
The extent of influence of the Tui Tonga line of Tongan kings, which originated
in the 10th century is understood to have extended to some of the islands of

Canoe carving on Nanumea atoll,

Tuvalu

Polynesia

205

Tuvalu in the mid-13th century. However the existence of the Tui Tonga Empire is disputed.
The history of Niutao recalls that in the 15th century Tongan warriors were defeated in a battle on the reef of Niutao,
Tongan warriors also invaded Niutao later in the 15th century and again were repelled. A third and fourth Tongan
invasion of Niutao occurred in the late 16th century, again with the Tongans being defeated.
Fishing was the primary source of protein, with the cuisine of Tuvalu reflecting the food that could be grown on
low-lying atolls. Navigation between the islands of Tuvalu was carried out using outrigger canoes. The population
levels of the low-lying islands of Tuvalu had to be managed because of the effects of periodic droughts and the risk
of severe famine if the gardens were poisoned by the salt from the storm-surge of a tropical cyclone.

Polynesian links to the Americas

See also: Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact Possible Polynesian trans-oceanic contact
The sweet potato, called kmara in Mori, which is native to the Americas, was widespread in Polynesia when
Europeans first reached the Pacific. Remains of the plant have been radiocarbon-dated in the Cook Islands to 1000
AD, and current thinking is that it was brought to central Polynesia circa 700 AD and spread across Polynesia from
there, possibly by Polynesians who had traveled to South America and back.
Thor Heyerdahl proposed in the mid-20th century that the Polynesians had migrated from South America on
balsa-log boats.[8][9] Many anthropologists have criticised Heyerdahl's theory, including Wade Davis in his book The
Wayfinders. Davis says that Heyerdahl "ignored the overwhelming body of linguistic, ethnographic, and
ethnobotanical evidence, augmented today by genetic and archaeological data, indicating that he was patently
wrong."[10]

Cultures of Polynesia
Main article: Polynesian culture
Polynesia divides into two distinct cultural groups, East Polynesia and
West Polynesia. The culture of West Polynesia is conditioned to high
populations. It has strong institutions of marriage and well-developed
judicial, monetary and trading traditions. It comprises the groups of
Tonga, Niue, Samoa and extended to the atolls of Tuvalu to the north.
The pattern of settlement that is believed to have occurred is that the
Polynesians spread out from the Samoan Islands into the Tuvaluan
atolls, with Tuvalu providing a stepping stone to migration into the
Polynesian Outlier communities in Melanesia and Micronesia.
Painting of Tahitian Women on the Beach by
Paul GauguinMuse d'Orsay

Eastern Polynesian cultures are highly adapted to smaller islands and

atolls, principally the Cook Islands, Tahiti, the Tuamotus, the
Marquesas, Hawaii, Rapa Nui and smaller central-pacific groups. The large islands of New Zealand were first settled
by Eastern Polynesians who adapted their culture to a non-tropical environment.
Unlike in Melanesia, leaders were chosen in Polynesia based on their hereditary bloodline. Samoa however, had
another system of government that combines elements of heredity and real-world skills to choose leaders. This
system is called Fa'amatai.[11] According to Ben R. Finney and Eric M. Jones, "On Tahiti, for example, the 35,000
Polynesians living there at the time of European discovery were divided between high-status persons with full access
to food and other resources, and low-status persons with limited access."

Polynesia

206
Religion, farming, fishing, weather prediction, out-rigger canoe (similar to
modern catamarans) construction and navigation were highly developed skills
because the population of an entire island depended on them. Trading of both
luxuries and mundane items was important to all groups. Periodic droughts and
subsequent famines often led to war.[] Many low-lying islands could suffer
severe famine if their gardens were poisoned by the salt from the storm-surge of
a tropical cyclone. In these cases fishing, the primary source of protein, would
not ease loss of food energy. Navigators, in particular, were highly respected and
each island maintained a house of navigation with a canoe-building area.

Settlements by the Polynesians were of two categories: the hamlet and the
village. Size of the island inhabited determined whether or a not a hamlet would
be built. The larger volcanic islands usually had hamlets because of the many
zones that could be divided across the island. Food and resources were more
Carving from the ridgepole of a
plentiful and so these settlements of four to five houses (usually with gardens)
Mori house, ca 1840
were established so that there would be no overlap between the zones. Villages,
on the other hand, were built on the coasts of smaller islands and consisted of
thirty or more housesin the case of atolls, on only one of the group so that food cultivation was on the others.
Usually these villages were fortified with walls and palisades made of stone and wood.[12]
However, New Zealand demonstrates the opposite: large volcanic islands with fortified villages.
As well as being great navigators these people were artists and artisans of great skill. Simple objects, such as
fish-hooks would be manufactured to exacting standards for different catches and decorated even when the
decoration was not part of the function. Stone and wooden weapons were considered to be more powerful the better
they were made and decorated. In some island groups weaving was a strong part of the culture and gifting woven
articles an ingrained practice. Dwellings were imbued with character by the skill of their building. Body decoration
and jewellery is of international standard to this day.
The religious attributes of Polynesians were common over the whole Pacific region. While there are some
differences in their spoken languages they largely have the same explanation for the creation of the earth and sky, for
the gods that rule aspects of life and for the religious practices of everyday life. People travelled thousands of miles
to celebrations that they all owned communally.
Beginning in the 1820s large numbers of missionaries worked in the islands, converting many groups to Christianity.
Polynesia, argues Ian Breward, is now "one of the most strongly Christian regions in the world....Christianity was
rapidly and successfully incorporated into Polynesian culture. War and slavery disappeared."[13]

Polynesian languages
Main article: Polynesian languages
Polynesian languages are all members of the family of Oceanic languages, a sub-branch of the Austronesian
language family. Polynesian languages show a considerable degree of similarity. The vowels are generally the
samea, e, i, o, and u, pronounced as in Italian, Spanish, and Germanand the consonants are always followed by
a vowel. The languages of various island groups show changes in consonants. R and v are used in central and eastern
Polynesia whereas l and v are used in western Polynesia. The glottal stop is increasingly represented by an inverted
comma or 'okina. In the Society Islands, the original Proto-Polynesian *k and *ng have merged as glottal stop; so the
name for the ancestral homeland, deriving from Proto-Nuclear Polynesian *sawaiki, becomes Havai'i. In New
Zealand, where the original *w is used instead of v, the ancient home is Hawaiki. In the Cook Islands, where the
glottal stop replaces the original *s (with a likely intermediate stage of *h), it is Avaiki. In the Hawaiian islands,
where the glottal stop replaces the original k, the largest island of the group is named Hawaii. In Samoa, where the

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207

original s is used instead of h, v replaces w, and the glottal stop replaces the original k, the largest island is called
Savai'i.

Economy
With the exception of New Zealand, the majority of independent Polynesian islands derive much of their income
from foreign aid and remittances from those who live in other countries. Some encourage their young people to go
where they can earn good money to remit to their stay-at-home relatives. Many Polynesian locations, such as Easter
Island, supplement this with tourism income. Some have more unusual sources of income, such as Tuvalu which
marketed its '.tv' internet top-level domain name or the Cooks that relied on stamp sales.

Political union
After several years of discussing a potential regional grouping, three
sovereign states (Samoa, Tonga and Tuvalu) and five self-governing
but non-sovereign territories formally launched, in November 2011,
the Polynesian Leaders Group, intended to cooperate on a variety of
issues including culture and language, education, responses to climate
change, and trade and investment. It does not, however, constitute a
political or monetary union.[14][15][16]

Polynesian navigation

Tuilaepa Sailele Malielegaoi, Prime Minister of

Samoa, who initiated the Polynesian Leaders
Group in late 2011.

Main article: Polynesian navigation

Polynesia comprised islands diffused throughout a triangular area with sides of four thousand miles. The area from
the Hawaiian Islands in the north, to Easter Island in the east and to New Zealand in the south were all settled by
Polynesians.
Navigators traveled to small inhabited islands using only their own senses and knowledge passed by oral tradition
from navigator to apprentice. In order to locate directions at various times of day and year, navigators in Eastern
Polynesia memorized important facts: the motion of specific stars, and where they would rise on the horizon of the
ocean; weather; times of travel; wildlife species (which congregate at particular positions); directions of swells on
the ocean, and how the crew would feel their motion; colors of the sea and sky, especially how clouds would cluster
at the locations of some islands; and angles for approaching harbors.
These wayfinding techniques, along with outrigger canoe construction
methods, were kept as guild secrets. Generally each island maintained
a guild of navigators who had very high status; in times of famine or
difficulty these navigators could trade for aid or evacuate people to
neighboring islands. On his first voyage of Pacific exploration Cook
had the services of a Polynesian navigator, Tupaia, who drew a
hand-drawn Chart of the islands within 2,000 miles (3,200km) radius
(to the north and west) of his home island of Ra'iatea. Tupaia had
Polynesian (Hawaiian) navigators sailing
knowledge of 130 islands and named 74 on his Chart. Tupaia had
multi-hulled canoe, ca 1781.
navigated from Ra'iatea in short voyages to 13 islands. He had not
visited western Polynesia, as since his grandfathers time the extent of voyaging by Raiateans has diminished to the
islands
of
eastern

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208

Polynesia. His grandfather and father had passed to Tupaia the

knowledge as to the location of the major islands of western Polynesia
and the navigation information necessary to voyage to Fiji, Samoa and
Tonga. As the Admiralty orders directed Cook to search for the Great
Southern Continent, Cook ignored Tupaias Chart and his skills as a
navigator. To this day, original traditional methods of Polynesian
Navigation are still taught in the Polynesian outlier of Taumako Island
in the Solomon Islands.
From a single chicken bone recovered from the archaeological site of
A common fishing canoe va'a with outrigger in
El Arenal-1, on the Arauco Peninsula, Chile, a 2007 research report
Savai'i island, Samoa, 2009.
looking at radiocarbon dating and an ancient DNA sequence indicate
that Polynesian navigators may have reached the Americas at least 100 years before Columbus (who arrived 1492
AD), introducing chickens to South America. A later report looking at the same specimens concluded:
A published, apparently pre-Columbian, Chilean specimen and six pre-European Polynesian specimens
also cluster with the same European/Indian subcontinental/Southeast Asian sequences, providing no
support for a Polynesian introduction of chickens to South America. In contrast, sequences from two
archaeological sites on Easter Island group with an uncommon haplogroup from Indonesia, Japan, and
China and may represent a genetic signature of an early Polynesian dispersal. Modeling of the potential
marine carbon contribution to the Chilean archaeological specimen casts further doubt on claims for
pre-Columbian chickens, and definitive proof will require further analyses of ancient DNA sequences
and radiocarbon and stable isotope data from archaeological excavations within both Chile and
Polynesia.
Knowledge of the traditional Polynesian methods of navigation were largely lost after contact with and colonization
by Europeans. This left the problem of accounting for the presence of the Polynesians in such isolated and scattered
parts of the Pacific. By the late 19th century to the early 20th century a more generous view of Polynesian navigation
had come into favor, perhaps creating a romantic picture of their canoes, seamanship and navigational expertise.
In the mid to late 1960s, scholars began testing sailing and paddling experiments related to Polynesian navigation:
David Lewis sailed his catamaran from Tahiti to New Zealand using stellar navigation without instruments and Ben
Finney built a 40-foot replica of a Hawaiian double canoe "Nalehia" and tested it in Hawaii.[17] Meanwhile,
Micronesian ethnographic research in the Caroline Islands revealed that traditional stellar navigational methods were
still in every day use. Recent re-creations of Polynesian voyaging have used methods based largely on Micronesian
methods and the teachings of a Micronesian navigator, Mau Piailug.
It is probable that the Polynesian navigators employed a whole range of techniques including use of the stars, the
movement of ocean currents and wave patterns, the air and sea interference patterns caused by islands and atolls, the
flight of birds, the winds and the weather. Scientists think that long-distance Polynesian voyaging followed the
seasonal paths of birds. There are some references in their oral traditions to the flight of birds and some say that there
were range marks onshore pointing to distant islands in line with these flyways. One theory is that they would have
taken a frigatebird with them. These birds refuse to land on the water as their feathers will become waterlogged
making it impossible to fly. When the voyagers thought they were close to land they may have released the bird,
which would either fly towards land or else return to the canoe. It is likely that the Polynesians also used wave and
swell formations to navigate. It is thought that the Polynesian navigators may have measured the time it took to sail
between islands in "canoe-days or a similar type of expression.
Also, people of the Marshall Islands used special devices called stick charts, showing the places and directions of
swells and wave-breaks, with tiny seashells affixed to them to mark the positions of islands along the way. Materials
for these maps were readily available on beaches, and their making was simple; however, their effective use needed
years and years of study.

Polynesia

References
[1] Islands that were uninhabited at contact but which have archaeological evidence of Polynesian settlement include Norfolk Island, Pitcairn,
New Zealand's Kermadec Islands and some small islands near Hawaii.
[2] O'Connor, Tom Polynesians in the Southern Ocean: Occupation of the Auckland Islands in Prehistory in New Zealand Geographic 69
(SeptemberOctober 2004): 68)
[3] Anderson, Atholl J., & Gerard R. O'Regan To the Final Shore: Prehistoric Colonisation of the Subantarctic Islands in South Polynesia in
Australian Archaeologist: Collected Papers in Honour of Jim Allen Canberra: Australian National University, 2000. 440454.
[4] Anderson, Atholl J., & Gerard R. O'Regan The Polynesian Archaeology of the Subantarctic Islands: An Initial Report on Enderby Island
Southern Margins Project Report. Dunedin: Ngai Tahu Development Report, 1999
[5] Anderson, Atholl J. Subpolar Settlement in South Polynesia Antiquity 79.306 (2005): 791800
[6] Quoted in Kayser, M.; et al. (2006).
[7] "Mori language speakers" (http:/ / www. socialreport. msd. govt. nz/ cultural-identity/ maori-language-speakers. html), msd.govt.nz
[8] Sharp, Andrew (1963). Ancient Voyagers in Polynesia, Longman Paul Ltd. pp. 122128.
[9] Finney, Ben R. (1976) "New, Non-Armchair Research". In Ben R. Finney , Pacific Navigation and Voyaging, The Polynesian Society Inc. p.
5.
[10] Davis, Wade (2010) The Wayfinders: Why Ancient Wisdom Matters in the Modern World, Crawley: University of Western Australia
Publishing, p. 46.
[11] Peoples of the World by National Geographic
[12] Encyclopdia Britannica, 1995
[13] Ian Breward in ; quote at p 228
[14] "NZ may be invited to join proposed Polynesian Triangle ginger group" (http:/ / pacific. scoop. co. nz/ 2011/ 09/
nz-may-be-invited-to-join-proposed-polynesian-triangle-ginger-group/ ), Pacific Scoop, 19 September 2011
[15] "New Polynesian Leaders Group formed in Samoa" (http:/ / www. rnzi. com/ pages/ news. php?op=read& id=64516), Radio New Zealand
International, 18 November 2011
[16] "American Samoa joins Polynesian Leaders Group, MOU signed" (http:/ / www. samoanews. com/ viewstory. php?storyid=32376), Savali,
19 November 2011
[17] Lewis, David. "A Return Voyage Between Puluwat and Saipan Using Micronesian Navigational Techniques" (http:/ / www. jps. auckland.
ac. nz/ document/ ?wid=4479). In Ben R. Finney (1976), Pacific Navigation and Voyaging, The Polynesian Society Inc.

Further reading
Gatty, Harold (1999). Finding Your Ways Without Map or Compass. Dover Publications, Inc.
ISBN0-486-40613-X.

External links
History of Easter Island illustrated by stamps (http://www.jeanhervedaude.com/Ile de Paques histoire par les
timbres.htm)
Interview with David Lewis (http://www.abc.net.au/gnt/history/Transcripts/s1066068.htm)
Lewis commenting on Spirits of the Voyage (http://www.tritonfilms.com/lewisreview.htm)
PhotogalleryFrench Polynesia (Tahiti, Moorea, Motu Tiahura) (http://www.tropic-island.net/gallery/album.
php?id_album=12)
Useful introduction to Maori society, including canoe voyages (http://www.maori.info/)
Obituary: David Henry Lewisincluding how he came to rediscover Pacific Ocean navigation methods (http://
www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/11/15/1037080913844.html)

209

American Samoa

210

American Samoa
Not to be confused with Samoa.

American Samoa
Amerika Smoa / Smoa Amelika

Flag

Seal

Motto:"Samoa, Muamua Le Atua"(Samoan)

"Samoa, Let God Be First"
Anthem:
The Star-Spangled Banner
Amerika Samoa

Capital

Pago Pago
Largest city

Official languages
Demonym
Government

Tafuna

English, Samoan

American Samoan
United States unincorporated territory

- Head of State

Barack Obama (D)

- Governor

Lolo Letalu Matalasi Moliga (I)

- Lieutenant Governor

Lemanu Peleti Mauga (D)

Legislature

Fono

- Upper house

Senate

- Lower house

House of Representatives

United States unincorporated territory

- Tripartite Convention

1899

American Samoa

211
- Deed of Cession of Tutuila

1900

- Deed of Cession of Manu'a

1904

- Annexation of Swains Island 1925

Area
[1]

- Total

199 km2 (212th)

76.80sqmi

- Water(%)

0
Population

- 2010census

55,519 (208th)

- Density

326/km2 (38th)
914/sqmi

GDP(PPP)

2007estimate

- Total

$537 million

- Per capita

$8,000

Currency

United States dollar (USD)

Time zone

Samoa Standard Time (SST) (UTC-11)

Calling code

+1 684

ISO 3166 code

AS

Internet TLD

.as

Website
[2]
www.americansamoa.gov
i
American
Samoa
(
/mrknHelp:IPA
English#Keysmo./; Samoan: Amerika Smoa, [amika
sama]; also Amelika Smoa or Smoa Amelika) is an unincorporated
territory of the United States located in the South Pacific Ocean,
southeast of Samoa.

American Samoa consists of 5 main islands and 2 coral atolls. The

largest and most populous island is Tutuila, with the Manua Islands,
Rose Atoll, and Swains Island also included in the territory. American
Samoa is part of the Samoan Islands chain, located west of the Cook
Islands, north of Tonga, and some 300 miles (500km) south of
Tokelau. To the west are the islands of the Wallis and Futuna group.
The 2010 census showed a total population of 55,519 people.[3] The
total land area is 199 square kilometres (76.8sqmi), slightly more than
Washington, D.C. American Samoa is the southernmost territory of the
US and one of two US territories (with Jarvis Island) south of the
Equator. Tuna and tuna products are the main exports, and the main
trading partner is the US.

for

Samoa Islands

Coastline of American Samoa

American Samoa

212

History
Main articles: History of Samoa and History of American Samoa

18th century: First Western contact

Contact with Europeans began in the early 18th century. Jacob
Roggeveen (16591729), a Dutchman, was the first known European
to sight the Samoan islands in 1722. This visit was followed by the
French explorer Louis-Antoine de Bougainville (17291811), who
named them the Navigator Islands in 1768. Contact was limited before
the 1830s which is when English missionaries and traders began
arriving.
Early Western contact included a battle in the eighteenth century
between French explorers and islanders in Tutuila, for which the
1896 map of the Samoa Islands.
Samoans were blamed in the West, giving them a reputation for
ferocity. The site of this battle is called Massacre Bay.

19th century
Mission work in the Samoas had begun in late 1830 when John Williams of the London Missionary Society arrived
from the Cook Islands and Tahiti. By that time, the Samoans had gained a reputation for being savage and warlike,
as violent altercations had occurred between natives and European visitors. Nevertheless, by the late nineteenth
century, French, British, German, and American vessels routinely stopped at Samoa, as they valued Pago Pago
Harbor as a refueling station for coal-fired shipping and whaling.
In March 1889, a German naval force invaded a village in Samoa, and by doing so destroyed some American
property. Three American warships then entered the Apia harbor and prepared to engage three German warships
found there. Before guns were fired, a typhoon wrecked both the American and German ships. A compulsory
armistice was called because of the lack of warships.

20th century
See also: Samoan crisis and Samoan Civil War

German, British and American warships in Apia

harbour, Samoa, 1899.

At the turn of the twentieth century, international rivalries in the latter

half of the century were settled by the 1899 Tripartite Convention in
which Germany and the United States partitioned the Samoan Islands
into two parts:[4] the eastern island group became a territory of the
United States (the Tutuila Islands in 1900 and officially Manu'a in
1904) and is today known as American Samoa; the western islands, by
far the greater landmass, became known as German Samoa after
Britain vacated all claims to Samoa and accepted termination of
German rights in Tonga and certain areas in the Solomon Islands and
West Africa.[5] Forerunners to the Tripartite Convention of 1899 were
the Washington Conference of 1887, the Treaty of Berlin of 1889 and
the Anglo-German Agreement on Samoa of 1899.

American Samoa

213

Protectorate of the United States of America

The following year, the U.S. formally occupied its portion: a smaller
group of eastern islands, one of which surrounds the noted harbor of
Pago Pago. After the United States Navy took possession of eastern
Samoa on behalf of the United States, the existing coaling station at
Pago Pago Bay was expanded into a full naval station, known as
United States Naval Station Tutuila under the command of a
commandant. The Navy secured a Deed of Cession of Tutuila in 1900
and a Deed of Cession of Manua in 1904. The last sovereign of
Manua,
the Tui Manua Elisala, was forced to sign a Deed of Cession
Pago Pago harbor today and inter-island dock
of Manua following a series of U.S. Naval trials, known as the "Trial
area.
of the Ipu", in Pago Pago, Tau, and aboard a Pacific Squadron
gunboat. The territory became known as the U.S. Naval Station Tutuila.
On July 17, 1911, the U.S. Naval Station Tutuila, which was composed of Tutuila, Aunu'u and Manu'a, was
officially renamed American Samoa.
Early 20th century and World War I
Swains Island, which had been included in the list of guano islands appertaining to the US and bonded under the
Guano Islands Act, was annexed in 1925 by Pub. Res. 68-75.[6]
After World War I, during the time of the Mau movement in Western Samoa (then a League of Nations mandate
governed by New Zealand), there was a corresponding American Samoa Mau movement, led by Samuelu Ripley, a
World War I veteran who was from Leone village, Tutuila. After meetings in the United States mainland, he was
prevented from disembarking from the ship that brought him home to American Samoa and was not allowed to
return because the American Samoa Mau movement was suppressed by the U.S. Navy. In 1930 the U.S. Congress
sent a committee to investigate the status of American Samoa, led by Americans who had had a part in the overthrow
of the Kingdom of Hawaii.
Interwar Period
Pan American and first trans-South Pacific flight
In 1938, the noted aviator Ed Musick and his crew died on the Pan
American World Airways S-42 Samoan Clipper over Pago Pago, while
on a survey flight to Auckland, New Zealand. Sometime after take-off,
the aircraft experienced trouble, and Musick turned it back toward
Pago Pago. While the crew began dumping fuel in preparation for an
emergency landing, a spark in the fuel pump caused an explosion that
tore the aircraft apart in mid-air.[7]
World War II and aftermath
The Samoan Clipper

During World War II, U.S. Marines in Samoa outnumbered the local
population, having a huge cultural influence. Young Samoan men from
the age of 14 and above were combat trained by U.S. military personnel. Samoans served in various capacities
during World War II, including as combatants, medical personnel, code personnel, and ship repairmen.
In 1949, Organic Act 4500, a U.S. Department of Interior-sponsored attempt to incorporate American Samoa, was
introduced in Congress. It was ultimately defeated, primarily through the efforts of Samoan chiefs, led by
Tuiasosopo Mariota.[8] These chiefs' efforts led to the creation of a territorial legislature, the American Samoa Fono,

American Samoa
which meets in the village of Fagatogo.
From 1951 to 1999
By 1956, the navy-appointed governor was replaced by a locally elected one (Peter Tali Coleman). Although
technically considered "unorganized" since the U.S. Congress has not passed an Organic Act for the territory,
American Samoa is self-governing under a constitution that became effective on July 1, 1967. The U.S. Territory of
American Samoa is on the United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories, a listing which is disputed by the
territorial government officials, who do consider themselves to be self-governing.
American Samoa and Pago Pago International Airport had historic
significance with the Apollo Program. The astronaut crews of Apollo
10, 12, 13, 14, and 17 were retrieved a few hundred miles from Pago
Pago and transported by helicopter to the airport prior to being flown
to Honolulu on C-141 Starlifter military aircraft.
While the two Samoas share language and ethnicity, their cultures have
recently followed different paths, with American Samoans often
Locations of Pacific Ocean splashdowns of
emigrating to Hawaii and the U.S. mainland, and adopting many U.S.
American spacecraft
customs, such as the playing of American football and baseball.
Western Samoans have tended to emigrate instead to New Zealand,
whose influence has made the sports of rugby and cricket more popular in the western islands. Travel writer Paul
Theroux noted that there were marked differences between the societies in Samoa and American Samoa.

21st century
Due to economic hardship, military service has been seen as an opportunity in American Samoa and other U.S.
Overseas territories, this has meant that there have been a disproportionate number of casualties per population
compared to other parts of the United States. As of March 23, 2009, there have been 10 American Samoans who
have died in Iraq, and 2 who have died in Afghanistan.

Notable Events
On December 10, 1787, French navigator Jean-Franois de Galaup, comte de Laprouse landed two exploration
parties on Tutuila's north shore: one from the ship La Boussole ("The Compass") at Fagasa, and the other from L'
Astrolabe ("The Quadrant") at A'asu. One of the cooks, David, died of "scorbutic dropsy". On December 11, 1787,
twelve members of Jean-Franois de La Prouse's crew (including First Officer Paul-Antoine Fleuriot de Langle and
39 Samoans) were killed by angry Samoans at A'asu Bay, Tutuila, thereafter known as "Massacre Bay," which La
Prouse described as "this den, more fearful from its treacherous situation and the cruelty of its inhabitants than the
lair of a lion or a tiger." This incident gave Samoa a reputation for savagery, and kept Europeans away until the
arrival of the first Christian missionaries four decades later. On December 12, 1787, at A'asu Bay, Tutuila, French
explorer Jean-Franois de La Prouse ordered his gunners to fire one cannonball in the midst of the attackers who
had killed twelve of his men the day before, and were now returning to launch another attack. He later wrote in his
journal "I could have destroyed or sunk a hundred canoes, with more than 500 people in them: but I was afraid of
striking the wrong victims; the call of my conscience saved their lives."
On March 25, 1891, Robert Louis Stevenson paid a rare visit to Pago Pago.
On October 29, 1895, Makelita Young, the only female ruler of Manu'a, died in a fire at age 23 in a rare death case
of what is now known as (SHC) or Spontaneous human combustion.
On December 15, 1916, English writer William Somerset Maugham arrived in Pago Pago, allegedly accompanied by
a missionary and Miss Sadie Thompson. His visit inspired his short story Rain, which later became plays and three

214

American Samoa
major Motion Pictures. The building Maugham stayed during his visit still stands and has been for decades renamed
Sadie Thompson Building today it is a prominent restaurant and Inn.
On November 3, 1920, American Samoa's 12th naval governor Commander Warren Jay Terhune, committed suicide
with a pistol in the bathroom of the Government mansion, overlooking the entrance to Pago Pago Harbor. His body
was discovered by Government House's cook, SDI First Class Felisiano Debid Ahchica, USN. (His ghost is rumored
to walk about the grounds at night).
On August 11, 1925, Margaret Mead arrived in American Samoa aboard SS Sonoma to begin fieldwork for her
doctoral dissertation in anthropology at Columbia University, where she was a student of Professor Franz Boas. Her
work Coming of Age in Samoa was published in 1928 at the time becoming the most widely read book in the field of
anthropology. The book however has sparked years of ongoing and intense debate and controversy.[9] The
traditionalist conservative Intercollegiate Studies Institute listed Coming of Age in Samoa as #1 as the "50 Worst
Books of the Twentieth Century". Mead returned to American Samoa one last time in 1971 for the dedication of the
Jean P. Haydon Museum.
On November 24, 1939, American Samoa's last execution was carried out. Imoa, who was convicted of stabbing
Sema to death, was hanged in the Customs House. The popular Samoan song "Fa'afofoga Samoa" said to be the final
words of Imoa are based on these events.
On January 11, 1942, at 2:26 a.m., "a Japanese submarine surfaced about 10,000 yards off the north coast of Tutuila
between Southworth Point and Fagasa Bay," and fired about fifteen projectiles from its 5.5-inch deck gun at the U.S.
Naval Station Tutuila over a period of approximately ten minutes. The first shell struck the rear of the store of Frank
Shimasaki, one of Tutuila's few Japanese residents. The store was closed at the time, as Mr. Shimasaki was interned
because of his "foreign background." The next one inflicted slight damage on the naval dispensary, the third landed
on the lawn behind the naval quarters known as "Centipede Row," while the fourth hit the stone seawall outside the
customs house. The others fell harmlessly into the harbor. "The fire was not returned, notwithstanding the eagerness
of the Samoan Marines to test their skill against the enemy....No American or Samoan Marines were wounded."
Commander Edwin B. Robinson, who was bicycling behind Centipede Row, was wounded in the knee by a piece of
shrapnel and "a member of the colorful native Fita Fita Guard" received minor injuries; they were the only
casualties. This was the only time that the Japanese attacked Tutuila during World War II, but "Japanese submarines
did patrol the waters around Samoa prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor, and were active in the area throughout the
war."
On August 24, 1943, First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt visited American Samoa and inspected the Fita Fita Guard and
Band and the First Samoan Battalion, U.S. Marine Corps Reserve, at the U.S. Naval Station American Samoa.
On October 18, 1966, President Lyndon Baines Johnson and First Lady Lady Bird Johnson visited American Samoa.
Mrs. Johnson dedicated the "Manulele Tausala" ("Lady Bird") Elementary School in Nu'uuli, which was named after
her. Lyndon Johnson was the only U.S. President to visit American Samoa. Mrs. Johnson was the second First Lady
to visit the Territory. The first was Eleanor Roosevelt in 1943. The territory's only hospital was renamed in honor of
President Johnson.
In the late 60's and early 70's American Samoa played a pivotal role in five of the Apollo Program missions.
Astronauts returned to Earth just a few hundred miles from Pago and were transported to the islands en route home
to the mainland. Three moon rocks gifted to the American Samoan Government by President Nixon are on display in
the Jean P. Haydon museum along with a flag carried to the moon by one of the astronauts.
On November 1970 Pope Paul VI visited American Samoa in a brief but lavish greeting.
On January 30, 1974, Pan Am Flight 806, arriving on Wednesday night from Auckland, New Zealand with 91
passengers aboard crashed at Pago Pago International Airport at 10:41 p.m. 86 people were killed, including Captain
Leroy A. Petersen and the entire flight crew. Five passengers were injured: four seriously, and one minor. The plane
was demolished by impact and fire. The crash was variously attributed to poor visibility, pilot error or wind shear. A

215

American Samoa

216

violent storm was raging when the plane crashed. In January 2014 filmmaker Paul Crompton visited the territory to
interview local residents for a documentary film about the 1974 crash.
On April 17, 1980, during Flag Day celebrations in American Samoa, a U.S. Navy patrol plane, carrying six
skydivers from the U.S. Army's Hawaii-based Tropic Lightning Parachute Club, had its vertical stabilizer shorn off
by the Solo RidgeMount Alava aerial tramway cable, which stretches across Pago Pago Harbor. The plane
crashed, demolishing a wing of the Rainmaker Hotel and killing seven people (all six crew members and one
civilian). All six skydivers "were reported in good condition. A memorial monument is erected on Mt. Mauga O Ali'i
to honor their memory.
On July 22, 2010, Det. Lt. Lusila Brown was fatally shot outside the temporary High Court building in Fagatogo.
The murder sent shock and panic waves throughout the island normally unscathed by gun violence. It was the first
time in more than 15 years that a police officer was killed in the line of duty. The last was Sa Fuimaono who
drowned after saving a teenager from rough seas.
On November 7, 2010, Secretary of state and former First Lady Hillary Clinton made a refueling stopover at the
Pago Pago International Airport. She was greeted by government dignitaries and presented with gifts and a
traditional ava ceremony.
September 2009 earthquake and tsunami
Main article: 2009 Samoan earthquake
On September 29, 2009 at 17:48:11 UTC, an 8.1 magnitude earthquake
struck 120 miles (190km) off the coast of American Samoa, followed
by smaller aftershocks. It was the largest earthquake of 2009. The
quake occurred on the outer rise of the Kermadec-Tonga Subduction
Zone. This is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, where tectonic plates in
the Earth's lithosphere meet and earthquakes and volcanic activity are
common. The quake struck 11.2 miles (18.0km) below the ocean floor
and generated an onsetting tsunami that killed more than 170 people in
the Samoa Islands and Tonga. Four waves with heights from 15 feet
(4.6m) to 20 feet (6.1m) high were reported to have reached up to one
mile (1.6km) inland on the island of Tutuila.
The Defense Logistics Agency (DSCP) worked with the Federal
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) to provide 16 x 16
humanitarian tents to the devastated areas of American Samoa.

Notable people and residents

Arts & Crafts

Tonga Trench south of the Samoa Islands and

north of New Zealand.

Mary Jewett Pritchard was a master Siapo (tapa cloth) maker and
teacher. Pritchard is historically recognized for reviving the nearly lost
art. In 1927 Pritchard began successfully exporting Siapo, her business exposed thousands of people around the
world to Siapo and provided a significant interest for artists to continue creating and teaching the craft. Pritchard
continued to create and teach Siapo until her death in 1992. Pritchard's family and students continues the tradition
today.
Sven Ortquist was a master wood carver. Ortquist was diagnosed at age 9 with Hansen's disease and was sent to a
remote leper colony on Fiji. It was there that nuns gave him tools and wood and Ortquist Self-taught himself.
Ortquist sculptures adorned churches and public buildings and is among Samoa's most treasured many are preserved
at the local Jean P. Haydon museum. Ortquist died of cancer in 2013.

American Samoa

217

Reggie Meredith is an artist. Her work is displayed on public buildings and was featured in several documentaries.
Meredith is a professor in the Fine Arts Department at the American Samoa Community College.
Beauty Pageants
Darlene Schweneke is the first and only contestant to represent American Samoa
at the Miss Universe pageant in 1975.
Noanoa Hill was Miss Samoa World and represented Samoa at Miss World
1988.
Juliette Spencer is the inaugural winner of the first Miss South Pacific Pageant in
1987. Other Miss American Samoa's who have won the prestigious title are 1993
Leilua Stevenson, 1995 Rochelle Tuitele, 2000 Helen Afatasi Burke and 2002
Lupe Aumavae.
Marion Malena is a multiple beauty pageant winner and performer. Malena
resides in Seattle, Wa.
Film & Stage
Multi-beauty pageant winner Marion
Malena (Miss UTOPIA USA)

John Kneubuhl was a Hollywood screenwriter, playwright and Polynesian

historian. He wrote for American television series such as The Fugitive,
Gunsmoke, The Wild Wild West, Star Trek, The Invaders and Hawaii Five-O.
An annual award named in his honor is presented by the department of education
to local students.
Freddie Letuli was the legendary pioneer of the world famous Polynesian fire
knife dance. He became a popular demand and toured his shows across the
United States and Europe appearing in TV shows and movies. Letuli died in
2003. The annual World Fire Knife competition is held each year in his honor.
Al Harrington is a Hollywood character actor best known for playing "Det. Ben
Kokua" on the original Hawaii Five-O.
[10]

Jerry Groves worked as a movie extra and character actor in 1940's and
1950's Hollywood.
[11]

Fire knife dancing pioneer and

Hollywood act Freddie Letuli

Jerado Decordovier was a film and television character actor.

Hollywood actor Eric Stoltz lived with his family in American Samoa, his father was a principal for Leone High
School in the late 1960s.
Tina Marie (Christina Laolagi) is a former pornographic actress. Laolagi has long retired from the adult industry but
renewed interest have kept her films in recent circulation.
Tia Carrere at the peak of her Hollywood career in the 1990s often visited American Samoa. She lived with her
father who married a local Samoan woman.
Gary Scott Thompson is a Hollywood screenwriter, television producer and director. He is best known for his work
on The Fast & the Furious film series.
Setu Taase is a film actor. He is best known for playing Junior Palaita in Gridiron Gang.
Tasi Alabastro born to Filipino parents in American Samoa is an independent filmmaker and actor.[12]

American Samoa

218

Sele Leota is a Hollywood film editor known for his work on Project Runway and Keeping up with the
Kardashians.[13]
Clare Cahill is a movie assistant manager, producer and production manager. Cahill lived in American Samoa with
her family for several years.[14]
Arianne Martin is an American film actress who lived in American Samoa with her family for some time.[15]
Literary
Award winning writer Sia Figiel was an educator for Fa'asao-Marist and Samoana High School. Figiel was a special
liaison for the congressman's office for several years.
Fof Iosefa Fiti Sunia founded American Samoa's first newspaper in the 1960s and was later elected congressman.
Sunia published a series writings among them The story of the legislature of American Samoa: 1948 -1998 and
Puputoa: A Host of Heroes (Biographies of the History Makers of American Samoa 1900-2000).
Tialuga Seloti is an educator, writer and poet.
Vena Sele is a retired educator and author. Sele published her autobiography "Memoirs of a Samoan, Catholic and
Fa'afafine" in 2007 documenting experiences including founding the Miss Island Queen Pageant and becoming the
first fa'afafine to hold a deputy position in American Samoa.
Music
Tiama'a Samoa's most famous musical band lived and performed in
American Samoa for several years. Some of the band's most popular
hits "Sosefina","Taute" and "Seu Lo'u Pologa" were all inspired by
women during this tenure.
Malia Savea part of Malia & Alapati popularly known as the duo
Penina o Tiafau. The Savea's wrote and perform some of Samoa's most
iconic songs their voices have become synonymous with Samoan
culture. Malia Savea lives in Hawaii.
Aliimau Jr. Scanlan is one of Samoa's famous local artists with a career
spanning decades. Scanlan comes from a family of musicians who
have become a local tradition for their TV Christmas specials.

Samoan Music Legends Malia & Alapati Savea

of "Penina O Tiafau"

Harry Miller was a prominent musician throughout the pacific. He was

a music educator for Fa'asao Marist High School for many years and
was married to radio personality Monica Miller. Harry Miller died in
2013.
Atoa Ripley is a music star known for his covers of classic ballads. His
signature song is "(Teine) My Island Lady".
The Anivas was a popular music band in the 1990s their lead singer
was music educator Miriama Samuelu. The band's memorable love
songs remain a popular request at Samoan weddings.
Felsie Mikaele a veteran music legend continues to live and perform
frequently in American Samoa promoting back to back albums.
Emma Laussen is best remembered for her hit song "Nofo To'atasi".
The Katinas is a famed contemporary Christian music group composed
of brothers.

Music Star Aliimau Jr. Scanlan

Mauto'atasi lived and performed in local nightclubs before becoming a solo artist. He is known for his distinctive
voice and his mega-hit song "Toe fo'i le tama Savai'i".

American Samoa

219

Fuafiva Va'a is a local recording artist. Va'a won won the first ever "Samoa Idol"
competition and later recorded Christian albums spawning a series of popular
songs.
Ras-Mas is a local recording artist. He is known for his 2009 hit song "Pretty lil
Teine".
Tap's Band'is a popular music group known for their hits "Ta fia taoto i lou
moega" and "Nofo mai aua te alu".

Recording Artist Ras Mas

Ice-Cream man is a local recording artist and producer. He is known for his collaboration on Vaniah Toloa's hit song
"Samoa e Mapoopo Mai".
J-Zee is a locally based hip-hop artist.
Elijah Tavai is a local Christian music artist. He is known for his cover version of "Ulufale".
Jonitta Fruean is a local R&B recording artist.
'Nina Namazzi is a recording artist. She is known for her song "Siva Mai".
Army soldier Paul Ieti while being deployed in Iraq made national news when a video of him crooning Rihanna's
song "Stay" became viral overnight. Ieti is a social media phenomenon where he continues to post his work.
Newsmakers
David Davis was a wanted fugitive for the murder of his wife Shannon Mohr in Michigan. In 1989 he was arrested
by local police and FBI agents in American Samoa. Davis was working as a pilot for Samoa Air and married to a 23
year old Samoan woman. The FBI was informed by a viewer after Davis was profiled on the popular TV show
Unsolved Mysteries. The notorious crime was made into a book and television movie. Davis is serving life in prison.
Atisone "Shalimar" Seiui generated extensive publicity following an incident with Hollywood star Eddie Murphy in
1997. Seiuli died in Los Angeles in 1998.
Mikhail Sebastian a statelessness film actor and producer from Los Angeles sparked national media coverage after
being reportedly stuck in American Samoa for a year. Sebastian arrived in Pago Pago for a brief vacation and took a
short side trip to Western Samoa, not realizing that it is a separate and independent nation. Immigration and Customs
Enforcement deemed that self-deportation making him unable to return the United States.
Radio & Television

American Samoa

220

[16]

Lutu Tenari Fuimaono was a popular local personality and political

figure. Fuimaono is often cited as American Samoa's first radio star he
was known for his on-air catch phrases "Tama Lelei" (good father) and
"Va'aai le Manaia" (very nice). In his political career Fuimaono served
19 years as senator before being elected president in 1996. He also
served three terms in the territorial House of Representatives before
being elected to the Senate. Fuimaono died in 2004.
Rosemary Chamberlain Kent is one of Samoa's most well known TV
personalities. Kent was a news anchor for KVZK-2 for several years
and covered CNN news reports from the islands and is often
remembered for her feisty persona during coverage of yearly Fautasi
races. Kent now lives in Hawaii and currently host and produce a
weekly talk show on Public TV on (OLELO TV).
Andrew Thompson was a popular radio host for KSBS-FM. Thompson
is well known for his Elvis impersonating voice style .Thompson is
currently a newscaster for KVZK-2.

Legendary personality and senator Lutu

Tenari Fuimaono

Lupe Lu Lohman is a radio personality for many years. Lohman is

remembered for her courageous efforts during the 2009 Samoa
earthquake and tsunami. While on air during their "Samoan Sunrise"
morning show Lohman and co-host Joey Cummings asked the public
to remain calm and move to higher grounds they then proceeded to
pray. Lohman and Cummings were honored by International
Broadcasters Idea Bank for their efforts.
Siniva Anoai is a veteran TV personality for KVZK-2 . Anoai remains
the longest serving news anchor her voice is often heard during the
ending of each broadcast day. Anoai is currently the assistant director
for the Office of public information.
Vaoita Savali was a TV personality for KVZK-2. Savali's voice can
still be heard in several KVZK segments. Savali died in 2005.
Fagafaga Daniel Langkilde is a popular radio and TV host. Langkilde
is synonymous with the Miss American Samoa and Miss South Pacific
pageants and yearly flag day festivities for which he hosted for many
years. Langkilde is currently the director for the Office of public
information.

Television Journalist Rosemary

Kent

Kalameli Timu was a well-known radio and TV personality. Timu

became a catholic deacon's wife and dedicated her life to the ministry.
Timu died in 2012.
Monica Miller is a veteran radio and TV personality. Miller is
currently the news director for 93KHJ radio. Miller was married to
musician Harry Miller.
Fili Sagapolutele is a popular radio host and journalist. Sagapolutele is
known for her on-air "Faleo'o Stories". Sagapolutele is the only
international correspondent from American Samoa for the Associated
Press and currently hosts the morning show for KSBS-FM.

Lupe Lu entertaining guests at an awards gala

among them NFL star Jesse Sapolu

American Samoa
Fatima Langlikde is a former TV personality. Langkilde co-anchored American Samoa's first cable talk show
"Talofa Samoa" on K34HI Malama TV. The show was popular among viewers but the network station was short
lived canceling all services after 4 years. Lankgkilde is also a former Miss American Samoa in 1969.
Ruth Tuiteleapaga is a former news anchor for KVZK-2 News.
Fa'afetai Lauti is a former news anchor for KVZK-2 News.
Fuatino Matati is a former news anchor for KVZK-2 News.
Mark Gerek was the first local host and manager of 93KHJ radio. In 2001 during a scuba dive Gerek was lost at sea
his body was never recovered.
Diehl Langkilde is a radio host and local personality. Langkilde currently hosts the evening show for KSBS-FM.
Daniel Fiu is a radio and TV host. Fiu is currently a news anchor for KVZK-2 news.
Dave Mageo is a TV anchorman. Mageo is currently a news anchor for KVZK-2 news.
Shane Filipo is a radio host and local personality.
Sports
Tony Solaita was Samoa's only major league baseball player (New York Yankees, Kansas City Royals, California
Angels, Montreal Expos, and Toronto Blue Jays). Solita was killed during a family dispute in 1990. A popular park
and sporting field in Tafuna is named in his honor.
Afa and Sika Anoa'i are legendary professional wrestlers known as The Wild Samoans. They held 21 tag team
championships around the world. They are the patriarchs for the legendary Anoa'i family which includes many
professional wrestlers, including former WWE Champion Yokozuna, former tag team champions Solofa Fatu, Sam
Fatu, and Samula Anoa'i, current WWE superstar Roman Reigns and former WWE Intercontinental Champion Eddie
Fatu (Umaga), amongst others.
The High Chief Peter Maivia, a blood brother to the Anoa'i family, was also a legendary professional wrestler,
promoting a National Wrestling Alliance territory out of Hawaii and becoming a folk hero amongst the Samoan
population of San Francisco. He is the grandfather of Dwayne "The Rock" Johnson, who inducted him into the
WWE Hall of Fame in 2008.
Jack Thompson "the Throwin' Samoan" is the first Samoan member of a Super Bowl team, in Super Bowl XVI. He
did not play that year and was not the first Samoan to play in a Super Bowl that feat belongs to San Francisco 49ers
nose tackle Manu Tuiasosopo in 1985.
Cocoa Samoa was a professional wrestler in the 1980s. He held several championship titles.
Jonathan Fanene became the first NFl player to be appointed a cabinet position in the American Samoa Government
in 2014.

Government and politics

Government
Main article: Government of American Samoa
The government of American Samoa is defined under the Constitution of American Samoa. As an unincorporated
territory, the Ratification Act of 1929 vested all civil, judicial, and military powers in the President of the United
States of America, who in turn delegated authority to the US Secretary of the Interior in Executive Order 10264, who
in turn promulgated the Constitution of American Samoa on June 2, 1967 effective July 1, 1967.

221

American Samoa

222
The Governor of American Samoa is the head of government and
along with the Lieutenant Governor of American Samoa is elected on
the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms.

Former First Lady Mary Tulafono and Governor

Togiola Tulafono.

The legislative power is vested in the American Samoa Fono, which

has two chambers. The House of Representatives has 21 members,
elected for a two-year term, 20 in single-seat constituencies and one by
a public meeting on Swain Island. The Senate also has 18 members,
elected for a four-year term by and from the chiefs of the islands.

The judiciary of American Samoa is independent of the executive and

the legislature, and the High Court of American Samoa is the highest court below the United States Supreme Court
in American Samoa, with the District Courts below it. The High Court is located in the capital of Pago Pago. It
consists of a Chief Justice and an Associate Justice, appointed by the US Secretary of the Interior.

Politics
Main article: Politics of American Samoa
See also: Elections in American Samoa and Political party strength in American Samoa
Politics of American Samoa takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic dependency,
whereby the Governor is the head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. American Samoa is an
unincorporated and unorganized territory of the United States, administered by the Office of Insular Affairs, U.S.
Department of the Interior. Its constitution was ratified in 1966 and came into effect in 1967. Executive power is
exercised by the governor. Legislative power is vested in the two chambers of the legislature. The American political
parties (Republican and Democratic) exist in American Samoa, but few politicians are aligned with the parties. The
judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.
There is also the traditional village politics of the Samoa Islands, the "fa'amatai" and the "fa'asamoa", which
continues in American Samoa and in independent Samoa, and which interacts across these current boundaries. The
Fa'asamoa is the language and customs, and the Fa'amatai the protocols of the "fono" (council) and the chief system.
The Fa'amatai and the Fono take place at all levels of the Samoan body politic, from the family, to the village, to the
region, to national matters.
The "matai" (chiefs) are elected by consensus within the fono of the extended family and village(s) concerned. The
matai and the fono (which is itself made of matai) decide on distribution of family exchanges and tenancy of
communal lands. The majority of lands in American Samoa and independent Samoa are communal. A matai can
represent a small family group or a great extended family that reaches across islands, and to both American Samoa
and independent Samoa.
One issue that has caused quite a bit of criticism was a decision approved by the "Constitution Convention", held
locally. The decision was to allow only U.S Nationals with Samoan ancestry to be legislators.
In 2012, both the Governor and American Samoa's delegate to the US Congress Eni Faleomavaega called for the
populace to consider a move towards autonomy if not independence, to a mixed response.
Nationality
People born in American Samoa including those born on Swains Island are American nationals, but are not
American citizens unless one of their parents is a U.S. citizen. The Supreme Court has consistently held that the
Citizenship Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment does not extend birthright citizenship to United States nationals
who are born in unincorporated territories. Samoan Congressman Faleomavaega has supported this legal
interpretation in Amicus Curiae actions in U.S. Courts.

American Samoa
As U.S. nationals, American Samoans may not vote in U.S. presidential elections. However, American Samoans are
entitled to free and unrestricted entry into the United States.
Samoans are entitled to elect one non-voting delegate to the United States House of Representatives. Their delegate
since 1989 has been Democrat Eni Faleomavaega. They also send delegates to the Democratic and Republican
National Conventions.
Official protest to naming of neighboring Samoa
The United States Department of State Background Note web page for neighboring Samoa notes that:
In July 1997 the Constitution was amended to change the country's name from Western Samoa to Samoa
(officially the "Independent State of Samoa"). Western Samoa had been known simply as Samoa in the
United Nations since joining the organization in 1976. The neighboring U.S. territory of American
Samoa protested the move, feeling that the change diminished its own Samoan identity. American
Samoans still use the terms Western Samoa and Western Samoans.

Administrative divisions
Main article: Administrative divisions of American Samoa
American Samoa is administratively divided into three districtsEastern District, Western District, and Manu'a
Districtand two "unorganized" atolls, Swains Island and the uninhabited Rose Atoll. The districts and unorganized
atolls are subdivided into 74 villages. Pago Pagothe capital of American Samoais one of the largest villages and
is located on the eastern side of Tutuila island in Ma'oputasi County district #9. Fagatogo is listed in the Constitution
of American Samoa as the official seat of government, but it is not the capital.[17][18]

Geography
Main article: Geography of American Samoa
American Samoa, located within the geographical region of Oceania, is
one of only two possessions of the United States in the Southern
Hemisphere, the other being Jarvis Island. Its total land area is 76.1
square miles (197.1km2) slightly larger than Washington, D.C.
consisting of five rugged, volcanic islands and two coral atolls. The
five volcanic islands are: Tutuila, Aunu'u, Ofu, Olosega, Tau. The
coral atolls are: Swains, and Rose Atoll. Of the seven islands, Rose
Atoll is the only uninhabited one; it is a Marine National Monument.
Due to its positioning in the South Pacific Ocean, it is frequently hit by
A view of one of American Samoa's Ofu beach in
tropical cyclones between November and April. Rose Atoll is the
Ofu-Olosega
easternmost point of the territory. American Samoa is the southernmost
part of the United States. American Samoa is home to the National Park of American Samoa.

223

American Samoa

224

Vailulu'u Seamount
The Vailulu'u Seamount, an active submerged volcano, lies 28 miles (45km) east of Ta'u in American Samoa. It was
discovered in 1975 and has since been studied by an international team of scientists, contributing towards
understanding of the Earth's fundamental processes. Growing inside the summit crater of Va'ilulu'u is an active
underwater volcanic cone, named after Samoa's goddess of war, Nafanua.

Economy
Main article: Economy of American Samoa
Employment on the island falls into three relatively equal-sized categories of approximately 5,000 workers each: the
public sector, the single remaining tuna cannery, and the rest of the private sector.
There are only a few federal employees in American Samoa and no active duty military personnel except members
of the U.S. Coast Guard, although there is an Army Reserve unit. There is also a U.S. Army recruiting station in
Utulei.
The overwhelming majority of public sector employees work for the American Samoa territorial government. The
one tuna cannery, StarKist, exports several hundred million dollars worth of canned tuna to the United States each
year. The other tuna cannery, Samoa Packing, a Chicken of the Sea subsidiary, closed in 2009 due to American
Samoans being granted minimum wage. In early 2007 the Samoan economy was highlighted in the Congress as it
was not mentioned in the minimum wage bill, at the request of the Samoan delegate to the United States House of
Representatives, Eni Faleomavaega.Wikipedia:Please clarify
From 2002 to 2007, real GDP of American Samoa increased at an average annual rate of 0.4 percent. The annual
growth rates of real GDP ranged from 2.9 percent to +2.1 percent. The volatility in the growth rates of real GDP
was primarily accounted for by changes in the exports of canned tuna. The tuna canning industry was the largest
private employer in American Samoa during this period.

Summary Statistics for American Samoa

2002

2004

2005

2006

2007

20022007 AAGRA

GDPB

536

527

553

550

548

532

0.1%

Real GDPC

527

535

539

550

534

537

0.4%

PopulationD

60,800 62,600 64,100 65,500 66,900 68,200 2.3%

Real GDP per capitaC 8,668

2003

8,546

Average annual growth rate.

In millions of dollars.

In millions of 2005 chained dollars.

Source: 2008 American Samoa Statistical Yearbook.

8,409

8,397

7,982

7,874

1.9%

From 2002 to 2007, the population of American Samoa increased at an average annual rate of 2.3 percent, and real
GDP per capita decreased at an average annual rate of 1.9 percent.
The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 has, since inception, contained special provisions for American Samoa, citing
its limited economy. American Samoa wages are based on the recommendations of a Special Industry Committee
meeting bi-annually. Originally, the Act contained provisions for other territories, provisions which were phased out
as those territories developed more diverse economies.
In 2007, the Fair Minimum Wage Act of 2007 was passed, increasing minimum wage in American Samoa by 50
per hour in 2007 and another 50 per hour each year thereafter until the minimum wage in American Samoa equals

American Samoa

225

the federal minimum wage of $7.25 per hour in the United States.[19] Purportedly in response to the minimum wage
increase, one of the two major tuna canning plants in American Samoa, Chicken of the Sea, was shut down in 2009
and 2,041 employees were laid off in the process. The other major tuna canning plant in American Samoa, StarKist,
began laying off workers in August 2010, with plans to lay off a total of 800 workers, purportedly due to the
minimum wage increases and other rising operation costs. American Samoa Governor Togiola Tulafono has
suggested that, rather than laying off minimum wage workers, the companies could reduce salaries and bonuses of
top-tier employees.
The Unemployment rate was 29.8% (2005), but has been improved to 23.8% as of (2010). Samoa GDP is $537
million and its GDP - per capita (PPP) is $8,000 (2007).

Taxation
American Samoa is an independent customs territory. As such, local residents are not subject to US federal income
taxes on Samoan source income.

Transportation
Main article: Transportation in American Samoa
American Samoa has a total of 241km of highways (estimated in
2008). Ports and harbors include Aunuu, Auasi, Falesao, Ofu and
Pago Pago. American Samoa has no railways. The country has three
airports, all of which have paved runways. The main airport is Pago
Pago International Airport. As per a 1999 estimate, there are no
merchant marines in American Samoa.

Demographics

The current territorial license plate design,

introduced in 1999

Main article: Demographics of American Samoa

See also: List of U.S. states and territories by population

American Samoa Route Marker

Main Road

American Samoa

226

Historical
population
Census

Pop.

1960

19,000

1970

27,159

42.9%

1980

32,297

18.9%

1990

46,773

44.8%

2000

57,291

22.5%

2010

55,519

3.1%

The population of American Samoa stands at about 55,519 people, 95% of whom live on the largest island, Tutuila.
American Samoa is small enough to have just one ZIP code, 96799, and uses the U.S. Postal Service (state code
"AS") for mail delivery.

Ethnicity and language

Of the population, 91.6 percent are native Samoans, 2.8% are Asian, 1% are Caucasian, 4.2% are Mixed, and 0.3%
are of other origin. Most people are bilingual. Samoan, a language closely related to Hawaiian and other Polynesian
languages, is spoken natively by 91% of the people, while 2.9% speak English, 2.4% speak Tongan, 2% speak
Japanese and other Asian languages, and 2% speak other Pacific islander languages. At least some of the deaf
population uses Samoan Sign Language.

Religion
As of February 2013[20], the CIA Factbook showed the religious affiliations of American Samoa as largely
Christian: 50% Christian Congregationalist, 20% Roman Catholic, and 30% Protestant and other faiths.
As of February 2013[20], the World Christian Database showed the religious affiliations of American Samoa as 98%
Christian, 0.7% agnostic, 0.4% Chinese Universalist, 0.3% Buddhist and 0.3% Bah'i.
As of February 2013[20], The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints website reports membership of 15,411
(27%), with 37 congregations in American Samoa.

Education
The island contains 23 primary schools and 10 secondary schools, 5 are operated by the American Samoa
Department of Education. and the other 5 are administered by either religious denominations or are privately owned.
American Samoa Community College, founded in 1970, provides post-secondary education on the islands.

Culture
See also: Culture of Samoa
The ethnic culture of American Samoa is almost the same as the ethnic culture of Western Samoa (Upolu and
Savaii). The U.S. sovereignty distinguishes the civilization of American Samoa from the sovereign
Samoa.Wikipedia:Please clarify

American Samoa

Sports
See also: Sports in American Samoa
The main sports played in American Samoa are Samoan cricket, baseball, basketball, soccer, and American football.
In Samoan villages, volleyball is also popular.
American football
About 30 ethnic Samoans, many from American Samoa, currently play in the National Football League, and more
than 200 play NCAA Division I college football. In recent years, it has been estimated that a Samoan male (either an
American Samoan, or a Samoan living in the 50 United States) is anywhere from 40 to 56 times more likely to play
in the NFL than a non-Samoan American. Six-time All-Pro Junior Seau was one of the most famous Americans of
Samoan heritage ever to play in the NFL, having been elected to the NFL 1990s All-Decade Team. Pittsburgh
Steelers safety Troy Polamalu, though born and raised in the mainland U.S., is perhaps the most famous Samoan
currently in the NFL, not having his hair cut since 2000 (and only because a USC coach told him he had to) and
wearing it down during games in honor of his heritage. The football culture was featured on 60 Minutes January 17,
2010.
Rugby league
The American Samoa national rugby league team represents the country in international rugby league. The team
competed in the 1988, 1992, 1998 and 2004 Pacific Cup competitions. The team has also competed in the 2003 and
2004 world sevens qualifiers in the 2005 World sevens. America Samoa's first match in international Rugby League
was in 1988 pacific cup against Tonga, Tonga won the match 38-14 which is still the biggest loss by an American
Samoan side. American Samoa's biggest win was in 2004 against New Caledonia with the score ending at 62-6.
American Samoa get broadcast of the National Rugby League in Australia on free-to-air television.
There is also a new movement which aims to set up a four team domestic competition in American Samoa.
Professional wrestling
A number of American Samoan athletes have been very visible in boxing, kickboxing, and professional wrestling
(see especially Anoa'i family). World Wrestling Entertainment has employed many members from the Anoa'i family.
Sumo wrestling
Some Samoan Sumo wrestlers, most famously Musashimaru and Konishiki have reached the highest ranks of zeki
and yokozuna. Despite the relatively small population of the islands many Samoans and people of Samoan descent
have reached high ranks in many professional sports leagues.
Association Football
American Samoa national association football team is one of the newest teams in the world, and is also noted for
being the world's weakest. They lost to Australia 310 in a FIFA World Cup qualifying match on April 11, 2001, but
on November 22, 2011 they finally won their first ever game, beating Tonga 2-1 in a FIFA World Cup qualifier. The
appearance of American Samoa's Jonny Saelua in the contest "apparently became the first transgender player to
compete on a World Cup stage."

227

American Samoa
Rugby Union
Rugby Union is a growing sport in American Samoa. The first rugby game recorded in American Samoa was in
1924, since then the development of the game had been heavily overshadowed by the influence of American
Football during the 1970s. The highest governing body of rugby in American Samoa is the American Samoa Rugby
Union which was founded in 1990 and was not affiliated into the IRB until 2012. Internationally, two American
Samoans have played for the New Zealand national rugby union team, known as the All Blacks. Frank Solomon
(born in Pago Pago) became the first American national of Samoan descent to play for a New Zealand team.
Considered a pacific pioneer in New Zealand rugby, Solomon scored a try against Australia in the inaugural
Bledisloe Cup match in 1932, which New Zealand won 21-13. The second American Samoan to play for the All
Blacks is Jerome Kaino (born in Faga'alu). A native of Leone, Kaino moved to New Zealand when he was 4 years
old. In 2004 at age 21, he played his first match for New Zealand against the Barbarians where he scored his first try,
contributing to New Zealand's 47-19 victory that resulted him man of the match. He also played a crucial role in the
Rugby World Cup 2011 playing every match presented. He managed to score four tries in the event which lead to
New Zealand winning the final against France 8-7.
Track and field
Track and field is not a popular sport in American Samoa, but it hit the limelight when they sent a 130kg sprinter,
(Sogelau Tuvalu) to compete in the men's 100m of the IAAF World Championships at Daegu, South Korea, in
August 2011. The 17-year-old finished last in his preliminary rounds but clocked a personal best 15.66 seconds
despite running into a headwind of -0.9, surprisingly not the slowest time in the world championships history as the
time is faster than 21.73 seconds set in 1997 by an injured Kim Collins who became the world champion six years
later. Tuvalu was actually a shot putter but did not qualify for the shotput event so instead competed in the 100m. He
was said to have trained for 4 months for the 100m, though did not wear spikes, and instead wore shot putters
smooth bottom shoes.

References
[1] Including Rose Atoll and Swains Island
[2] http:/ / www. americansamoa. gov/
[3] Census.gov (http:/ / www. census. gov/ 2010census/ news/ releases/ operations/ cb11-cn177. html) 2010 Census summary. Retrieved March
24, 2014
[4] Ryden, George Herbert. The Foreign Policy of the United States in Relation to Samoa. New York: Octagon Books, 1975. (Reprint by special
arrangement with Yale University Press. Originally published at New Haven: Yale University Press, 1928), p. 574; the Tripartite Convention
(United States, Germany, Great Britain) was signed at Washington on December 2, 1899 with ratifications exchanged on February 16, 1900
[5] Ryden, p. 571
[6] Pub. Res. 68-75, , enacted March 4, 1925
[7] Edwin Musick (http:/ / www. clipperflyingboats. com/ pan-am-pilots/ edwin-musick)
[8] Story of the Legislature of American Samoa. 1988.
[9] http:/ / www. mmisi. org/ ir/ 35_01/ 50worst. pdf
[10] Jerry Groves - IMDb (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0344070/ )
[11] Jerado Decordovier - IMDb (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0213958/ )
[12] Tasi Alabastro - IMDb (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm3175787/ )
[13] Sele Leota - IMDb (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm3339868/ )
[14] Clare Cahill - IMDb (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm3285994/ )
[15] Arianne Margot - IMDb (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm1939205/ )
[16] http:/ / the. honoluluadvertiser. com/ article/ 2004/ Sep/ 22/ ln/ ln49a. html
[17] Revised Constitution of American Samoa (http:/ / www. asbar. org/ asconst. htm).
[18] (See the discussion "What is the capital of X?")
[19] . United States Government Printing Office. Retrieved April 12, 2008.
[20] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=American_Samoa& action=edit

228

American Samoa

Bibliography
See also: Bibliography of American Samoa
Ellison, Joseph (1938). Opening and Penetration of Foreign Influence in Samoa to 1880. Corvallis: Oregon State
College.
Sunia, Fofo (1988). The Story of the Legislature of American Samoa. Pago Pago: American Samoa Legislature.
Meti, Lauofo (2002). Samoa: The Making of the Constitution. Apia: Government of Samoa.

External links

AmericanSamoa.gov (http://www.americansamoa.gov/) - Official Government Website

Samoan Bios (http://samoanbios.com/)
American Samoa (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Oceania/American_Samoa) at DMOZ
Wikimedia Atlas of American Samoa
NOAA's National Weather Service - American Samoa (http://www.prh.noaa.gov/samoa/)

Country data
American Samoa (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aq.html) entry at The
World Factbook
American Samoa (http://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_5_1.asp), national profile
from the Association of Religion Data Archives.
Coordinates: 14.3S 170.7W (http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=American_Samoa&
params=14.3_S_170.7_W_region:AS_type:isle)

229

Cook Islands

230

Cook Islands
For individual islands named "Cook Island", see Cook Island (disambiguation).

Cook Islands
Kki 'irani

Flag

Coat of arms

Anthem:Te Atua Mou E

God is Truth

Capital
and largest city

Avarua
[1]
2112S 15946W

[2]

Ethnicgroups (

Official languages

English
Cook Islands Mori

Spoken languages

Pukapukan
Rakahanga-Manihiki

87.7% Mori
5.8% part-Mori
6.5% other

Demonym

Cook Islander

Government

Constitutional monarchy

- Monarch

Elizabeth II

- Queen's Representative

Tom Marsters

- Prime Minister

Henry Puna
Legislature

Parliament
Associated state

- Self-government in free association with New Zealand 4 August 1965

Cook Islands

231
- UN recognition of independence in foreign relations

1992

[3]

Area
- Total

240km2 (210th)
91sqmi
Population

- 2006census

19,569 (213th)

- Density

76/km2 (124th)
197/sqmi

GDP(PPP)

2005estimate

- Total

$183.2 million (not ranked)

- Per capita

$9,100 (not ranked)

Currency

New Zealand dollar

(NZD)
Cook Islands dollar

Time zone

CKT (UTC-10)

Drives on the

left

Calling code

682

ISO 3166 code

CK

Internet TLD

.ck

The Cook Islands ( i/kkHelp:IPA for English#Keyalndz/; Cook Islands Mori: Kki 'irani[4]) is an island
country in the South Pacific Ocean in free association with New Zealand. It comprises 15 small islands whose total
land area is 240 square kilometres (92.7sqmi). The Cook Islands' Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), however,
covers 1,800,000 square kilometres (690,000sqmi) of ocean.[5]
The Cook Islands' defence and foreign affairs are the responsibility of New Zealand, which is exercised in
consultation with the Cook Islands. In recent times, the Cook Islands have adopted an increasingly independent
foreign policy. Although Cook Islanders are citizens of New Zealand, they have the status of Cook Islands nationals,
which is not given to other New Zealand citizens.
The Cook Islands' main population centres are on the island of Rarotonga (14,153 in 2006), where there is an
international airport. There is a much larger population of Cook Islanders in New Zealand, particularly the North
Island. In the 2006 census, 58,008 self-identified as being of ethnic Cook Islands Mori descent.
With about 100,000 visitors travelling to the islands in the 201011financial year, tourism is the country's main
industry, and the leading element of the economy, far ahead of offshore banking, pearls, and marine and fruit
exports.

Cook Islands

232

Geography
Main article: Geography of the Cook Islands
The Cook Islands are in the South Pacific Ocean, northeast of New
Zealand, between French Polynesia and American Samoa. There are
15major islands spread over 2.2million km2 of ocean, divided into
two distinct groups: the Southern Cook Islands and the Northern Cook
Islands of coral atolls.[6]
The islands were formed by volcanic activity; the northern group is
older and consists of six atolls, which are sunken volcanoes topped by
coral growth. The climate is moderate to tropical.
The 15 islands and two reefs are grouped as follows:
Southern Cook Islands:
Nga-pu-Toru ("Three Roots", the eastern islands):
Atiu (Enua Manu or Island of Birds)
Ma'uke (Akatokamanava)
Mitiaro (Nukuroa)
Map of the Cook Islands.

Takutea
Northern Cook Islands:

Manihiki (Te Fuinga o Niva)

Nassau (Te Nuku o Ngalewu )
Penrhyn Island (Tongareva or Mangarongaro)
Pukapuka (Te Ulu o te Watu)
Rakahanga (Tapuahua)
Suwarrow also called Suvorov
Tema Reef (submerged)
Other islands:

Aitutaki (Araura Enua)

Mangaia (Auau Enua)
Rarotonga (Tumutevarovaro), with the capital, Avarua.
Palmerston Island (Pamati) sometimes grouped with the Northern Group.
Manuae
Winslow Reef (submerged)

Cook Islands

233

History
Main article: History of the Cook Islands
The Cook Islands were first settled in the 6th century CE by
Polynesian people who migrated from Tahiti,[7] an island 1154km to
the northeast of Cook Islands.

Beach on Rarotonga

Spanish ships visited the islands in the 16thcentury; the first written
record of contact with the islands came with the sighting of Pukapuka
by Spanish sailor lvaro de Mendaa de Neira in 1595 who called it
San Bernardo (Saint Bernard). Pedro Fernandes de Queirs, a
Portuguese captain working for the Spanish crown, made the first
recorded European landing in the islands when he set foot on
Rakahanga in 1606, calling it Gente Hermosa (Beautiful People). [8]

British navigator Captain James Cook arrived in 1773 and 1777[9] and named the islands the Hervey Islands; the
name "Cook Islands", in honour of Cook, appeared on a Russian naval chart published in the 1820s.
In 1813 John Williams, a missionary on the Endeavour (not the same ship as Cook's) made the first recorded
sighting of Rarotonga.Wikipedia:Disputed statement The first recorded landing on Rarotonga by Europeans was in
1814 by the Cumberland; trouble broke out between the sailors and the Islanders and many were killed on both
sides. The islands saw no more Europeans until missionaries arrived from England in 1821. Christianity quickly took
hold in the culture and many islanders continue to be Christian believers today.
The Cook Islands became a British protectorate in 1888, due largely to community fears that France might occupy
the territory as it had Tahiti. In 1901 the New Zealand Government decided to annex the country despite opposition
from the country's traditional chiefs. As many of the islands were independent and ruled by local chiefs, the Cook
Islands had no federal statutory law to decide the constitutional constraints regarding whether to agree to the
country's annexation. When the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948 came into effect on
1January1949, Cook Islanders who were British subjects gained New Zealand citizenship.[10] The country remained
a New Zealand protectorate until1965, when the New Zealand Government decided to offer self-governing status to
its colony. In that year, Albert Henry of the Cook Islands Party was elected as the first Prime Minister. Henry led the
country until he was accused of vote-rigging. He was succeeded in 1978 by Tom Davis of the Democratic Party.

Politics and foreign relations

Main articles: Politics of the Cook Islands and Foreign relations of the Cook Islands
The Cook Islands is a representative democracy with a parliamentary
system in an associated state relationship with New Zealand. Executive
power is exercised by the government, with the Chief Minister as head
of government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and
the Parliament of the Cook Islands. There is a pluriform multi-party
system. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the
legislature. The Head of State is the Queen of New Zealand, who is
represented in the Cook Islands by the Queen's Representative.
The islands are self-governing in "free association" with New Zealand.
New Zealand retains primary responsibility for external affairs, with
consultation with the Cook Islands government. Cook Islands nationals

The parliament building of the Cook Islands,

formerly a hotel.

are citizens of New Zealand and can receive New Zealand government services, but the reverse is not true; New
Zealand citizens are not Cook Islands nationals. Despite this, as of 2013, the Cook Islands had diplomatic relations in

Cook Islands

234

its own name with 41 other countries. The Cook Islands is not a United Nations member state, but, along with Niue,
has had their "full treaty-making capacity" recognised by United Nations Secretariat, and is a full member of the
WHO and UNESCO UN specialized agencies and is an associate member of the Economic and Social Commission
for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP).
On 11 June 1980, the United States signed a treaty with the Cook Islands specifying the maritime border between the
Cook Islands and American Samoa and also relinquishing any United States claim to the islands of Penrhyn,
Pukapuka, Manihiki, and Rakahanga. In 1990 the Cook Islands and France signed a treaty that delimited the
boundary between the Cook Islands and French Polynesia. As competition between the US and China heated up in
the South China Sea and other areas closer to the mainland, even the far off Cook Islands began to feel the results. In
late August 2012, for instance, United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton visited the islands.

Administrative subdivisions
There are Island Councils on all of the inhabited outer islands (Outer Islands Local Government Act 1987 with
amendments up to2004, and Palmerston Island Local Government Act 1993) except Nassau, which is governed by
Pukapuka (Suwarrow, with only one caretaker living on the island, also governed by Pukapuka, is not counted with
the inhabited islands in this context). Each council is headed by a Mayor.
The Ten Outer Islands Councils are
Aitutaki (including uninhabited Manuae)

Mangaia

Atiu (including uninhabited Takutea)

Ma'uke

Mitiaro

Manihiki

Penrhyn

Rakahanga

Pukapuka (including Nassau and Suwarrow)

Palmerston

Cook Islands

235

The three Vaka councils of Rarotonga established in 1997 (Rarotonga

Local Government Act 1997), also headed by mayors,[11] were
abolished in February 2008, despite much controversy.[12]
The three Vaka councils on Rarotonga were

Districts of Rarotonga

Te-Au-O-Tonga (equivalent to Avarua, the capital of the Cook Islands)

Puaikura

Arorangi

Takitumu

Matavera, Ngatangiia, Takitumu

On the lowest level, there are village committees. Nassau, which is governed by Pukapuka, has an island committee
(Nassau Island Committee), which advises the Pukapuka Island Council on matters concerning its own island.

Economy
Main article: Economy of the Cook Islands
The economy is strongly affected by geography. It is isolated from foreign markets, and has some inadequate
infrastructure; it lacks major natural resources, has limited manufacturing and suffers moderately from natural
disasters. Tourism provides the economic base which makes up approximately 67.5% of GDP. Additionally, the
economy is supported by foreign aid, largely from New Zealand. The Peoples' Republic of China has also
contributed foreign aid which has resulted in, among other projects, the Police Headquarters building. The Cook
Islands is expanding its agriculture, mining and fishing sectors, with varying success.
Since approximately 1989, the Cook Islands have become a location specialising in so-called asset protection trusts,
by which investors shelter assets from the reach of creditors and legal authorities. According to The New York Times,
the Cooks have "laws devised to protect foreigners assets from legal claims in their home countries" which were
apparently crafted specifically to thwart the long arm of American justice; creditors must travel to the Cook Islands
and argue their cases under Cooks law, often at prohibitive expense. Unlike other foreign jurisdictions such as the
British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands and Switzerland, the Cooks "generally disregard foreign court orders" and
do not require that bank accounts, real estate, or other assets protected from scrutiny (it is illegal to disclose names or
any information about Cooks trusts) be physically located within the archipelago.[] Taxes on trusts and trust
employees account for some 8% of the Cook Islands economy, behind tourism but ahead of fishing.

Cook Islands

236

Culture
Main article: Culture of the Cook Islands

Language
The languages of the Cook Islands include English, Cook Islands
Mori, or "Rarotongan," and Pukapukan. Dialects of Cook Islands
Maori include Penrhyn; Rakahanga-Manihiki; the Ngaputoru dialect of
Atiu, Mitiaro, and Mauke; the Aitutaki dialect; and the Mangaian
dialect. Cook Islands Maori and its dialectic variants are closely related
to both Tahitian and to New Zealand Mori. Pukapukan is considered
closely related to the Samoan language. English and Cook Islands
Maori are official languages of the Cook Islands.

Float parade during the annual Maeva Nui

celebrations.

Music
Main article: Music of the Cook Islands
Music in the Cook Islands is varied, with Christian songs being quite popular, but traditional dancing and songs in
Polynesian languages remain popular.

Public holidays
Holidays
Date

Name

1 January

New Year's Day

2 January

Day after New Year's Day

The Friday before Easter Sunday Good Friday

The day after Easter Sunday

Easter Monday

25 April

ANZAC Day

The first Monday in June

Queen's Birthday

During July

Rarotonga Gospel Day

4 August

Constitution Day (Te Maevea Nui Celebrations)

26 October

Gospel Day

25 December

Christmas

26 December

Boxing Day

Cook Islands

237

Art
Carving
Woodcarving is a common art form in the Cook Islands. The proximity
of islands in the southern group helped produce a homogeneous style
of carving but which had special developments in each island.
Rarotonga is known for its fisherman's gods and staff-gods, Atiu for its
wooden seats, Mitiaro, Mauke and Atiu for mace and slab gods and
Mangaia for its ceremonial adzes. Most of the original wood carvings
were either spirited away by early European collectors or were burned
in large numbers by missionary zealots. Today, carving is no longer the
major art form with the same spiritual and cultural emphasis given to it
by the Maori in New Zealand. However, there are continual efforts to
interest young people in their heritage and some good work is being
turned out under the guidance of older carvers. Atiu, in particular, has a
strong tradition of crafts both in carving and local fibre arts such as
tapa. Mangaia is the source of many fine adzes carved in a distinctive,
idiosyncratic style with the so-called double-k design. Mangaia also
produces food pounders carved from the heavy calcite found in its
extensive limestone caves.

This wood carved figure escaped emasculation,

despite its missionary collectors. Only one other
comparable example is known, British Museum.

Weaving
The outer islands produce traditional weaving of mats, basketware and hats. Particularly fine examples of rito hats
are worn by women to church. They are made from the uncurled immature fibre of the coconut palm and are of very
high quality. The Polynesian equivalent of Panama hats, they are highly valued and are keenly sought by Polynesian
visitors from Tahiti. Often, they are decorated with hatbands made of minuscule pupu shells which are painted and
stitched on by hand. Although pupu are found on other islands the collection and use of them in decorative work has
become a speciality of Mangaia. The weaving of rito is a speciality of the northern island of Penrhyn.
Tivaevae
A major art form in the Cook Islands is tivaevae. This is, in essence, the art of handmade Island scenery patchwork
quilts. Introduced by the wives of missionaries in the 19th century, the craft grew into a communal activity and is
probably one of the main reasons for its popularity.
Contemporary art
The Cook Islands has produced internationally recognised contemporary artists, especially in the main island of
Rarotonga. Artists include painter (and photographer) Mahiriki Tangaroa, sculptors Eruera (Ted) Nia (originally a
film maker) and master carver Mike Tavioni, painter (and Polynesian tattoo enthusiast) Upokoina Ian George,
Aitutakian-born painter Tim Manavaroa Buchanan, Loretta Reynolds, Judith Kunzl, Joan Rolls Gragg, Kay George
(who is also known for her fabric designs), Apii Rongo, Varu Samuel, and multi-media, installation and
community-project artist Ani O'Neil, all of whom currently live on the main island of Rarotonga. Atiuan-based
Andrea Eimke is an artist who works in the medium of tapa and other textiles, and also co-authored the book
'Tivaivai The Social Fabric of the Cook Islands' with British academic Susanne Kuechler. Many of these artists
have studied at university art schools in New Zealand and continue to enjoy close links with the New Zealand art
scene.

Cook Islands

238

New Zealand-based Cook Islander artists include Michel Tuffrey, print-maker David Teata, Richard Shortland
Cooper, Sylvia Marsters and Jim Vivieaere.
On Rarotonga, the main commercial galleries are Beachcomber Contemporary Art (Taputapuatea, Avarua) run by
Ben & Trevon Bergman, and The Art Gallery ('Arorangi). The Cook Islands National Museum also exhibits art.

Wildlife
The national flower of the Cook Islands is the Tiare mori or Tiale
moli (Penrhyn, Nassau, Pukapuka).
The Cook Islands have a large non-native population of Kiore toka
(Ship rat). and Polynesian rat. The rats have dramatically reduced
the bird population on the islands.
In April 2007, 27 Kuhl's Lorikeet were re-introduced to Atiu from
Rimatara. Fossil and oral traditions indicate that the species was
formerly on at least five islands of the southern group. Excessive
exploitation for its red feathers is the most likely reason for the
species's extinction in the Cook Islands.

Tiare mori, the national flower of the Cook

Islands

Sport
Main article: Sport in the Cook Islands
See also: Netball in the Cook Islands
Rugby league is the most popular sport in the Cook Islands.[13] Association football (soccer), Netball, and Cricket
are also popular.Wikipedia:Citation needed

References
[1] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Cook_Islands& params=21_12_S_159_46_W_type:country
[2] Cook Islands (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ cw. html). CIA World Fact Book
[3] UN THE WORLD TODAY (PDF) (http:/ / www. un. org/ Depts/ Cartographic/ map/ profile/ world00. pdf) and Repertory of Practice of
United Nations Organs Supplement No. 8; page 10 (http:/ / legal. un. org/ repertory/ art102/ english/ rep_supp8_vol6-art102_e_advance. pdf)
[4] Cook Islands Maori dictionary (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=AT2ENAHoS28C) by Jasper Buse & Raututi Taringa, Cook Islands
Ministry of Education (1995) page 200
[5] A View from the Cook Islands (https:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070214035426/ http:/ / www. sopac. org/ tiki/ tiki-index. php?page=Cook+
Islands). SOPAC
[6] "Cook Islands Travel Guide" (with description), World Travel Guide, Nexus Media Communications, 2006. Webpage:
WTGuide-Cook-Islands (http:/ / www. worldtravelguide. net/ country/ 65/ country_guide/ Australia-and-South-Pacific/ Cook-Islands. html).
[7] Cook Islands (https:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20120319005759/ http:/ / www. samoa2007. ws/ index. php?id=224) (archived from the
original (http:/ / www. samoa2007. ws/ index. php?id=224) on 2012-03-19).
[8] European discovery of the Cook Islands by Brian Hooker (http:/ / findingnz. co. nz/ av/ gav22. htm). Findingnz.co.nz. Retrieved on
2012-12-26.
[9] Thomas, Nicholas (2003). Cook : the extraordinary voyages of Captain James Cook, Walker & Company, ISBN 0802714129, pp. 310311.
[10] 3. Aliens and citizens Citizenship Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand (http:/ / www. teara. govt. nz/ en/ citizenship/ 3). Teara.govt.nz
(2009-03-04). Retrieved on 2012-12-26.
[11] Larmour, Peter and Barcham, Manuhuia. Cook Islands 2004 (https:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20090324214201/ http:/ / www. transparency.
org. au/ documents/ cookislands. pdf), Transparency International Country Study Report.
[12] Minister asked to answer queries over abolition of Vaka Councils (https:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20090102015825/ http:/ / www. ciherald.
co. ck/ articles/ h392b. htm). The Cook Islands Herald, No. 393 (2008-02-09)
[13] Cook Islands Financial Strife | We Are Rugby (http:/ / www. wearerugby. com/ news/ articles/ cook-islands-financial-strife)

Cook Islands

239

Further reading
Gilson, Richard. The Cook Islands 18201950. Wellington, New Zealand: Victoria University Press, 1980. ISBN
0-7055-0735-1

External links
Official website (http://www.cook-islands.gov.ck/) Cook Islands Government
Chief of State and Cabinet Members (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/
world-leaders-c/cook-islands.html)
Cook Islands (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/cw.html) entry at The
World Factbook
Cook Islands (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/cookislands.htm) from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Cook Islands (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Oceania/Cook_Islands) at DMOZ

Easter Island
For the album by Kris Kristofferson, see Easter Island (album).
"Rapa Nui" redirects here. For other uses, see Rapa Nui (disambiguation).

Easter Island
Rapa Nui
Isla de Pascua

Special Territory, Province and Commune

Flag

Seal

Coat of arms

Easter Island map showing Terevaka, Poike, Rano Kau, Motu Nui, Orongo, and Mataveri; major ahus are marked with moai

Easter Island

240

Easter Island in the Pacific Ocean

Coordinates: 277S 10922W

[1]

Coordinates: 277S 10922W [1]

Country

Chile

Region

Valparaso

Province

Isla de Pascua

Commune

Isla de Pascua

Seat

Hanga Roa

Government
Type

Municipality

Body

Municipal council

Provincial Governor

Carmen Cardinali Paoa

Alcalde

Pedro Edmunds Paoa (PRO)

Area
Total

163.6km2 (63.2sqmi)

Population (2012 Census)

Total

5,761

Urban

5,563

Rural

198

Time zone

EAST (UTC-6)

Summer (DST)

EASST (UTC-5)

Area code(s)

56

Currency

Peso (CLP)

Language

Spanish, Rapa Nui

Website

Municipality of Isla de Pascua

[2]

NGA UFI=-905269

Easter Island (Rapa Nui: Rapa Nui, Spanish: Isla de Pascua) is a Polynesian island in the southeastern Pacific
Ocean, at the southeasternmost point of the Polynesian Triangle. Easter Island is famous for its 887 extant
monumental statues, called moai, created by the early Rapa Nui people. In 1995, UNESCO named Easter Island a
World Heritage Site, with much of the island protected within Rapa Nui National Park.
Polynesian people settled on Easter Island in the first millennium AD, and created a thriving culture, as evidenced by
the moai and other artifacts. However, human activity, the introduction of the Polynesian rat and overpopulation led
to gradual deforestation and extinction of natural resources, which caused the demise of the Rapa Nui civilization.

Easter Island

241

By the time of European arrival in 1722, the island's population had dropped to 2,0003,000 from a high of
approximately 15,000 just a century earlier. Diseases carried by European sailors and Peruvian slave raiding of the
1860s further reduced the Rapa Nui population, down to 111 in 1877.
Easter Island is one of the most remote inhabited islands in the world. The nearest inhabited land (50 residents) is
Pitcairn Island 2,075 kilometres (1,289mi) away, the nearest town with a population over 500 is Rikitea on island
Mangareva 2,606km (1,619mi) away, and the nearest continental point lies in central Chile, 3,512 kilometres
(2,182mi) away.
Easter Island is a special territory of Chile that was annexed in 1888. Administratively, it belongs to the Valparaso
Region and more specifically, is the only commune of the Province Isla de Pascua. According to the 2012 census, it
has about 5,800 residents, of which some 60% are descendants of the aboriginal Rapa Nui.

Name
The name "Easter Island" was given by the island's first recorded European visitor, the Dutch explorer Jacob
Roggeveen, who encountered it on Easter Sunday (5 April[3]) 1722, while searching for Davis or David's island.
Roggeveen named it Paasch-Eyland (18th century Dutch for "Easter Island").[4] The island's official Spanish name,
Isla de Pascua, also means "Easter Island".
The current Polynesian name of the island, Rapa Nui "Big Rapa", was coined after the slave raids of the early 1860s,
and refers to the island's topographic resemblance to the island of Rapa in the Bass Islands of the Austral Islands
group. However Thor Heyerdahl argued that Rapa was the original name of Easter Island, and that Rapa Iti was
named by refugees from there.[5]
The phrase Te pito o te henua has been said to be the original name of the island since William Churchill (1912)
gave it the romantic translation "Land's End" in his Voyage l'le de Pques, published in 1877. William inquired
about the phrase and was told that there were three te pito o te henua, these being the three capes (land's ends) of the
island. He was unable to elicit a Polynesian name for the island itself, and concluded that there may not have been
one.
According to Barthel (1974), oral tradition has it that the island was first named Te pito o te kainga a Hau Maka
"The little piece of land of Hau Maka". However, there are two words pronounced pito in Rapa Nui, one meaning
'end' and one 'navel', and the phrase can thus also mean "the Navel of the World". This was apparently its actual
meaning: Alphonse Pinart gave it the actual translation "the Navel of the World". Another name, Mata ki te rangi,
means "Eyes looking to the sky".

History
UNESCO World Heritage Site

Rapa Nui National Park

Name as inscribed on the World Heritage List

[6]

Easter Island

242

Type

Cultural

Criteria

i, iii, v

Reference

715

UNESCO region

[7]

[8] Latin America and the Caribbean

Inscription history
Inscription

1995 (19th Session)

Main article: History of Easter Island

The history of Easter Island is rich and controversial. Its inhabitants have endured famines, epidemics, civil war,
slave raids, colonialism, and near deforestation; its population declined precipitously more than once.
Estimated dates of initial settlement of Easter Island have ranged from 300 to 1200 CE, approximately coinciding
with the arrival of the first settlers in Hawaii. Rectifications in radiocarbon dating have changed almost all of the
previously posited early settlement dates in Polynesia. Rapa Nui has more recently been considered to have been
settled in the narrower range of 700 to 1100 CE. An ongoing study by archaeologists Terry Hunt and Carl Lipo
suggests a still-later date: "Radiocarbon dates for the earliest stratigraphic layers at Anakena, Easter Island, and
analysis of previous radiocarbon dates imply that the island was colonized late, about 1200 CE. Significant
ecological impacts and major cultural investments in monumental architecture and statuary thus began soon after
initial settlement."
According to oral tradition, the first settlement was at Anakena. Jared Diamond notes that the Caleta Anakena
landing point provides the best shelter from prevailing swells, as well as a sandy beach for canoe landings and
launchings, so it seems likely to have been an early place of settlement.[9] However, this hypothesis contradicts
radiocarbon dating, according to which other sites preceded Anakena by many years, especially the Tahai, whose
radiocarbon dates precede Anakena's by several centuries.
The island was most likely populated by Polynesians who navigated in canoes or catamarans from the Gambier
Islands (Mangareva, 2,600km (1,600mi) away) or the Marquesas Islands, 3,200km (2,000mi) away. When James
Cook visited the island, one of his crew members, a Polynesian from Bora Bora, was able to communicate with the
Rapa Nui. The language most similar to Rapa Nui is Mangarevan with an 80% similarity in vocabulary. In 1999, a
voyage with reconstructed Polynesian boats was able to reach Easter Island from Mangareva in 19 days.

Easter Island

According to oral traditions recorded by missionaries in

the 1860s, the island originally had a strong class
system, with an ariki, high chief, wielding great power
over nine other clans and their respective chiefs. The
high chief was the eldest descendent through first-born
lines of the island's legendary founder, Hotu Matu'a.
The most visible element in the culture was the
production of massive statues called moai that some
believe represented deified ancestors. According to
National Geographic: "Most scholars suspect that the
The first known painting of Easter Island in 1775 by William Hodges
moai were created to honor ancestors, chiefs, or other
important personages, However, no written and little
oral history exists on the island, so its impossible to be certain." [10]
It was believed that the living had a symbiotic relationship with the dead where the dead provided everything that the
living needed (health, fertility of land and animals, fortune etc.) and the living, through offerings provided the dead
with a better place in the spirit world. Most settlements were located on the coast and most moai were erected along
the coastline, watching over their descendants in the settlements before them, with their backs toward the spirit world
in the sea.
Diamond suggested that cannibalism took place on Easter Island after the construction of the Moai contributed to
environmental degradation when extreme deforestation destabilized an already precarious ecosystem.[11]
Archeological record shows that at the time of the initial settlement the island was home to many species of trees,
including at least three species which grew up to 50 feet or more: Paschalococos possibly the largest palm trees in
the world at the time, Alphitonia zizyphoides, and Elaeocarpus rarotongensis, as well as at least six species of native
land birds. Barbara A. West wrote, "Sometime before the arrival of Europeans on Easter Island, the Rapanui
experienced a tremendous upheaval in their social system brought about by a change in their island's ecology... By
the time of European arrival in 1722, the island's population had dropped to 2,0003,000 from a high of
approximately 15,000 just a century earlier."[12]
By that time, 21 species of trees and all species of land birds went extinct through some combination of
overharvesting/overhunting, rat predation, and climate change. The island was largely deforested, and it did not have
any trees more than 10 feet tall. Loss of large trees meant that residents were no longer able to build seaworthy
vessels, significantly diminishing their fishing abilities. This was further exacerbated by the loss of land birds and the
collapse in seabird populations as a potential source of food. By the 18th century, residents of the island were largely
sustained by farming, with domestic chickens as the primary source of protein.
As the island became overpopulated and resources diminished, warriors known as matatoa gained more power and
the Ancestor Cult ended, making way for the Bird Man Cult. Beverly Haun wrote, "The concept of mana (power)
invested in hereditary leaders was recast into the person of the birdman, apparently beginning circa 1540, and
coinciding with the final vestiges of the moai period."[13] This cult maintained that, although the ancestors still
provided for their descendants, the medium through which the living could contact the dead was no longer statues,
but human beings chosen through a competition. The god responsible for creating humans, Makemake, played an
important role in this process. Katherine Routledge, who systematically collected the island's traditions in her 1919
expedition, showed that the competitions for Bird Man (Rapanui: tangata manu) started around 1760, after the
arrival of the first Europeans, and ended in 1878, with the construction of the first church by Roman Catholic
missionaries who formally arrived in 1864. Petroglyphs representing Bird Men on Easter Island are exactly the same
as some in Hawaii, indicating that this concept was probably brought by the original settlers; only the competition
itself was unique to Easter Island.

243

Easter Island

244

European accounts from 1722 and 1770 mention standing statues, but Cook's 1774 expedition noted that several
moai were lying face down, having been toppled in war.
According to Diamond and Heyerdahl's version of the
island's
history,
the
huri
mo'ai"statue-toppling"continued into the 1830s as
a part of fierce internal wars. By 1838 the only standing
moai were on the slopes of Rano Raraku, in Hoa
Hakananai'a in Orongo, and Ariki Paro in Ahu Te Pito
Kura. A study headed by Douglas Owsley published in
1994 asserted that there is little archaeological evidence
of pre-European societal collapse. Bone pathology and
osteometric data from islanders of that period clearly
suggest few fatalities can be attributed directly to
violence.
The first-recorded European contact with the island was
on 5 April (Easter Sunday), 1722, when Dutch
navigator Jacob Roggeveen visited the island for a
week and estimated a population of 2,000 to 3,000
inhabitants. The number may have been greater, since
some may have been frightened into hiding by a
misunderstanding that led Roggeveen's men to fire on
the natives, killing more than a dozen and wounding
several more. The next foreign visitors (on 15
November 1770) were two Spanish ships, San Lorenzo
and Santa Rosalia.

Motu Nui islet, part of the Birdman Cult ceremony

The Spanish reported the island as largely uncultivated, whose seashore was lined with stone statues. Four years
later, in 1774, British explorer James Cook visited Easter Island; he reported that some statues had fallen over. The
British ship HMSBlossom arrived in 1825 and reported seeing no standing statues. Easter Island was approached
many times during the 19th century, but by then the islanders had become openly hostile to any attempt to land, and
very little new information was reported before the 1860s.

19th century
A series of devastating events killed or removed most of the population in the 1860s. In December 1862, Peruvian
slave raiders struck. Violent abductions continued for several months, eventually capturing around 1,500 men and
women, half of the island's population. Among those captured were the island's paramount chief, his heir, and those
who knew how to read and write the rongorongo script, the only Polynesian script to have been found to date.
When the slave raiders were forced to repatriate the people they had kidnapped, they disembarked carriers of
smallpox together with a few survivors on each of the islands. This created devastating epidemics from Easter Island
to the Marquesas islands. Easter Island's population was reduced to the point where some of the dead were not even
buried.
Tuberculosis, introduced by whalers in the mid-19th century, had already killed several islanders when the first
Christian missionary, Eugne Eyraud, died from this disease in 1867. About a quarter of the island's population
succumbed along with him. In the following years, the managers of the sheep ranch and the missionaries started
buying the newly available lands of the deceased, and this led to great confrontations between natives and settlers.

Easter Island

Jean-Baptiste Dutrou-Bornier bought up all

of the island apart from the missionaries'
area around Hanga Roa and moved a couple
of hundred Rapanui to Tahiti to work for his
backers. In 1871 the missionaries, having
fallen out with Dutrou-Bornier, evacuated
all but 171 Rapanui to the Gambier islands.
Those who remained were mostly older
men. Six years later, only 111 people lived
on Easter Island, and only 36 of them had
any offspring. From that point on the
island's population slowly recovered. But
with over 97% of the population dead or
gone in less than a decade, much of the
island's cultural knowledge had been lost.

245

"Queen Mother" Koreto with her daughters "Queen" Caroline and Harriette in
1877

Alexander Salmon, Jr., a son of an English

Jewish merchant and a Pmare Dynasty princess, eventually worked to repatriate workers from his inherited copra
plantation. He eventually bought up all lands on the island with the exception of the mission, and was its sole
employer. He worked to develop tourism on the island, and was the principal informant for the British and German
archaeological expeditions for the island. He sent several pieces of genuine Rongorongo to his niece's husband, the
German consul in Valparaso, Chile. Salmon sold the Brander Easter Island holdings to the Chilean government in
1888 January 2 and signed as a witness to the cession of the island. He returned to Tahiti in December of that year.
He effectively ruled the island from 1878 until his cession to Chile in 1888.
Easter Island was annexed by Chile on 9 September 1888, by Policarpo Toro, by means of the "Treaty of Annexation
of the Island" (Tratado de Anexin de la isla). Toro, then representing the government of Chile signed with Atamu
Tekena, designated "King" by the Chilean government after the paramount chief and his heir had died. The validity
of this treaty is still contested by some Rapanui. Officially, Chile purchased the nearly all encompassing
Mason-Brander sheep ranch, comprised from lands purchased from the descendants of Rapanui who died during the
epidemics, and then claimed sovereignty over the island.

20th century
Until the 1960s the surviving Rapanui were confined to Hanga Roa. The rest of the island was rented to the
Williamson-Balfour Company as a sheep farm until 1953. The island was then managed by the Chilean Navy until
1966, at which point the island was reopened in its entirety. In 1966 the Rapanui were given Chilean citizenship.

Easter Island

246

Following the 1973 Chilean coup d'tat that brought Augusto

Pinochet to power, Easter Island was placed under martial law.
Tourism slowed down and private property was "restored". During
his time in power, Pinochet visited Easter Island on three
occasions. The military built a number of new military facilities
and a new city hall.[14]
After an agreement in 1985 between Chile and United States, the
runway at Mataveri International Airport was enlarged and was
inaugurated in 1987. The runway was expanded 423 metres
(1,388ft) reaching 3,353 metres (11,001ft). Pinochet is reported
to have refused to attend the inauguration in protest of pressures
from the United States to attend human rights cases.[15]

General Pinochet posing with a native Rapa Nui

woman

21st century
On 30 July 2007, a constitutional reform gave Easter Island and the Juan Fernndez Islands (also known as Robinson
Crusoe Island) the status of "special territories" of Chile. Pending the enactment of a special charter, the island
continued to be governed as a province of the V Region of Valparaso.[16]
A total solar eclipse visible from Easter Island occurred for the first time in over 1300 years on 11 July 2010, at
18:15:15.
Species of fish were collected in Easter Island for one month in different habitats including shallow lava pools,
depths of 43 meters, and deep waters. Within these habitats, two holotypes and paratypes, Antennarius randalli and
Antennarius moai, were discovered. These are considered frog-fish because of their characteristics: "12 dorsal rays,
last two or three branched; bony part of first dorsal spine slightly shorter than second dorsal spine; body without bold
zebra-like markings; caudal peduncle short,but distinct; last pelvic ray divided; pectoral rays 11 or 12" . [17]

Indigenous rights movement

Starting in August 2010, members of the indigenous Hitorangi clan occupied the Hangaroa Eco Village and Spa. The
occupiers allege that the hotel was bought from the Pinochet government, in violation of a Chilean agreement with
the indigenous Rapa Nui, in the 1990s. The occupiers say their ancestors had been cheated into giving up the land.
According to a BBC report, on 3 December 2010, at least 25 people were injured when Chilean police using pellet
guns attempted to evict from these buildings a group of Rapa Nui who had claimed that the land the buildings stood
on had been illegally taken from their ancestors.
In January 2011, the UN's Special Rapporteur on Indigenous People, James Anaya, expressed concern about the
treatment of the indigenous Rapa Nui by the Chilean government, urging Chile to "make every effort to conduct a
dialogue in good faith with representatives of the Rapa Nui people to solve, as soon as possible the real underlying
problems that explain the current situation".
The incident ended in February 2011, when up to 50 armed police broke into the hotel to remove the final five
occupiers. They were arrested by the government and no injuries were reported.

Easter Island

247

Geography
Easter Island is one of the world's most isolated inhabited islands. Its
closest inhabited neighbor is Pitcairn Island, 2,075km (1,289mi) to
the west, with fewer than 100 inhabitants. The nearest continental point
lies in central Chile near Concepcin, at 3,512 kilometres (2,182mi).
Easter Island's latitude is similar to that of Caldera, Chile, and it lies
3,510km (2,180mi) west of continental Chile at its nearest point
(between Lota and Lebu in the Biobo Region). Isla Salas y Gmez,
415km (258mi) to the east, is closer but is uninhabited. Archipelago
Tristan da Cunha in the southern Atlantic competes for the title of the
most remote island, lying 2,430 kilometres (1,510mi) from Saint
Helena island and 2,816 kilometres (1,750mi) from South African
coast.

Easter Island, Salas y Gmez Islands, South

America and the islands in between

The island is about 24.6km (15.3mi) long by 12.3km (7.6mi) at its

widest point; its overall shape is triangular. It has an area of 163.6
square kilometres (63.2sqmi), and a maximum altitude of 507 meters (1,663ft). There are three Rano (freshwater
crater lakes), at Rano Kau, Rano Raraku and Rano Aroi, near the summit of Terevaka, but no permanent streams or
rivers.

Geology
Easter Island is a volcanic high island, consisting
mainly of three extinct coalesced volcanoes: Terevaka
(altitude 507 metres) forms the bulk of the island, while
two other volcanoes, Poike and Rano Kau, form the
eastern and southern headlands and give the island its
roughly triangular shape. Lesser cones and other
volcanic features include the crater Rano Raraku, the
cinder cone Puna Pau and many volcanic caves
including lava tubes. Poike used to be a separate island
until volcanic material from Terevaka united it to the
larger whole. The island is dominated by hawaiite and
basalt flows which are rich in iron and show affinity
with igneous rocks found in the Galpagos Islands.

Typical landscape on Easter Island; rounded extinct volcanoes

covered in low vegetation.

Easter Island and surrounding islets such as Motu Nui

and Motu Iti form the summit of a large volcanic mountain rising over 2,000 metres (6,600ft) from the sea bed. The
mountain is part of the Sala y Gmez Ridge, a (mostly submarine) mountain range with dozens of seamounts,
formed by the Easter hotspot. The range begins with Pukao and next Moai, two seamounts to the west of Easter
Island, and extends 2,700km (1,700mi) east to the Nazca Ridge.[18] The ridge was formed by the Nazca Plate
floating over the Easter hotspot.[19] The movement of Nazca and formerly the Farallon Plate over the hotspot has
created a long underwater ridge, the Nazca Ridge, whose eastern end is being subducted under Peru. Only at Easter
Island, its surrounding islets and Sala y Gmez does the Sala y Gmez Ridge form dry land.
Pukao, Moai and Easter Island were formed in the last 750,000 years and are the ridge's youngest islands. The most
recent eruption was a little over 100,000 years ago.

Easter Island

248

In the first half of the 20th century, steam reportedly came out of the Rano Kau crater wall. This was photographed
by the island's manager, Mr. Edmunds.[20] According to geologists the last volcanic activity on the island occurred
10,000 years ago.

Climate
See also: Climate of Chile
Under the Kppen climate classification, the climate of Easter Island is classified as a tropical rainforest climate (Af)
that borders on a humid subtropical climate. The lowest temperatures are recorded in July and August (18C or
64F) and the highest in February (maximum temperature 28C or 82F), the summer season in the southern
hemisphere. Winters are relatively mild. The rainiest month is May, though the island experiences year-round
rainfall.[21] Easter Island's isolated location exposes it to winds which help to keep the temperature fairly cool.
Precipitation averages 1,118 millimetres or 44 inches per year. Occasionally, heavy rainfall and rainstorms strike the
island. These occur mostly in the winter months (JuneAugust). Since it is close to the South Pacific High and
outside the range of the intertropical convergence zone, cyclones and hurricanes do not occur around Easter island.
Climate data for Easter Island
Month

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

Record high
C (F)

36
(97)

36
(97)

36
(97)

35
(95)

30
(86)

35
(95)

31
(88)

32
(90)

32
(90)

32
(90)

32
(90)

33
(91)

36
(97)

Average high
C (F)

27.0
(80.6)

27.3
(81.1)

26.9
(80.4)

25.4
(77.7)

23.4
(74.1)

22.0
(71.6)

21.3
(70.3)

21.2
(70.2)

21.7
(71.1)

22.5
(72.5)

23.9
(75)

25.4
(77.7)

24.0
(75.2)

Daily mean C
(F)

23.3
(73.9)

23.6
(74.5)

23.1
(73.6)

21.8
(71.2)

20.2
(68.4)

18.8
(65.8)

18.2
(64.8)

18.0
(64.4)

18.3
(64.9)

19.1
(66.4)

20.4
(68.7)

21.8
(71.2)

20.6
(69.1)

Average low
C (F)

19.8
(67.6)

20.2
(68.4)

19.9
(67.8)

18.9
(66)

17.7
(63.9)

16.5
(61.7)

15.7
(60.3)

15.4
(59.7)

15.5
(59.9)

16.0
(60.8)

17.3
(63.1)

18.4
(65.1)

17.6
(63.7)

Record low C
(F)

15
(59)

16
(61)

7
(45)

3
(37)

10
(50)

7
(45)

9
(48)

7
(45)

10
(50)

3
(37)

7
(45)

12
(54)

3
(37)

Precipitation
mm (inches)

72.8
84.8
95.6
120.7 152.9 106.3
105.1
93.8
86.8
68.0
74.0
86.4
1,147.2
(2.866) (3.339) (3.764) (4.752) (6.02) (4.185) (4.138) (3.693) (3.417) (2.677) (2.913) (3.402) (45.165)

% humidity

79

80

80

80

79

79

79

79

79

78

79

79

79

Mean monthly
sunshine
hours

291.4

245.8

238.7

195.0

176.7

155.0

151.9

173.6

183.0

220.1

219.0

263.5

2,513.7

Source #1: Universidad de Chile (normals and sunshine hours)

Source #2: Weatherbase

Ecology
Easter Island, together with its closest neighbour, the tiny island of Isla Sala y Gmez 415 kilometers (258mi)
farther east, is recognized by ecologists as a distinct ecoregion, the Rapa Nui subtropical broadleaf forests. The
original subtropical moist broadleaf forests are now gone, but paleobotanical studies of fossil pollen and tree moulds
left by lava flows indicate that the island was formerly forested, with a range of trees, shrubs, ferns, and grasses. A
large extinct palm, Paschalococos disperta, related to the Chilean wine palm (Jubaea chilensis), was one of the
dominant trees as attested by fossil evidence. Like its Chilean counterpart it probably took close to 100 years to
reach adult height. The Polynesian rat, which the original settlers brought with them, played a very important role in
the disappearance of the Rapanui palm. Although some may believe that rats played a major role in the degradation
of the forest, less than 10% of palm nuts show teeth marks from rats. The remains of palm stumps in different places

Easter Island

249

indicate that humans caused the trees to fall because in large areas, the stumps were cut efficiently.[22]
The clearance of the palms to make the settlements led to their extinction almost 350 years ago.[23] The toromiro tree
(Sophora toromiro) was prehistorically present on Easter Island, but is now extinct in the wild. However the Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew and the Gteborg Botanical Garden are jointly leading a scientific program to reintroduce the
toromiro to Easter Island. With the palm and the toromiro virtually gone, there was considerably less rainfall as a
result of less condensation. After the island was used to feed thousands of sheep for almost a century, by the
mid-1900s the island was mostly covered in grassland with nga'atu or bulrush (Schoenoplectus californicus tatora)
in the crater lakes of Rano Raraku and Rano Kau. The presence of these reeds, which are called totora in the Andes,
was used to support the argument of a South American origin of the statue builders, but pollen analysis of lake
sediments shows these reeds have grown on the island for over 30,000 years.Wikipedia:Citation needed Before the
arrival of humans, Easter Island had vast seabird colonies containing probably over 30 resident species, perhaps the
world's richest. Such colonies are no longer found on the main island. Fossil evidence indicates five species of
landbirds (two rails, two parrots and a heron), all of which have become extinct.

Vegetation on the island

View of Easter Island from

space, 2001. The Poike peninsula
is on the right.

Digital recreation of its ancient

landscape, with tropical forest
and palm trees

View toward the interior of the

island

View of Rano Kau and Pacific

Ocean

The immunosuppressant drug sirolimus was first discovered in the bacterium Streptomyces hygroscopicus in a soil
sample from Easter Island. The drug is also known as rapamycin, after Rapa Nui. It is now being studied for
extending longevity in mice.
Trees are sparse, rarely forming natural groves, and it has been argued whether native Easter Islanders deforested the
island in the process of erecting their statues, and in providing sustenance for an overpopulated
island.Wikipedia:Citation needed Experimental archaeology demonstrated that some statues certainly could have
been placed on "Y" shaped wooden frames called miro manga erua and then pulled to their final destinations on
ceremonial sites. Other theories involve the use of "ladders" (parallel wooden rails) over which the statues could
have been dragged. Rapanui traditions metaphorically refer to spiritual power (mana) as the means by which the
moai were "walked" from the quarry. Recent experimental recreations have proven that it is fully possible that the
moai were literally walked from their quarries to their final positions by use of ropes, casting doubt on the role that
their existence plays in the environmental collapse of the island.
Given the island's southern latitude, the climatic effects of the Little Ice Age (about 1650 to 1850) may have
exacerbated deforestation, although this remains speculative. Many researchers[24] point to the climatic downtrend
caused by the Little Ice Age as a contributing factor to resource stress and to the palm tree's disappearance. Experts,
however, do not agree on when exactly the island's palms became extinct.
Jared Diamond dismisses past climate change as a dominant cause of the island's deforestation in his book Collapse
which assesses the collapse of the ancient Easter Islanders. Influenced by Heyerdahl's romantic interpretation of
Easter's history (as he acknowledges in chapter 2 of Collapse), Diamond insists that the disappearance of the island's
trees seems to coincide with a decline of its civilization around the 17th and 18th centuries. He notes that they
stopped making statues at that time and started destroying the ahu. But the link is weakened because the Bird Man

Easter Island
cult continued to thrive and survived the great impact caused by the arrival of explorers, whalers, sandalwood
traders, and slave raiders.
Midden contents show that the main source of protein was tuna and dolphin. With the loss of the trees, there was a
sudden drop in the quantities of fish bones found in middens as the islanders lost the means to construct fishing
vessels, coinciding with a large increase in bird bones. This was followed by a decrease in the number of bird bones
as birds lost their nesting sites or became extinct. A new style of art from this period shows people with exposed ribs
and distended bellies, indicative of malnutrition, and it is around this time that many islanders moved to living in
fortified caves and the first signs of warfare and cannibalism appear.
Soil erosion because of lack of trees is apparent in some places. Sediment samples document that up to half of the
native plants had become extinct and that the vegetation of the island drastically altered. Polynesians were primarily
farmers, not fishermen, and their diet consisted mainly of cultivated staples such as taro root, sweet potato, yams,
cassava, and bananas. With no trees to protect them, sea spray led to crop failures exacerbated by a sudden reduction
in fresh water flows. There is evidence that the islanders took to planting crops in caves beneath collapsed ceilings
and covered the soil with rocks to reduce evaporation. Cannibalism occurred on many Polynesian islands, sometimes
in times of plenty as well as famine. Its presence on Easter Island (based on human remains associated with cooking
sites, especially in caves) is supported by oral histories.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Benny Peiser noted evidence of self-sufficiency when Europeans first arrived. The island still had smaller trees,
mainly toromiro, which became extinct in the 20th century probably because of slow growth and changes in the
island's ecosystem. Cornelis Bouman, Jakob Roggeveen's captain, stated in his logbook, "... of yams, bananas and
small coconut palms we saw little and no other trees or crops." According to Carl Friedrich Behrens, Roggeveen's
officer, "The natives presented palm branches as peace offerings." According to ethnographer Alfred Mtraux, the
most common type of house was called "hare paenga" (and is known today as "boat house") because the roof
resembled an overturned boat. The foundations of the houses were made of buried basalt slabs with holes for wooden
beams to connect with each other throughout the width of the house. These were then covered with a layer of totora
reed, followed by a layer of woven sugarcane leaves, and lastly a layer of woven grass. There were reports by
European visitors who said they had seen "boles of large palm trees".Wikipedia:Citation needed
Peiser claims that these reports indicate that large trees existed at that time, which is perhaps contradicted by the
Bouman quote above. Plantations were often located farther inland, next to foothills, inside open-ceiling lava tubes,
and in other places protected from the strong salt winds and salt spray affecting areas closer to the coast. It is
possible many of the Europeans did not venture inland. The statue quarry, only one kilometre (0.62 miles) from the
coast with an impressive cliff 100m (330ft) high, was not explored by Europeans until well into the 19th century.

Panorama of Anakena beach, Easter Island. The moai pictured here was the first to be raised back into place on its
ahu in 1955 by islanders using the ancient method.
Easter Island has suffered from heavy soil erosion in recent centuries, perhaps aggravated by agriculture and massive
deforestation. This process seems to have been gradual and may have been aggravated by sheep farming throughout
most of the 20th century. Jakob Roggeveen reported that Easter Island was exceptionally fertile. "Fowls are the only
animals they keep. They cultivate bananas, sugar cane, and above all sweet potatoes." In 1786 Jean-Franois de La
Prouse visited Easter Island and his gardener declared that "three days' work a year" would be enough to support the

250

Easter Island

251

population.
Rollin, a major in the Prouse expedition, wrote, "Instead of meeting with men exhausted by famine... I found, on the
contrary, a considerable population, with more beauty and grace than I afterwards met in any other island; and a soil,
which, with very little labor, furnished excellent provisions, and in an abundance more than sufficient for the
consumption of the inhabitants."
According to Diamond, the oral traditions (the veracity of which has been questioned by Routledge, Lavachery,
Mtraux, Peiser and others) of the current islanders seem obsessed with cannibalism, which he offers as evidence
supporting a rapid collapse. For example, he states, to severely insult an enemy one would say, "The flesh of your
mother sticks between my teeth." This, Diamond asserts, means the food supply of the people ultimately ran out.
Cannibalism, however, was widespread across Polynesian cultures.[25] Human bones have not been found in earth
ovens other than those behind the religious platforms, indicating that cannibalism in Easter Island was a ritualistic
practice. Contemporary ethnographic research has proven there is scarcely any tangible evidence for widespread
cannibalism anywhere and at any time on the Island. The first scientific exploration of Easter Island (1914) recorded
that the indigenous population strongly rejected allegations that they or their ancestors had been cannibals.

Culture
Mythology
Main article: Rapa Nui mythology
The most important myths are:
Tangata manu, the Birdman cult which was practiced until the
1860s.
Makemake, an important god.
Aku-aku, the guardians of the sacred family caves.
Moai-kava-kava a ghost man of the Hanau epe (long-ears.)
Hekai ite umu pare haonga takapu Hanau epe kai noruego, the
sacred chant to appease the aku-aku before entering a family cave.

Stone work
The Rapa Nui people had a Stone Age culture and made extensive use
of several different types of local stone:

Birdmen (Tangata manu) paintings in the cave

called "Cave of the Men Eaters"

Basalt, a hard, dense stone used for toki and at least one of the moai.
Obsidian, a volcanic glass with sharp edges used for sharp-edged implements such as Mataa and also for the black
pupils of the eyes of the moai.
Red scoria from Puna Pau, a very light red stone used for the pukao and a few moai.
Tuff from Rano Raraku, a much more easily worked rock than basalt, and was used for most of the moai.
Statues
Main article: Moai
The large stone statues, or moai, for which Easter Island is famous, were carved in the period 11001680 CE
(rectified radio-carbon dates). A total of 887 monolithic stone statues have been inventoried on the island and in
museum collections so far. Although often identified as "Easter Island heads", the statues have torsos, most of them
ending at the top of the thighs, although a small number are complete figures that kneel on bent knees with their
hands over their stomachs.[26][27] Some upright moai have become buried up to their necks by shifting soils.

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Almost all (95%)Wikipedia:Citation needed moai were carved from compressed, easily worked solidified volcanic
ash or tuff found at a single site on the side of the extinct volcano Rano Raraku. The native islanders who carved
them used only stone hand chisels, mainly basalt toki, which lie in place all over the quarry. The stone chisels were
sharpened by chipping off a new edge when dulled. The volcanic stone was first wetted to soften it before sculpting
began, then again periodically during the process. While many teams worked on different statues at the same time, a
single moai took a team of five or six men approximately a year to complete. Each statue represented the deceased
head of a lineage.
Only a quarter of the statues were installed, while nearly half remained in the quarry at Rano Raraku and the rest sat
elsewhere, presumably on their way to intended locations. The largest moai raised on a platform is known as "Paro".
It weighs 82 tons and is 9.8m (32.15ft) long.[28] Several other statues of similar weight were transported to several
ahu on the North and South coasts.
Possible means by which the statues were moved include employment of a miro manga erua, a Y-shaped sledge with
cross pieces, pulled with ropes made from the tough bark of the hau-hau tree, and tied around the statue's neck.
Anywhere from 180 to 250 men were required for pulling, depending on the size of the moai. Some 50 of the statues
were re-erected in modern times. One of the first was on Ahu Ature Huke in Anakena beach in 1958. It was raised
using traditional methods during a Heyerdahl expedition.
Another method that might have been used would be to attach ropes to the statue and rock it, tugging it forward as it
rocked. This would fit the legend of the Mo'ai 'walking' to their final locations. This might have been managed by as
few as 15 people. This is supported by the following evidence:
1) The heads of the moai in the quarry are sloped forward whereas the ones moved to final locations are not. This
would serve to provide a better centre of gravity for transport.
2) The statues found along the transport roads have wider bases than statues installed on ahu; this would facilitate
more stable transport. Studies have also shown fractures along the bases of the statues in transport; these could have
arisen from rocking the statue back and forth and placing great pressures on the edges. The statues found mounted on
ahu do not have wide bases and stone chips found at the sites suggest they were further modified on placement.
3) The abandoned and fallen statues in proximity to the old roads are found (more often than would be expected
from chance) face down when headed down ascending grades, and on their backs when headed uphill. Some were
documented standing upright along the old roads, e.g., by a party from Captain Cook's voyage which rested in the
shade of a standing statue. This would be consistent with upright transport.
In 2011, a large moai statue was excavated from the ground, suggesting that the statues are larger than previously
thought.

Moais

Tukuturi, an unusual bearded kneeling moai

All fifteen standing moai at Ahu

Tongariki, excavated and restored in the
1990s

Ahu Akivi, one of the few inland ahu,

with the only moai facing the ocean

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253

Stone platforms
Ahu are stone platforms. Varying greatly in layout, many were
reworked during or after the huri mo'ai or statue-toppling era; many
became ossuaries; one was dynamited open; and Ahu Tongariki was
swept inland by a tsunami. Of the 313 known ahu, 125 carried
moaiusually just one, probably because of the shortness of the moai
period and transportation difficulties. Ahu Tongariki, one kilometer
(0.62 miles) from Rano Raraku, had the most and tallest moai, 15 in
total. Other notable ahu with moai are Ahu Akivi, restored in 1960 by
William Mulloy, Nau Nau at Anakena and Tahai. Some moai may
have been made from wood and were lost.
The classic elements of ahu design are:
A retaining rear wall several feet high, usually facing the sea
A front wall made of rectangular basalt slabs called paenga

Two ahu at Hanga Roa. In foreground Ahu Ko Te

Riku (with a pukao on its head). In the
mid-ground is a side view of an ahu with five
moai showing retaining wall, platform, ramp and
pavement. The Mataveri end of Hanga Roa is
visible in the background with Rano Kau rising
above it.

A facia made of red scoria that went over the front wall (platforms
built after 1300)
A sloping ramp in the inland part of the platform, extending outward like wings
A pavement of even-sized, round water-worn stones called poro
An alignment of stones before the ramp
A paved plaza before the ahu. This was called marae
Inside the ahu was a fill of rubble.
On top of many ahu would have been:
Moai on squareish "pedestals" looking inland, the ramp with the poro before them.
Pukao or Hau Hiti Rau on the moai heads (platforms built after 1300).
When a ceremony took place, "eyes" were placed on the statues. The whites of the eyes were made of coral, the
iris was made of obsidian or red scoria.
Ahu evolved from the traditional Polynesian marae. In this context ahu referred to a small structure sometimes
covered with a thatched roof where sacred objects, including statues, were stored. The ahu were usually adjacent to
the marae or main central court where ceremonies took place, though on Easter Island ahu and moai evolved to much
greater size. There the marae is the unpaved plaza before the ahu. The biggest ahu is 220 meters (720ft) and holds
15 statues, some of which are 9 meters (30ft) high. The filling of an ahu was sourced locally (apart from broken, old
moai, fragments of which have also been used in the fill). Individual stones are mostly far smaller than the moai, so
less work was needed to transport the raw material, but artificially leveling the terrain for the plaza and filling the
ahu was laborious.
Ahu are found mostly on the coast, where they are distributed fairly evenly except on the western slopes of Mount
Terevaka and the Rano Kau and Poike[29] headlands. These are the three areas with the least low-lying coastal land,
and apart from Poike the furthest areas from Rano Raraku. One ahu with several moai was recorded on the cliffs at
Rano Kau in the 1880s, but had fallen to the beach before the Routledge expedition.

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Stone walls
One of the highest-quality examples of Easter Island stone masonry is
the rear wall of the ahu at Vinapu. Made without mortar by shaping
hard basalt rocks of up to seven tons to match each other exactly, it has
a superficial similarity to some Inca stone walls in South America.[30]
Stone houses

A Hare Moa, a Chicken House, image cut from a

laser scan collected by nonprofit CyArk

Two types of houses are known from the past: hare paenga, a house
with an elliptical foundation, made with basalt slabs and covered with
a thatched roof that resembled an overturned boat, and hare oka, a round stone structure. Related stone structures
called Tupa look very similar to the hare oka, except that the Tupa were inhabited by astronomer-priests and located
near the coast, where the movements of the stars could be easily observed. Settlements also contain hare moa
("chicken house"), oblong stone structures that were used to house chickens. The houses at the ceremonial village of
Orongo are unique in that they are shaped like hare paenga but are made entirely of flat basalt slabs found inside
Rano Kao crater. The entrances to all the houses are very low, and entry requires crawling.
In early times the people of Rapa Nui reportedly sent the dead out to sea in small funerary canoes, as did their
Polynesian counterparts in other islands. They later started burying people in secret caves in order to save the bones
from desecration by enemies. During the turmoil of the late 18th century, the islanders seem to have started to bury
their dead in the space between the belly of a fallen moai and the front wall of the structure. During the time of the
epidemics they made mass graves that were semi-pyramidal stone structures.
Petroglyphs
Petroglyphs are pictures carved into rock, and Easter Island has one of the richest collections in all Polynesia.
Around 1,000 sites with more than 4,000 petroglyphs are catalogued. Designs and images were carved out of rock
for a variety of reasons: to create totems, to mark territory or to memorialize a person or event. There are distinct
variations around the island in terms of the frequency of particular themes among petroglyphs, with a concentration
of Birdmen at Orongo. Other subjects include sea turtles, Komari (vulvas) and Makemake, the chief god of the
Tangata manu or Birdman cult.
Petroglyphs are also common in the Marquesas islands.

Petroglyphs

Makemake with two birdmen, carved from red scoria

Fish petroglyph found near Ahu Tongariki

Easter Island

255

Caves
The island and neighbouring Motu Nui are riddled with caves, many of which show signs of past human use for
planting and as fortifications, including narrowed entrances and crawl spaces with ambush points. Many caves
feature in the myths and legends of the Rapa Nui.

Rongorongo
Main article: Rongorongo
Easter Island once had an apparent script called rongorongo. Glyphs
include pictographic and geometric shapes; the texts were incised in
wood in reverse boustrophedon direction. It was first reported by a
French missionary, Eugne Eyraud, in 1864. At that time, several
islanders said they could understand the writing, but according to
tradition, only ruling families and priests were ever literate, and none
survived the slave raids and subsequent epidemics. Despite numerous
attempts, the surviving texts have not been deciphered, and without
decipherment it is not certain that they are actually writing. Part of the
problem is the small amount that has survived: only two dozen texts,
none of which remain on the island. There are also only a couple of
similarities with the petroglyphs on the island.[31]
Sample of rongorongo

Wood carving

Skeletal statuette Atypical tubby statuette

Wood was scarce on Easter Island during the 18th and 19th centuries, but a number of highly detailed and distinctive
carvings have found their way to the world's museums. Particular forms include:

Easter Island

Reimiro, a gorget or breast ornament of crescent shape with a head

at one or both tips.[32] The same design appears on the flag of Rapa
Nui. Two Rei Miru at the British Museum are inscribed with
Rongorongo.
Moko Miro, a man with a lizard head. The Moko Miro was used as
a club because of the legs, which formed a handle shape. If it wasn't
held by hand, dancers wore it around their necks during feasts. The
Moko Miro would also be placed at the doorway to protect the
household from harm. It would be hanging from the roof or set in
the ground. The original form had eyes made from white shells, and
the pupils were made of obsidian.[33]
Moai kavakava are male carvings and the Moai Paepae are female
carvings.[34] These grotesque and highly detailed human figures
carved from Toromiro pine, represent ancestors. Sometimes these
statues were used for fertility rites. Usually, they are used for
Ancestor figure, circa 1830, from LACMA
harvest celebrations; "the first picking of fruits was heaped around
collections
them as offerings". When the statues were not used, they would be
wrapped in bark cloth and kept at home. There were a few times that are reported when the islanders would pick
up the figures like dolls and dance with them.[35] The earlier figures are rare and generally depict a male figure
with an emaciated body and a goatee. The figures' ribs and vertebrae are exposed and many examples show
carved glyphs on various parts of the body but more specifically, on the top of the head. The female figures, rarer
than the males, depict the body as flat and often with the female's hand lying across the body. The figures,
although some were quite large, were worn as ornamental pieces around a tribesman's neck. The more figures
worn, the more important the man. The figures have a shiny patina developed from constant handling and contact
with human skin.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Ao, a large dancing paddle

21st-century culture
The Rapanui sponsor an annual festival, the Tapati, held since 1975 around the beginning of February to celebrate
Rapanui culture. The islanders also maintain a national football team and three discos in the town of Hanga Roa.
Other cultural activities include a musical tradition that combines South American and Polynesian influences and
woodcarving.
Sports
The Chilean leg of the Red Bull Cliff Diving World Series takes place on the Island of Rapa Nui.

Demography
Further information: Europeans in Oceania

2002 census
Population at the 2012 census was 5,761 (increased from 3,791 in 2002).[36] In 2002, 60% were Rapanui, Chileans of
European or mixed European and Amerindian descent were 39% of the population, and the remaining 1% were
Native Americans from mainland Chile. Population density on Easter Island in 2012 is only 35 inhabitants per
square kilometre (91/sqmi).

256

Easter Island

257

Real life in Rapa Nui

Polynesian dancing with feather

costumes is on the tourist
itinerary.

Hanga Roa town hall

Catholic Church, Hanga Roa,

Rapa Nui (Easter Island)

Interior view of the Catholic

Church in Hanga Roa, Rapa Nui
(Easter Island)

Fishing boats on
Easter Island

Front view of the

Catholic Church,
Hanga Roa, Rapa Nui
(Easter Island)

Demographic history
The 1982 population was 1,936. The increase in population in the last census was partly caused by the arrival of
people of European or mixed European and Native American descent from the Chilean mainland. However, most
married a Rapanui spouse. Around 70% of the population were natives. Estimates of the pre-European population
range from 717,000. Easter Island's all-time low of 111 inhabitants was reported in 1877. Out of these 111 Rapanui,
only 36 had descendants, but all of today's Rapanui claim descent from those 36.

Administration and legal status

Easter Island shares with Juan Fernndez Islands the constitutional status of "special territory" of Chile, granted in
2007. As of 2011 a special charter for the island was under discussion in the Chilean Congress.
Administratively, the island is a province of the Valparaso Region and contains a single commune (comuna). Both
the province and the commune are called Isla de Pascua and encompass the whole island and its surrounding islets
and rocks, plus Isla Salas y Gmez, some 380km (236mi) to the east.

Authorities and representatives

Within the electoral divisions of Chile, Easter Island belongs to the 13th electoral district and 6th senatorial
constituency. The people are represented in the Chamber of Deputies by Joaqun Godoy (RN) and Aldo Cornejo
(PDC). Constituents are also represented by two senators, Francisco Chahun (RN) and Ricardo Lagos Weber
(PPD).
Provincial Governor: Carmen Cardinali Paoa (2010). Appointed by the President of the Republic.
Mayor: Luz Zasso Paoa (PDC), directly elected for four years (20082012). Municipality located in Hanga Roa.
Municipal council, directly elected for four years (20082012):
Marta Raquel Hotus Tuki (PDC)
Ximena Trengove Vallejos (PDC)
Julio Araki Tepano (UDI)

Easter Island
Eliana Amelia Olivares San Juan (UDI)
Alberto Hotus Chvez (PPD)
Marcelo Pont Hill (PPD)

Notable people

Hotu Matuaisland founder

King Nga'araone of the last ariki
Kings of Easter Island
Thor Heyerdahlethnographer
Fr Sebastian Englert, OFM Cap.missionary and ethnologist
William Mulloyarchaeologist
Pedro Pablo Edmunds Paoaformer Governor
Melania Carolina Hotu Heyformer Governor (20062010)
Juan Edmunds Rapahangoformer Mayor

Transportation
Easter Island is served by Mataveri International Airport, with jet service (currently Boeing 767s) from LAN
Airlines and, seasonally, subsidiaries such as LAN Peru.

Notes
[1] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Easter_Island&
params=27_7_S_109_22_W_region:CL-VL_type:isle_dim:50000
[2] http:/ / www. municipalidaddeisladepascua. cl/
[3] "Calculate the Date of Easter Sunday (http:/ / www. assa. org. au/ edm)", Astronomical Society of South Australia. Retrieved 7 February
2013.
[4] An English translation of the originally Dutch journal by Jacob Roggeveen, with additional significant information from the log by Cornelis
Bouwman, was published in: Andrew Sharp (ed.), The Journal of Jacob Roggeveen (Oxford 1970).
[5] Heyerdahl's view was that the two islands were about the same size, and that "big" and "small" were not physical but historical attributes,
"big" indicating the original. In reality, however, Easter Island is more than four times bigger than Rapa Iti. Heyerdahl also stated that there is
an island called "Rapa" in Lake Titicaca in South America, but so far there is no map available showing an island of that name in the lake.
[6] http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list
[7] http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ 715
[8] http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ ?search=& search_by_country=& type=& media=& region=& order=region
[9] Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed
[10] http:/ / travel. nationalgeographic. com/ travel/ world-heritage/ easter-island/
[11] Bo Rothstein (2005). Social traps and the problem of trust (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ECQY4M13-yoC& pg=& dq&
hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false). Cambridge University Press. p. 20. ISBN 0-521-84829-6
[12] Barbara A. West (2008) Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC& pg=&
dq& hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false). Infobase Publishing. p. 684. ISBN 0-8160-7109-8
[13] Beverley Haun (2008). Inventing 'Easter Island' (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=jHItbEsAQxMC& pg=& dq& hl=en#v=onepage&
q=& f=false). University of Toronto Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-8020-9888-6
[14] Raymond J. Lewis's review of Rapanui; Tradition and Survival on Easter Island (https:/ / ojs. lib. byu. edu/ spc/ index. php/ CCR/ article/
viewFile/ 12655/ 12527).
[15] Pinochet no asiste a la inauguracin de la pista de la isla de Pascua (http:/ / elpais. com/ diario/ 1987/ 08/ 17/ internacional/
556149618_850215. html)
[16] Chilean Law 20,193 (http:/ / www. bcn. cl/ leyes/ pdf/ original/ 263040. pdf), National Congress of Chile
[17] Gerald R. Allen, Two New Species of Frogfishes (Antennaridae) from Easter Island, Pacific Science 24, no.4 (1970), 521.
[18] Inst of Petrology Vol 38 Haase, Stoffers & Garbe-Schoneberg 1 (http:/ / www. oxfordjournals. org/ our_journals/ petroj/ online/ Volume_38/
Issue_06/ html/ ega038_gml. html#hd1)
[19] Inst of Petrology Vol 38 The Petrogenetic Evolution of Lavas from Easter Island and Neighbouring Seamounts, Near-ridge Hotspot
Volcanoes in the SE Pacific Haase, Stoffers & Garbe-Schoneberg 15 (http:/ / www. oxfordjournals. org/ our_journals/ petroj/ online/
Volume_38/ Issue_06/ html/ ega038_gml. html#hd15)

258

Easter Island
[20] Rapanui: Edmunds and Bryan Photograph Collection (http:/ / libweb. hawaii. edu/ digicoll/ rapanui/ Box13E01. html). Libweb.hawaii.edu.
Retrieved on 6 November 2010.
[21] Easter Island Article (http:/ / www. letsgochile. com/ locations/ central-zone/ pacific-islands/ easter-island) in Letsgochile.com
[22] Andres Meith and Hans-Rudolf Bork, "Humans, Climate, or introduced rats-which is to blame for the woodland destruction on Prehistoric
Rapa Nui (Easter Island)?" Journal of Archaeological Science, 37 (2010):417-26.
[23] C. Michael Hogan. 2008. Chilean Wine Palm: Jubaea chilensis, GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg (http:/ / globaltwitcher. auderis. se/
artspec_information. asp?thingid=82831)
[24] Finney (1994), Hunter Anderson (1998); P.D. Nunn (1999, 2003); Orliac and Orliac (1998)
[25] Pacific islands archaeology (http:/ / sscl. berkeley. edu/ ~oal/ background/ pacislands. htm)
[26] Skjlsvold, Arne "Report 14: The Stone Statues and Quarries of Rano Raraku in Thor Heyerdahl and Edwin N. Ferdon Jr. (eds.) 'Reports of
the Norwegian Archaeological Expedition to Easter Island and the East Pacific'", Volume 1, Archaeology of Easter Island, Monographs of the
School of American Research and The Museum of New Mexico, Number 24, Part 1, 1961, pp. 339379. (esp. p. 346 for the description of the
general statues and Fig. 91, p. 347, pp. 360362 for the description of the kneeling statues)
[27] Van Tilburg, Jo Anne. Easter Island. Archaeology, Ecology and Culture, British Museum Press 1994:134135, fig. 106
[28] NOVA Online|Secrets of Easter Island|Paro (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ easter/ explore/ paro. html). Pbs.org. Retrieved on 6
November 2010.
[29] Heavy erosion and landslides may have buried them in soil.
[30] However, Alfred Metraux pointed out that the rubble filled Rapanui walls were a fundamentally different design to those of the Inca, as
these are trapezoidal in shape as opposed to the perfectly fitted rectangular stones of the inca. See also
[31] Fischer, pp. 31, 63.
[32] Wooden gorget (rei miro) (http:/ / www. britishmuseum. org/ explore/ highlights/ highlight_objects/ aoa/ w/ wooden_gorget_rei_miro.
aspx). British Museum.
[33] Brooklyn Museum, "Collections: Arts of the Pacific Islands: Lizard Figure (Moko Miro)." Last modified 2011. Accessed 18 November
2013. (http:/ / www. brooklynmuseum. org/ opencollection/ objects/ 63656/ Lizard_Figure_Moko_Miro/ image/ 14222/ image. )
[34] Encyclopdia Britannica Online, "Moai Figure", Accessed 16 November 2013. (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 386738/
moai-figure. )
[35] Encyclopdia Britannica Online, "Moai Figure", accessed 16 November 2013. (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 386738/
moai-figure. )
[36] Primeros datos del Censo: Hay 37.626 mujeres ms que hombres en la V Regin (http:/ / www. estrellavalpo. cl/ site/ edic/
20020611093623/ pags/ 20020611124031. html). Estrellavalpo.cl (11 June 2002). Retrieved on 6 November 2010.

References
Diamond, Jared (2005). Collapse. How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. New York: Viking.
ISBN0-14-303655-6.
Fischer, Steven Roger (1995). "Preliminary Evidence for Cosmogonic Texts in Rapanui's Rongorongo
Inscriptions". Journal of the Polynesian Society (104): pp. 30321.
Fischer, Steven Roger (1997). Glyph-breaker: A Decipherer's Story. New York: Copernicus/Springer-Verlag.
Fischer, Steven Roger (1997). RongoRongo, the Easter Island Script: History, Traditions, Texts. Oxford and New
York: Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-823710-3.
Heyerdahl, Thor (1961). Thor Heyerdahl & Edwin N. Ferdon Jr., ed. The Concept of Rongorongo Among the
Historic Population of Easter Island. Stockholm: Forum.
Heyerdahl, Thor (1958). Aku-Aku; The 1958 Expedition to Easter Island.
McLaughlin, Shawn (2007). The Complete Guide to Easter Island. Los Osos: Easter Island Foundation.
Metraux, Alfred (1940). "Ethnology of Easter Island". Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin (Honolulu: Bernice P.
Bishop Museum Press) (160).
Routledge, Katherine (1919). The Mystery of Easter Island. The story of an expedition. London.
ISBN0-404-14231-1.
Steadman, David (2006). Extinction and Biogeography in Tropical Pacific Birds (http://books.google.com/
?id=vBZXJQ3HDg0C). University of Chicago Press. ISBN978-0-226-77142-7.

259

Easter Island

Further reading
Altman, Ann M. (2004). Early Visitors to Easter Island 18641877 (translations of the accounts of Eugne
Eyraud, Hippolyte Roussel, Pierre Loti and Alphonse Pinart; with an Introduction by Georgia Lee). Los Osos:
Easter Island Foundation.
Englert, Sebastian F. (1970). Island at the Center of the World. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
Erickson, Jon D. and John M. Gowdy (2000). "Resource Use, Institutions, and Sustainability: A Tale of Two
Pacific Island Cultures. Land Economics 76(3): 345354.
Hunt, Terry L. (SeptemberOctober 2006). "Rethinking the Fall of Easter Island". American Scientist (94): p.
412.
Kjellgren, Eric, et al. (2001). Splendid isolation: art of Easter Island (http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/
compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/101315/rec/1). New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
ISBN9781588390110.
Lee, Georgia (1992). The Rock Art of Easter Island. Symbols of Power, Prayers to the Gods. Los Angeles: The
Institute of Archaeology Publications. ISBN0-917956-74-5.
Thomson, William J. (1891). "Te Pito te Henua, or Easter Island. Report of the United States National Museum
for the Year Ending June 30, 1889". Annual Reports of the Smithsonian Institution for 1889 (Washington:
Smithsonian Institution): pp. 447552. in Google Books (http://books.google.com/
books?id=8gKvwnWvwjsC)
van Tilburg, Jo Anne (1994). Easter Island: Archaeology, Ecology and Culture. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian
Institution Press. ISBN0-7141-2504-0.
Vergano, Dan. "Were rats behind Easter Island mystery?" (http://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/columnist/
vergano/2009-11-13-easter-island_N.htm) USA Today (15 November 2009)

External links

Easter Island travel guide from Wikivoyage

Chile Cultural Society Easter Island (http://www.chileculture.org/easter-island/)
Rapa Nui Digital Media Archive (http://archive.cyark.org/rapa-nui-intro)Creative Commonslicensed
photos, laser scans, panoramas, focused in the area around Rano Raraku and Ahu Te Pito Kura with data from an
Autodesk/CyArk research partnership
Mystery of Easter Island (http://video.pbs.org/video/2299677471) PBS Nova program
Description of island and discussion of dating controversies (http://www.rapanui.org.uk/)
"Easter Island Mysteries & Myths" (http://travelscope.net/episodes/view/easter_island/).

260

French Polynesia

261

French Polynesia
French Polynesia
Polynsie franaise(French)
Prnetia Farni(Tahitian)

Flag of French Polynesia

Coat of arms

Motto:
"Libert, galit, Fraternit"(French)
"Liberty, Equality, Fraternity"

Anthem:La Marseillaise (French)

Capital

Papeet
[1]
1734S 14936W
Largest city

Fa'a'a

Official languages

French

[2]

Ethnicgroups (1988

66.5% unmixed Polynesians

7.1% mixeda Polynesians
11.9% Europeansb
9.3% Demisc
4.7% East Asiansd

Demonym

French Polynesian

Government

Dependent territory

- President of France

Franois Hollande

- President of French Polynesia Gaston Flosse

- High Commissioner

Lionel Beffre

Overseas collectivity of France

French Polynesia

262
- Protectorate

1842

- Overseas territory

1946

- Overseas collectivity

2003
Area

- Total

4,167km2 (173rd)
1,609sqmi

- Water(%)

12

- Land area

3,521.2km2
1,359.5sqmi
Population

- Aug2012census

268,270 (177th)

- Density

76/km (130th)
197/sqmi

GDP(nominal)

2008estimate

- Total

US$7.14billion (notranked)

- Per capita

US$27,352 (notranked)

Currency

CFP franc (XPF)

Time zone

(UTC-10, 9:30, -9)

Drives on the

right

Calling code

+689

ISO 3166 code

PF

Internet TLD

.pf

a.

Light European and/or East Asian.

b.

Mostly French.

c.

Mixed European and Polynesian descent.

d.

Mostly Chinese.

French Polynesia

263

i
French
Polynesia
(
/frntHelp:IPA
English#Keyplni/;
French:
Polynsie
franaise,
pronounced:[plinezi fsz]; Tahitian: Prnetia Farni) is an
overseas country (pays d'outre-mer) of the French Republic. It is
made up of several groups of Polynesian islands, the most famous
island being Tahiti in the Society Islands group, which is also the
most populous island and the seat of the capital of the territory
(Papeet). Although not an integral part of its territory, Clipperton
Island was administered from French Polynesia until 2007.

for

French Polynesia (former French Establishments in

Oceania) was reinstated on the United Nations list of
Non-Self-Governing Territories by the United Nations
General Assembly Resolution A/67/265 on 23 August
2013

History
The island groups that make up French Polynesia
were not officially united until the establishment of
the French protectorate in 1889. The first of these
islands to be settled by indigenous Polynesians
were the Marquesas Islands in about AD 300 and
the Society Islands in about AD 800. The
Polynesians were organized in loose chieftainships.
European communication began in 1521 when the
Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan, sailing in
the service of the Spanish Crown, sighted
Puka-Puka in the Tumotu-Gambier Archipelago.
The French frigate Floral in November 2002, stationed in Bora Bora
lagoon.
Dutchman Jakob Roggeveen came across Bora
Bora in the Society Islands in 1722, and the British
explorer Samuel Wallis visited Tahiti in 1767. The French explorer Louis Antoine de Bougainville visited Tahiti in
1768, while the British explorer James Cook visited in 1769. In 1772 The Spanish Viceroy of Peru Don Manuel de
Amat ordered a number of expeditions to Tahiti under the command of Domingo de Bonechea who was the first
European to explore all of the main islands beyond Tahiti. A short-lived Spanish settlement was created in 1774. and
for a time some maps bore the name Isla de Amat after Viceroy Amat.Wikipedia:Citation needed Christian missions
began with Spanish priests who stayed in Tahiti for a year. Protestants from the London Missionary Society settled
permanently in Polynesia in 1797.

French Polynesia

King Pmare II of Tahiti was forced to flee

to Mo'orea in 1803; he and his subjects were
converted to Protestantism in 1812. French
Catholic missionaries arrived on Tahiti in
1834; their expulsion in 1836 caused France
to send a gunboat in 1838. In 1842, Tahiti
and Tahuata were declared a French
Society Island kingdoms.
protectorate, to allow Catholic missionaries
to work undisturbed. The capital of Papeet
was founded in 1843. In 1880, France annexed Tahiti, changing the status from that of a protectorate to that of a
colony.
In the 1880s, France claimed the Tuamotu Archipelago, which formerly belonged to the Pmare Dynasty, without
formally annexing it. Having declared a protectorate over Tahuata in 1842, the French regarded the entire Marquesas
Islands as French. In 1885, France appointed a governor and established a general council, thus giving it the proper
administration for a colony. The islands of Rimatara and Rrutu unsuccessfully lobbied for British protection in
1888, so in 1889 they were annexed by France. Postage stamps were first issued in the colony in 1892. The first
official name for the colony was tablissements de l'Ocanie (Establishments in Oceania); in 1903 the general
council was changed to an advisory council and the colony's name was changed to tablissements Franais de
l'Ocanie (French Establishments in Oceania).
In 1940, the administration of French Polynesia recognised the Free French Forces and many Polynesians served in
World War II. Unknown at the time to the French and Polynesians, the Konoe Cabinet in Imperial Japan on 16
September 1940 included French Polynesia among the many territories which were to become Japanese possessions
in the post-war world.[3] However in the course of the war in the Pacific the Japanese were not able to launch an
actual invasion of the French islands.
In 1946, Polynesians were granted French citizenship and the islands' status was changed to an overseas territory; the
islands' name was changed in 1957 to Polynsie Franaise (French Polynesia). In 1962, France's early nuclear
testing ground of Algeria became independent and the Moruroa atoll in the Tuamotu Archipelago was selected as the
new testing site; tests were conducted underground after 1974. In 1977, French Polynesia was granted partial internal
autonomy; in 1984, the autonomy was extended. French Polynesia became a full overseas collectivity of France in
2003.[4]
In September 1995, France stirred up widespread protests by resuming nuclear testing at Fangataufa atoll after a
three-year moratorium. The last test was on 27 January 1996. On 29 January 1996, France announced that it would
accede to the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, and no longer test nuclear weapons.

Governance
Main article: Politics of French Polynesia
Politics of French Polynesia takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic French
overseas collectivity, whereby the President of French Polynesia is the head of government, and of a multi-party
system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the
Assembly of French Polynesia (the territorial assembly).
Political life in French Polynesia has been marked by great instability since the mid-2000s. On 14 September 2007,
the pro-independence leader Oscar Temaru, 63, was elected president of French Polynesia for the third time in three
years (with 27 of 44 votes cast in the territorial assembly). He replaced former president Gaston Tong Sang, opposed
to independence, who lost a no-confidence vote in the Assembly of French Polynesia on 31 August after the
longtime former president of French Polynesia, Gaston Flosse, hitherto opposed to independence, sided with his long

264

French Polynesia

265

enemy Oscar Temaru to topple the government of Gaston Tong Sang. Oscar Temaru, however, had no stable
majority in the Assembly of French Polynesia, and new territorial elections were held in February 2008 to solve the
political crisis.
The party of Gaston Tong Sang won the territorial
elections, but that did not solve the political crisis: the
two minority parties of Oscar Temaru and Gaston
Flosse, who together have one more member in the
territorial assembly than the political party of Gaston
Tong Sang, allied to prevent Gaston Tong Sang from
becoming president of French Polynesia. Gaston Flosse
was then elected president of French Polynesia by the
territorial assembly on 23 February 2008 with the
support of the pro-independence party led by Oscar
Temaru, while Oscar Temaru was elected speaker of
the territorial assembly with the support of the
The Assembly of French Polynesia.
anti-independence party led by Gaston Flosse. Both
formed a coalition cabinet. Many observers doubted
that the alliance between the anti-independence Gaston Flosse and the pro-independence Oscar Temaru, designed to
prevent Gaston Tong Sang from becoming president of French Polynesia, could last very long.[5]
At the French municipal elections held in March 2008, several prominent mayors who are member of the
Flosse-Temaru coalition lost their offices in key municipalities of French Polynesia, which was interpreted as a
disapproval of the way Gaston Tong Sang, whose party French Polynesian voters had placed first in the territorial
elections the month before, had been prevented from becoming president of French Polynesia by the last minute
alliance between Flosse and Temaru's parties. Eventually, on 15 April 2008 the government of Gaston Flosse was
toppled by a constructive vote of no confidence in the territorial assembly when two members of the Flosse-Temaru
coalition left the coalition and sided with Tong Sang's party. Gaston Tong Sang was elected president of French
Polynesia as a result of this constructive vote of no confidence, but his majority in the territorial assembly is very
narrow. He offered posts in his cabinet to Flosse and Temaru's parties which they both refused. Gaston Tong Sang
has called all parties to help end the instability in local politics, a prerequisite to attract foreign investors needed to
develop the local economy.

Relations with France

Despite a local assembly and government, French
Polynesia is not in a free association with France, like
the Cook Islands with New Zealand. As a French
overseas collectivity, the local government has no
competence in justice, education, security and defense.
Services in these areas are directly provided and
administered by the Government of France, including
the Gendarmerie (which also polices rural and border
areas in European France), and French military forces.
The collectivity government retains control over health,
town planning, and the environment.[6] The highest
representative of the State in the territory is the High
Commissioner of the Republic in French Polynesia
(French: Haut commissaire de la Rpublique).

High Commission of the French Republic.

French Polynesia
French Polynesia also sends three deputies to the French National Assembly, one representing the Leeward Islands
administrative subdivision and the south-western suburbs of Papeete, another one representing Papeete and its
north-eastern suburbs, plus the commune (municipality) of Mo'orea-Mai'ao, the Tumotu-Gambier administrative
division, and the Marquesas Islands administrative division, and the last one representing the rest of Tahiti and the
Austral Islands administrative subdivision. French Polynesia also sends two senators to the French Senate.
French Polynesians vote in the French presidential elections and at the 2007 French presidential election, in which
the pro-independence leader Oscar Temaru openly called to vote for the Socialist candidate Sgolne Royal while
the parties opposed to independence generally supported the center-right candidate Nicolas Sarkozy, the turnout in
French Polynesia was 69.12% in the first round of the election and 74.67% in the second round. French Polynesians
voters placed Nicolas Sarkozy ahead of Sgolne Royal in both rounds of the election (2nd round: Nicolas Sarkozy
51.9%; Sgolne Royal 48.1%).

Administration
Between 1946 and 2003, French Polynesia had the status of an overseas territory (French: territoire d'outre-mer, or
TOM). In 2003 it became an overseas collectivity (French: collectivit d'outre-mer, or COM). Its statutory law of 27
February 2004 gives it the particular designation of overseas country inside the Republic (French: pays d'outre-mer
au sein de la Rpublique, or POM), but without legal modification of its status.

Administrative divisions
Main article: Administrative divisions of French Polynesia
French Polynesia has five administrative subdivisions (French: subdivisions administratives):
Marquesas Islands (French: (les) (les) Marquises or officially la subdivision administrative des (les) Marquises)
Leeward Islands (French: (les) les Sous-le-Vent or officially la subdivision administrative des les Sous-le-Vent)
(the two subdivisions administratives Windward Islands and Leeward Islands are part of the Society Islands)
Windward Islands (French: (les) les du Vent or officially la subdivision administrative des les du Vent) (the two
subdivisions administratives Windward Islands and Leeward Islands are part of the Society Islands)
Tumotu-Gambier (French: (les) (les) Tuamotu-Gambier or officially la subdivision administrative des (les)
Tuamotu-Gambier) (the Tuamotus and the Gambier Islands)
Austral Islands (French: (les) (les) Australes or officially la subdivision administrative des (les) Australes)
(including the Bass Islands)

266

French Polynesia

267

Geography
Main article: Geography of French
Polynesia
The islands of French Polynesia have a
total land area of 3,521.2 square
kilometres (1,359.5sq.mi), scattered
over 2,500,000 square kilometres
(965,255sq.mi) of ocean. There are
around 130 islands in French
Polynesia.[7] The highest point is
Mount Orohena on Tahiti.
It is made up of six groups of islands.
The largest and most populated island
is Tahiti, in the Society Islands.
The island groups are:

Marquesas Islands
Society Islands
Tuamotu Archipelago
Gambier Islands often considered
part of the Tuamotu Archipelago
Map of French Polynesia.

Austral Islands
Bass Islands often considered part
of the Austral Islands

Aside from Tahiti, some other important atolls, islands, and island groups in French Polynesia are: Ah, Bora Bora,
Hiva 'Oa, Huahine, Mai'ao, Maupiti, Meheti'a, Mo'orea, Nuku Hiva, Raiatea, Taha'a, Tetiaroa, Tupua'i, and Tpai.

Top three largest communes

Commune Island Population
(2012)
Faaa

Tahiti

29,687

Punaauia

Tahiti

27,613

Papeete

Tahiti

25,769

Economy
Main article: Economy of French Polynesia
The GDP of French Polynesia in 2008 was 7.14billion US dollars at market exchange rates, the sixth-largest
economy in Oceania after Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii, New Caledonia, and Papua New Guinea. The GDP per
capita was 27,352 US dollars in 2008 (at market exchange rates, not at PPP), lower than in Hawaii, Australia, New
Zealand, and New Caledonia, but higher than in all the independent insular states of Oceania.
French Polynesia has a moderately developed economy, which is dependent on imported goods, tourism, and the
financial assistance of mainland France. Tourist facilities are well developed and are available on the major islands.
Also, as the noni fruit from these islands is discovered for its medicinal uses, people have been able to find jobs
related to this agricultural industry.

French Polynesia

268

The legal tender of French Polynesia is the CFP Franc.

Agriculture: coconuts, vanilla, vegetables, fruits.
Natural resources: timber, fish, cobalt.
In 2008, French Polynesia's imports amounted to 2.2billion US dollars and exports amounted to 0.2billion US
dollars. The major export of French Polynesia is their famous black Tahitian pearls which accounted for 55% of
exports (in value) in 2008.

Demographics
Main article: Demographics of French Polynesia
Total population at the August 2012 census was 268,270 inhabitants.
At the 2012 census, 68.5% of the population of French Polynesia lived
on the island of Tahiti alone. The urban area of Papeete, the capital
city, has 133,627 inhabitants (2012 census).
At the 2007 census, 87.3% of people living in French Polynesia were
born in French Polynesia, 9.3% were born in metropolitan France,
1.4% were born in overseas France outside of French Polynesia, and
2.0% were born in foreign countries. At the 1988 census, the last
Tahitian girls, circa 18601879.
census which asked questions regarding ethnicity, 66.5% of people
were ethnically unmixed Polynesians, 7.1% were ethnically mixed
Polynesians, 11.9% were Europeans (mostly French), 9.3% were people of mixed French and Polynesian descent,
the so-called Demis (literally meaning "Half"), and 4.7% were East Asians (mainly Chinese).
Chinese, Demis, and the white populace are essentially concentrated on the island of Tahiti, particularly in the urban
area of Papeet, where their share of the population is thus much greater than in French Polynesia overall. Despite a
long history of ethnic mixing, ethnic tensions have been growing in recent years, with politicians using a xenophobic
discourse and fanning the flame of nationalism.

Historical population
1907

1911

1921

1926

1931

1936

1941

1946

1951

1956

30,600

31,900

31,600

35,900

40,400

44,000

51,200

58,200

63,300

76,323

1962

1971

1977

1983

1988

1996

2002

2007

2012

84,551 119,168 137,382 166,753 188,814 219,521 245,516 259,596 268,270

[8]

Official figures from past censuses.

French Polynesia

269

Languages
French is the only official language of French
Polynesia.[9] An organic law of 12 April 1996 states
that "French is the official language, Tahitian and other
Polynesian languages can be used." At the 2007 census,
among the population whose age was 15 and older,
68.5% of people reported that the language they spoke
the most at home was French, 24.2% reported that the
language they spoke the most at home was Tahitian,
2.6% reported Marquesan, 1.5% reported Tuamotuan,
1.3% reported any of the Austral languages, 1.0%
reported a Chinese dialect (half of whom Hakka), and
0.9% another language.
Cemetery in the Tumotu.

At the same census, 94.7% of people whose age was 15

or older reported that they could speak, read and write French, whereas only 2.0% reported that they had no
knowledge of French. 86.4% of people whose age was 15 or older reported that they had some form of knowledge of
at least one Polynesian language, whereas 13.6% reported that they had no knowledge of any of the Polynesian
languages.

Religion
Christianity is the main religion of the islands: a majority (54%) belong to various Protestant churches and a large
minority (30%) are Roman Catholic. Slightly more than 50% of French Polynesia's population belongs to the Mai
Protestant Church, the largest Protestant denomination. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints had 21,884
members as of 2012.[10] Jehovah's Witnesses had 2,656 publishers in Tahiti as of 2011.

Transportation
Main article: Transportation in French Polynesia
There are 53 airports in French Polynesia; 46 are paved. The Faaa International Airport is the only international
airport in French Polynesia. Each island has its own airport that serves flights to other islands. Air Tahiti is the main
airline that flies around the islands.

Notable people

Vaitiare Hirson-Asars (born 1964), actress

Cheyenne Brando (19701995), model, daughter of Marlon Brando and Tarita Teriipia
Tuki Brando (born 1990), model, son of Cheyenne Brando
Jacques Brel (19291978), Belgian musician who lived in French Polynesia near the end of his life.
Jean Gabilou, singer (born 1944), represented France in the 1981 Eurovision Song Contest.
Paul Gauguin (18481903), French impressionist painter who spent the last years of his life in French Polynesia.
Marva Georges, model, former Miss Tahiti 1990 and Miss France 1991.
Pouvna'a ''opa (18951977), politician and Tahitian nationalist.
Henri Hiro (19441991), film director and script writer, poet, ecologist, activist.
Ella Koon (born 1979), singer, actor and model.

Karina Lombard (born 1969), French-American model

Marco Namouro (18891968), writer.
Fabrice Santoro (born 1972), professional tennis player.

French Polynesia

Tarita Teriipia (born 1941), actress, third wife of Marlon Brando

Marama Vahirua (born 1980), footballer, cousin of Pascal Vahirua.
Pascal Vahirua (born 1966), French former international footballer.
Clestine Hitiura Vaite (born 1966), writer.

Music
Main article: Music of French Polynesia
French Polynesia came to the forefront of the world music scene in 1992,Wikipedia:Citation needed with the release
of The Tahitian Choir's recordings of unaccompanied vocal Christian music called himene trava, recorded by
French musicologist Pascal Nabet-Meyer. This form of singing is common in French Polynesia and the Cook
Islands, and is distinguished by a unique drop in pitch at the end of the phrases, which is a characteristic formed by
several different voices; it is also accompanied by steady grunting of staccato, nonsensical syllables.

References
[1] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=French_Polynesia& params=17_34_S_149_36_W_type:country
[2] Most recent ethinc census, in 1988.
[3] The Japanese claim to the French Pacific islands, along with many other vast territories, appears in the 16 September 1940 "Sphere of
survival for the Establishment of a New Order in Greater East Asia by Imperial Japan", published in 1955 by Japan's Foreign Ministry as part
of the two-volume "Chronology and major documents of Diplomacy of Japan 18401945" here quoted from "Interview with Tetsuzo Fuwa:
Japan's War: History of Expansionism", Japan Press Service, July 2007
[4] . Retrieved 25 September 2012.
[5] http:/ / www. rfo. fr/ article1437. html
[6] http:/ / thediplomat. com/ 2012/ 10/ french-polynesia-last-vestiges-of-frances-empire/
[7] Kingfisher Geography Encyclopedia. ISBN 1-85613-582-9. Page 546
[8] Censuses from 1907 to 1962 in Population, 1972, #45, pp. 705706, published by INED (http:/ / www. persee. fr/ showPage. do?zoom=0&
urn=pop_0032-4663_1972_num_27_4_15221& pageId=pop_0032-4663_1972_num_27_4_T1_0704_0000)
[9] Le tahitien reste interdit l'assemble de Polynsie (http:/ / polynesie. rfo. fr/ infos/ actualites/
langues-le-tahitien-reste-interdit-a-lassemblee-de-polynesie_37394. html), RFO, 6 October 2010
[10] LDS Newsroom Statistical Information (http:/ / www. mormonnewsroom. org/ facts-and-statistics/ country/ french-polynesia/ ). Retrieved
23 September 2012.

Bibliography
Danielsson, Bengt (1965). Work and Life on Raroia: An Acculturation Study from the Tuamotu Group, French
Oceania. London: G. Allen & Unwin.
Danielsson, Bengt; Marie-Thrse Danielsson (1986). Poisoned Reign: French Nuclear Colonialism in the
Pacific. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN0-14-008130-5.
Hough, Richard (1995). Captain James Cook. W W Norton. ISBN0-393-03680-4.
Pollock, Nancy J.; Ron Crocombe, eds. (1988). French Polynesia: A Book of Selected Readings. Suva, Fiji:
Institute of Pacific Studies of the University of the South Pacific. ISBN982-02-0032-6.
Thompson, Virginia; Richard Adloff (1971). The French Pacific Islands: French Polynesia and New Caledonia.
Berkeley: University of California Press.
Aldrich, Robert (1990). The French Presence in the South Pacific, 18421940. Sydney.
Aldrich, Robert (1993). France and the South Pacific since 1940. Sydney.
James Rogers and Luis Simn. The Status and Location of the Military Installations of the Member States of the
European Union and Their Potential Role for the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP). (http://www.
europarl.europa.eu/meetdocs/2004_2009/documents/dv/sede300309studype407004_/
SEDE300309StudyPE407004_en.pdf) Brussels: European Parliament, 2009. 25pp.
Jean-Marc Rgnault, Le pouvoir confisqu en Polynsie franaise. L'affrontement Temaru-Flosse. Les Indes
savantes, 2005.

270

French Polynesia

271

External links
Government
Government of French Polynesia (http://www.polynesie-francaise.pref.gouv.fr/)
Presidency of French Polynesia (http://www.presidence.pf/)
Administrative Subdivisions of French Polynesia (http://www.polynesie-francaise.gouv.fr/hc/inter/
inter-subdiv.asp)
General information
(French) Encyclopdie collaborative du patrimoine culturel et naturel polynsien (http://www.tahitiheritage.pf)
French Polynesia (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fp.html) entry at The
World Factbook
French Polynesia (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/frenchpolynesia.htm) at UCB Libraries
GovPubs
French Polynesia (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Oceania/French_Polynesia) at DMOZ

Wikimedia Atlas of French Polynesia

Travel
Official Tourism Website (http://www.tahiti-tourisme.com)
Coordinates: 1732S 14934W (http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=French_Polynesia&
params=17_32_S_149_34_W_)

Hawaii
This article is about the U.S. state of Hawaii. For its "Big Island", see Hawaii (island). For other uses, see Hawaii
(disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Hawaiki.
Coordinates: 211841N 1574747W [1]

State of Hawaii
Mokuina o Hawaii

Flag

Seal

Nickname(s): The Aloha State (official), Paradise, The Islands of Aloha

Motto(s): Ua Mau ke Ea o ka ina i ka Pono
("The Life of the Land is Perpetuated in Righteousness")
State anthem: "Hawaii Pono
("Hawaiis Own True Sons")"

Hawaii

272

Official language

English, Hawaiian

Demonym

Hawaiian (see notes)

Capital
(and largest city)

Honolulu

Largest metro

Oahu metropolitan area

Area

Ranked 43rd

-Total

10,931sqmi
2
(28,311 km )

-Width

n/amiles(n/a km)

-Length

1,522miles(2,450 km)

-% water

41.2

-Latitude

18 55 N to 28 27 N

-Longitude

154 48 W to 178 22 W

Population

Ranked 40th

-Total

1,404,054 (2013 est)

-Density

214/sqmi (82.6/km2)
Ranked 13th

-Median household income

$63,746 (5th)

[2]

Elevation
[3][4]

-Highest point

Mauna Kea
13,796ft (4205.0 m)

-Mean

3,030ft (920 m)

-Lowest point

Pacific Ocean
sea level

Before statehood

Territory of Hawaii

Admission to Union

August 21, 1959 (50th)

Governor

Neil Abercrombie (D)

Lieutenant Governor

Shan Tsutsui (D)

Legislature

State Legislature

Hawaii

273
-Upper house

Senate

-Lower house

House of Representatives

U.S. Senators

Brian Schatz (D)

Mazie Hirono (D)

U.S. House delegation

1: Colleen Hanabusa (D)

2: Tulsi Gabbard (D) (list)

Time zone

Hawaii: UTC 10
(no DST)

Abbreviations

HI, US-HI

Website

www.hawaii.gov

[5]

Hawaii State symbols

Animal and Plant insignia
Bird(s)

Hawaiian Goose

Fish

Humuhumunukunukupuaa

Flower(s)

Hawaiian hibiscus

Mammal(s) Humpback whale, Hawaiian monk seal

Reptile

Gold dust day geckoWikipedia:Citation needed

Tree

Kukui nut tree

Inanimate insignia

Food

Coconut muffinWikipedia:Citation needed

Gemstone

Black coral

Slogan(s)

The Islands of AlohaWikipedia:Citation needed

Soil

HiloWikipedia:Citation needed

Song(s)

Hawaii Ponoi

Sport

Surfing, Outrigger canoeing

Tartan

Hawaii State Tartan (unofficial)

Route marker(s)

State Quarter

Released in 2008
Lists of United States state symbols

Hawaii
i
Hawaii (
/hwa.i/ or /hwai/; Hawaiian: Hawaii
[hvii]) is the most recent of the 50 U.S. states (joined the
Union on August 21, 1959), and is the only U.S. state made
up entirely of islands. It is the northernmost island group in
Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central
Pacific Ocean.

Hawaiis diverse natural scenery, warm tropical climate,

abundance of public beaches, oceanic surroundings, and
active volcanoes make it a popular destination for tourists,
[6]
Hawaii from space, January 26, 2014
(wind) surfers, biologists, and volcanologists alike. Due to its
mid-Pacific location, Hawaii has many North American and
Asian influences along with its own vibrant native culture. Hawaii has over a million permanent residents along with
many visitors and U.S. military personnel. Its capital is Honolulu on the island of Oahu.
The state encompasses nearly the entire volcanic Hawaiian Island chain, which comprises hundreds of islands spread
over 1,500 miles (2,400km). At the southeastern end of the archipelago, the eight "main islands" are (from the
northwest to southeast) Niihau, Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lnai, Kahoolawe, Maui and the island of Hawaii. The
last is the largest and is often called "The Big Island" to avoid confusing the name of the island with the name of the
state as a whole. The archipelago is physiographically and ethnologically part of the Polynesian subregion of
Oceania.
Hawaii is the 8th smallest, the 11th least populous, but the 13th most densely populated of the 50 U.S. states.
Hawaii's ocean coastline is approximately 750 miles (1,210km) long, which is fourth in the United States after those
of Alaska, Florida and California.
Hawaii is one of two states that do not observe daylight saving time, the other being Arizona. It is also one of two
states that are not in the contiguous United States; the other is Alaska. Additionally, Hawaii is the only U.S. state not
to be located in the Americas. Hawaii is also the only state with an Asian plurality.

Etymology

274

Hawaii

275

The Hawaiian language word Hawaii derives from

Proto-Polynesian *Sawaiki, with the reconstructed meaning
"homeland";[7] Hawaii cognates are found in other Polynesian
languages, including Mori (Hawaiki), Rarotongan (Avaiki), and
Samoan (Savaii). (See also Hawaiki). According to Pukui and
Elbert, "Elsewhere in Polynesia, Hawaii or a cognate is the name
of the underworld or of the ancestral home, but in Hawaii, the
name has no meaning."[8]

Spelling of state name

A somewhat divisive political issue arose when the constitution of
the state of Hawaii added Hawaiian as a second official state
language: the exact spelling of the state's name, which in the
islands' language is Hawaii (the okina marking a Hawaiian
consonant, a cut-off of breath before the final i). In the Hawaii
Admission Act that granted Hawaiian statehood, the federal
Akaka Falls
government recognized Hawaii to be the official state name.
Official government publications, as well as department and office
titles, use the traditional Hawaiian spelling, with no symbols for glottal stops or vowel length. In contrast, the
National and State Parks Services, the University of Hawaii, and some private entities, including a local newspaper,
do use such symbols.
The title of the state constitution is "The Constitution of the State of Hawaii". In Article XV, Section 1 uses "The
State of Hawaii", Section 2 "the island of Oahu", Section 3 "The Hawaiian flag", and Section 5 specifies the state
motto as "Ua mau ke ea o ka aina i ka pono". Since these documents predate the modern use of the okina and the
kahak in Hawaiian orthography, the diacritics were not used.

Geography and environment

The main Hawaiian Islands are:
Island

Nickname

Area

Population
(as of
2010)

Density

Highest
point

Hawaii

The Big
Island

4,028.0sqmi
(10,432.5km2)

185,079

45.948/sqmi
(17.7407/km2)

Mauna Kea

Maui

The Valley
Isle

727.2sqmi
(1,883.4km2)

144,444

198.630/sqmi
(76.692/km2)

Oahu

The Gathering
Place

596.7sqmi
(1,545.4km2)

953,207

Kauai

The Garden
Isle

552.3sqmi
(1,430.5km2)

Molokai

The Friendly
Isle

Lnai

The Pineapple
Isle

Elevation

Age
[9]
(Ma)

Location

13,796ft
(4,205m)

0.4

1934N
[10]
15530W

Haleakal

10,023ft
(3,055m)

1.30.8

2048N
[11]
15620W

1,597.46/sqmi
(616.78/km2)

Mount
Kaala

4,003ft
(1,220m)

3.72.6

2128N
[12]
15759W

66,921

121.168/sqmi
(46.783/km2)

Kawaikini

5,243ft
(1,598m)

5.1

2205N
[13]
15930W

260.0sqmi
(673.4km2)

7,345

28.250/sqmi
(10.9074/km2)

Kamakou

4,961ft
(1,512m)

1.91.8

2108N
[14]
15702W

140.5sqmi
(363.9km2)

3,135

22.313/sqmi
(8.615/km2)

Lnaihale

3,366ft
(1,026m)

1.3

2050N
[15]
15656W

Hawaii

276

Niihau

The
Forbidden Isle

69.5sqmi
(180.0km2)

170

2.45/sqmi
(0.944/km2)

Kahoolawe

The Target
Isle

44.6sqmi
(115.5km2)

The Hawaiian Islands are located in the North Pacific Ocean

Mount
Pnau

1,250ft
(381m)

4.9

2154N
[16]
16010W

Puu
Moaulanui

1,483ft
(452m)

1.0

2033N
[17]
15636W

A true-color satellite view of Hawaii shows that most of the

vegetation on the islands grows on the north-east sides which face
the wind. The silver glow around the south-west of the islands is
the result of calmer waters.

An archipelago situated some 2,000 mi

(3,200 km) southwest of the North
American mainland, Hawaii is the
southernmost state of the United States and
the second westernmost state after Alaska.
Hawaii, along with Alaska, does not border
any other U.S. state.

N Pali coast, Kauai

Panorama of the Haleakala crater

Hawaii is the only state of the United

States that is not geographically
located in North America, grows
coffee, is completely surrounded by
water, is entirely an archipelago, has
royal palaces, and does not have a
straight line in its state boundary.

Hawaii
Hawaiis tallest mountain, Mauna Kea, stands at 13,796 ft (4,205 m) but is taller than Mount Everest if followed to
the base of the mountain, which, lying at the floor of the Pacific Ocean, rises about 33,500 ft (10,200 m).
The eight main islands, Hawaii, Maui, Oahu, Kahoolawe, Lanai, Molokai, Kauai and Niihau are accompanied
by many others. Kaula is a small island near Niihau that is often overlooked. The Northwest Hawaiian Islands are a
series of nine small, older masses northwest of Kauai that extend from Nihoa to Kure that are remnants of once
much larger volcanic mountains. There are also more than 100 small rocks and islets, such as Molokini, that are
either volcanic, marine sedimentary or erosional in origin, totaling 130 or so across the archipelago.

Geology
The Hawaiian islands were (and continue to be) continuously formed from volcanic activity initiated at an undersea
magma source called a hotspot. As the tectonic plate beneath much of the Pacific Ocean moves to the northwest, the
hot spot remains stationary, slowly creating new volcanoes. Due to the hotspots location, the only active volcanoes
are located around the southern half of the Big Island. The newest volcano, Lihi Seamount, is located south of the
Big Islands coast.
The last volcanic eruption outside the Big Island occurred at Haleakal on Maui before the late 18th century, though
it could have been hundreds of years earlier. In 1790, Klauea exploded with the deadliest eruption (of the modern
era) known to have occurred in what is now the United States. As many as 5,405 warriors and their families
marching on Klauea were killed by that eruption.[18]
Volcanic activity and subsequent erosion have created impressive geological features. The Big Island has the third
highest point among the worlds islands.
Slope instability of the volcanoes has generated damaging earthquakes with related tsunamis, particularly in 1868
and 1975. Steep cliffs have been caused by catastrophic debris avalanches on the submerged flanks of ocean island
volcanos.[19]

Flora and fauna

Because the islands are so far from other land habitats, life before human activity is said to have arrived by the 3
Ws: wind (carried through the air), waves (brought by ocean currents), and wings (birds, insects, and whatever they
brought with them). This isolation, and the wide range of environments (extreme altitude, tropical climate) produced
a vast array of endemic flora and fauna (see Endemism in the Hawaiian Islands). Hawaii has more endangered
species and has lost a higher percentage of its endemic species than any other U.S. state. One endemic plant,
Brighamia, now requires hand-pollination - its natural pollinator is presumed to be extinct. The two species of
Brighamia - B. rockii and B. insignis - are represented in the wild by perhaps 120 individual plants. In order to
ensure that these plants set seed, biologists rappel down 3000-foot cliffs to brush pollen onto their stigmas.
The relatively short time that the existing main islands of the archipelago have been above the surface of the ocean
(less than 10 million years) is only a fraction of time span over which biological colonization and evolution have
occurred in the archipelago.
The islands are well known for the environmental diversity that occurs on high mountains within a trade winds field.
On a single island, the climate can differ around the coast from dry tropical (< 20 in or 500mm annual rainfall) to
wet tropical; and up the slopes from tropical rainforest (> 200 in or 5000mm per year) through a temperate climate
into alpine conditions of cold and dry climate. The rainy climate impacts soil development, which largely determines
ground permeability, which affects the distribution of streams, wetlands, and wet places.

277

Hawaii

278

Protected areas
Several areas in Hawaii are under the protection of the National Park
Service. Hawaii has two national parks: Haleakala National Park near
Kula, on Maui, includes Haleakal, the dormant volcano that formed
east Maui; and Hawaii Volcanoes National Park in the southeast region
of the island of Hawaii, which includes the active volcano Klauea and
its various rift zones.
There are three national historical parks: Kalaupapa National Historical
Park in Kalaupapa, Molokai, the site of a former Hansens disease
colony; Kaloko-Honokhau National Historical Park in Kailua-Kona
Endemic Haleakal Silversword near Haleakal
on the island of Hawaii; and Puuhonua o Hnaunau National
summit
Historical Park, an ancient place of refuge. Other areas under the
control of the National Park Service include Ala Kahakai National
Historic Trail on the Big Island and the USS Arizona Memorial at Pearl Harbor on Oahu.
The Papahnaumokukea Marine National Monument was proclaimed by President George W. Bush on June 15,
2006. The monument covers roughly 140,000 square miles (360,000km2) of reefs, atolls and shallow and deep sea
out to 50 miles (80km) offshore in the Pacific Ocean, larger than all of Americas National Parks combined.

Climate
See also: List of Hawaii tornadoes and Climate of Hawaii
Hawaiis climate is typical for the tropics, although temperatures and
humidity tend to be a bit less extreme due to near-constant trade winds
from the east. Summer highs are usually in the upper 80sF, (around
31 C) during the day and mid 70s, (around 24C) at night. Winter day
temperatures are usually in the low to mid 80s, (around 28C) and (at
low elevation) seldom dipping below the mid 60s (18C) at night.
Snow, not usually associated with the tropics, falls at 4,205 metres
(13,796ft) on Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa on the Big Island in some
winter months. Snow rarely falls on Haleakala. Mount Waialeale, on
Kauai, has the second highest average annual rainfall on Earth, about
460 inches (11,684.0mm). Most of Hawaii has only two seasons: the
dry season from May to October, and the wet season from October to April.

Road to Hana through rainforest

The warmest temperature recorded in the state is 100F (38C) (making it tied with Alaska as the lowest high
temperature recorded in a U.S. state) in Pahala on April 27, 1931. Hawaii's all-time record low temperature is 12F
(11C) observed in May 1979 on the summit of Mauna Kea. Hawaii is the only state to have never recorded
sub-zero Fahrenheit temperatures.
Local climates vary considerably on each island, grossly divisible into windward (Koolau) and leeward (Kona) areas
based upon location relative to the higher mountains. Windward sides face cloud cover, so resorts concentrate on
sunny leeward coasts.

Hawaii

279
Monthly normal low and high temperatures for various Hawaiian populated places
City
Hilo

Honolulu

Kahului

Lihue

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

Jun.

Jul.

Aug.

Sep.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

64 F / 64 F /
17.8 C 17.8 C

65 F /
18.3 C

66 F /
18.9 C

67 F / 68 F / 69 F /
19.4 C 20.0 C 20.6 C

69 F / 69 F / 68 F /
20.6 C 20.6 C 20.0 C

67 F / 65 F /
19.4 C 18.3 C

79 F / 79 F /
26.1 C 26.1 C

79 F /
26.1 C

79 F /
26.1 C

81 F / 82 F / 82 F /
27.2 C 27.8 C 27.8 C

83 F / 83 F / 83 F /
28.3 C 28.3 C 28.3 C

81 F / 80 F /
27.2 C 26.7 C

66 F / 65 F /
18.9 C 18.3 C

67 F /
19.4 C

68 F /
20.0 C

70 F / 72 F / 74 F /
21.1 C 22.2 C 23.3 C

75 F / 74 F / 73 F /
23.9 C 23.3 C 22.8 C

71 F / 68 F /
21.7 C 20.0 C

80 F / 81 F /
26.7 C 27.2 C

82 F /
27.8 C

83 F /
28.3 C

85 F / 87 F / 88 F /
29.4 C 30.6 C 31.1 C

89 F / 89 F / 87 F /
31.7 C 31.7 C 30.6 C

84 F / 82 F /
28.9 C 27.8 C

63 F / 63 F /
17.2 C 17.2 C

65 F /
18.3 C

66 F /
18.9 C

67 F / 69 F / 71 F /
19.4 C 20.6 C 21.7 C

71 F / 70 F / 69 F /
21.7 C 21.1 C 20.6 C

68 F / 65 F /
20.0 C 18.3 C

80 F / 81 F /
26.7 C 27.2 C

82 F /
27.8 C

82 F /
27.8 C

84 F / 86 F / 87 F /
28.9 C 30.0 C 30.6 C

88 F / 88 F / 87 F /
31.1 C 31.1 C 30.6 C

84 F / 82 F /
28.9 C 27.8 C

65 F / 66 F /
18.3 C 18.9 C

67 F /
19.4 C

69 F /
20.6 C

70 F / 73 F / 74 F /
21.1 C 22.8 C 23.3 C

74 F / 74 F / 73 F /
23.3 C 23.3 C 22.8 C

71 F / 68 F /
21.7 C 20.0 C

78 F / 78 F /
25.6 C 26.6 C

78 F /
26.6 C

79 F /
26.1 C

81 F / 83 F / 84 F /
27.2 C 28.3 C 28.9 C

85 F / 85 F / 84 F /
29.4 C 29.4 C 28.9 C

81 F / 79 F /
27.2 C 26.1 C

Antipodes
Hawaii is the only US state that is antipodal to inhabited land. Most of the state lies opposite Botswana, though
Niihau aligns with Namibia and Kauai straddles the border. This area of Africa, near Maun and Ghanzi, includes
nature reserves and small settlements near the Okavango Delta.

History
Main article: History of Hawaii
Part of a series on the

History of
Hawaii

Timeline

Ancient
Provisional Cession
Kingdom of Hawaii
Provisional Government
Republic of Hawaii
American Hawaii

Territory
State of Hawaii
Hawaii portal

Hawaii

280

v
t

e [20]

Hawaii is one of four states, besides the original thirteen, that were independent prior to becoming part of the United
States, along with the Vermont Republic (1791), the Republic of Texas (1845), and the California Republic (1846),
and one of two, along with Texas, that had formal diplomatic recognition internationally. The Kingdom of Hawaii
was sovereign from 1810 until 1893 when the monarchy was overthrown by resident American (and some European)
businessmen. It was an independent republic from 1894 until 1898, when it was annexed by the United States as a
territory, becoming a state in 1959.
Hawaii was the target of a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor by Imperial Japan on December 7, 1941. The attack on
Pearl Harbor and other military and naval installations on Oahu, carried out by aircraft and by midget submarines,
brought the United States into World War II.

First human settlement Ancient Hawaii (8001778)

Main article: Ancient Hawaii
The earliest habitation supported by archaeological evidence dates to as early as 300 CE, probably by Polynesian
settlers from the Marquesas, followed by a second wave of migration from Raiatea and Bora Bora in the 11th
century.
Polynesians from the Marquesas and possibly the Society Islands may have first populated the Hawaiian Islands
between 300 and 500 CE. There is a great deal of debate regarding these dates.
Some archaeologists and historians believe that an early settlement from the Marquesas and a later wave of
immigrants from Tahiti, c. 1000, introduced a new line of high chiefs, the Kapu system, the practice of human
sacrifice and the building of heiaus. This later immigration is detailed in folk tales about Paao. Other authors argue
that there is no archaeological or linguistic evidence for a later influx of Tahitian settlers, and that Paao must be
regarded as a myth.
Regardless of the question of Paao, historians agree that the history of the
islands was marked by a slow but steady growth in population and the size of the
chiefdoms, which grew to encompass whole islands. Local chiefs, called alii,
ruled their settlements and launched wars to extend their sway and defend their
communities from predatory rivals. Ancient Hawaii was a caste-based society
much like that of the Hindus in India.

European arrival and the Kingdom of Hawaii

There are questions whether Spanish explorers arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in
the 16th century, two centuries before Captain James Cook's first documented
visit in 1778. Ruy Lpez de Villalobos commanded a fleet of six ships that left
Acapulco in 1542 bound for the Philippines, with a Spanish sailor named Juan
Kalanipuu, King of Hawaii
bringing
presents to Captain Cook.
Gaetano aboard as pilot. Depending on the interpretation, Gaetano's reports
Illustrated by John Webber, artist
seemed to describe the discovery of Hawaii or the Marshall Islands. If it was
aboard Cook's ship.
Hawaii, Gaetano would have been the first European to find the islands. Some
scholars have dismissed these claims as lacking credibility.[21][22] However,
Spanish archives contain a chart that depicts islands in the latitude of Hawaii but with the longitude ten degrees east
of the Islands. In this manuscript, the Island of Maui is named "La Desgraciada" (the unfortunate), and what appears

Hawaii
to be the Island of Hawaii is named "La Mesa" (the table). Islands resembling Kahoolawe, Lanai, and Molokai are
named "Los Monjes" (the monks).[23] For two and a half centuries Spanish galleons crossed the Pacific along a route
that passed south of Hawaii on their way to Manila. The exact route was kept secret to protect the Spanish trade
monopoly against competing powers.
The 1778 arrival of British explorer James Cook was Hawaiis first documented contact with European explorers.
Cook named the islands the "Sandwich Islands" in honor of his sponsor John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich. He
published the islands' location and reported the native name as Owyhee. This spelling lives on in Owyhee County,
Idaho, after three Hawaiian members of a trapping party that went missing in that area.
Cook visited the islands twice. Upon his departure during his second visit in 1779, a quarrel ensued, involving
Cook's taking of temple idols and fencing as "firewood",[24] and the taking of a ship's boat by a minor chief and his
men. Cook then abducted the King of the Big Island of Hawaii, Kalanipuu, and held him as ransom aboard his
ship for the return of the boat, a tactic that had worked for Cook in Tahiti and other islands.[25] Kalanipuu's
supporters fought back and Cook and four Marines were killed as Cook's party retreated to the beach and launched
their boats.
After Cook's visit and the publication of several books relating his voyages, the Hawaiian islands received many
European visitors: explorers, traders, and eventually whalers who found the islands a convenient harbor and source
of supplies. Early British influence can be seen in the design of the flag of Hawaii which has the British Union Flag
in the corner.
These visitors introduced diseases to the once-isolated islands and the Hawaiian population plunged precipitously
because native Hawaiians had no resistance to influenza, smallpox, and measles, among others. By 1820, Eurasian
diseases, famine, and wars among the chiefs killed more than half of the Native Hawaiian population.[26] During the
1850s, measles killed a fifth of Hawaii's people.[27]
Historical records indicated that the earliest immigration of the Chinese came from Guangdong province: a few
sailors in 1778 with Captain Cook's journey, more in 1788 with Kaina, and some in 1789 with an American trader
who settled in Hawaii in the late 18th century.
House of Kamehameha
During the 1780s and 1790s, chiefs often fought for power. After a
series of battles that ended in 1795 and forced cession of the island of
Kauai in 1810, all inhabited islands were subjugated under a single
ruler who became known as King Kamehameha the Great. He
established the House of Kamehameha, a dynasty that ruled the
kingdom until 1872.
After Kamehameha II inherited the throne in 1819, American
Protestant missionaries to Hawaii converted many Hawaiians to
Christianity. Their influence ended many ancient practices, and
King Kamehameha receiving Otto von
Kamehameha III was the first Christian king. One prominent Protestant
Kotzebue's Russian naval expedition. Drawing by
missionary, Hiram Bingham I, was a trusted adviser to the monarchy
Louis Choris in 1816.
during this period. Other missionaries and their descendants became
active in commercial and political affairs, leading to future conflicts between the monarchy and its restive American
subjects.
Missionaries from other Christian denominations (such as Catholics, Mormons, and Episcopalians) were active, but
never converted more than a minority of the Native Hawaiian population. Ezra T. Benson appeared to have been the
earliest Mormon missionary to the islands.

281

Hawaii

282

The death of the bachelor King Kamehameha Vwho did not name an heirresulted in the popular election of
Lunalilo over Kalkaua. Lunalilo died the next year, also without naming an heir. Perhaps "the People's King"
(Lunalilo) wanted the people to choose his successor as they had chosen him. In 1874 the election was contested
within the legislature between Kalkaua and Emma. This led to riots and the landing of U.S. and British troops, and
governance passed to the House of Kalkaua.
1887 Constitution and overthrow preparations
In 1887, Kalkaua was forced to sign the 1887 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaii, which stripped the king of
much of his authority. There was a property qualification for voting, which disenfranchised most Hawaiians and
immigrant laborers, and favored the wealthier white community. Resident whites were allowed to vote, but resident
Asians were excluded. Because the 1887 Constitution was signed under threat of violence, it is known as the
"Bayonet Constitution". King Kalkaua, reduced to a figurehead, reigned until his death in 1891. His sister, Queen
Liliuokalani, succeeded him on the throne. She was the last monarch of Hawaii.
In 1893, Queen Liliuokalani announced plans for a new constitution.
On January 14, 1893, a group of mostly Euro-American business
leaders and residents formed a Committee of Safety to overthrow the
Kingdom and seek annexation by the United States. United States
Government Minister John L. Stevens, responding to a request from
the Committee of Safety, summoned a company of U.S. Marines. As
one historian noted, the presence of these troops effectively made it
impossible for the monarchy to protect itself.

Overthrow of 1893the Republic of Hawaii

(18941898)

Ship's landing force at the time of the overthrow

of the Hawaiian monarchy, January 1893.

In January 1893, Queen Liliuokalani was overthrown and replaced by a Provisional Government composed of
members of the Committee of Safety. American lawyer Sanford B. Dole became President of the Republic in 1894.
Controversy filled the following years as the queen tried to regain her throne. The administration of President Grover
Cleveland commissioned the Blount Report, which concluded that the removal of Liliuokalani was illegal. The U.S.
government first demanded that Queen Liliuokalani be reinstated, but the Provisional Government refused.
Congress followed with another investigation, and submitted the Morgan Report on February 26, 1894, which found
all parties (including Minister Stevens) with the exception of the queen "not guilty" from any responsibility for the
overthrow.[28] The accuracy and impartiality of both the Blount and Morgan reports has been questioned by partisans
on both sides of the debate over the events of 1893.[29]
In 1993, a joint Apology Resolution regarding the overthrow was passed by Congress and signed by President
Clinton, apologizing for the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom.

Hawaii

The Provisional Government of Hawaii ended on July 4, 1894,

replaced by the Republic of Hawaii. The first Japanese immigrants
arrived in Hawaii in 1885 as contract laborers for the sugar cane and
pineapple plantations.

Annexationthe Territory of Hawaii (18981959)

After William McKinley won the presidential election in 1896,
Hawaii's annexation to the U.S. was again discussed. The previous
president, Grover Cleveland, was a friend of Queen Liliuokalani.
The Iolani Palace in Honolulu, formerly the
McKinley was open to persuasion by U.S. expansionists and by
residence of the Hawaiian monarch, was the
capitol of the Republic of Hawaii.
annexationists from Hawaii. He met with three annexationists from
Hawaii: Lorrin Thurston, Francis March Hatch and William Ansel
Kinney. After negotiations, in June 1897, Secretary of State John Sherman agreed to a treaty of annexation with
these representatives of the Republic of Hawaii.
The treaty was never ratified by the U.S. Senate. Instead, despite the opposition of a majority of Native Hawaiians,
the Newlands Resolution was used to annex the Republic to the United States and it became the Territory of Hawaii.
The Newlands Resolution was passed by the House June 15, 1898, by a vote of 209 to 91, and by the Senate on July
6, 1898, by a vote of 42 to 21.
Puerto Rican immigration to Hawaii began when Puerto Rico's sugar
industry was devastated by two hurricanes in 1899. The devastation
caused a world-wide shortage of sugar and a huge demand for the
product from Hawaii. Hawaiian sugar plantation owners began to
recruit the jobless, but experienced, laborers in Puerto Rico. Two
distinct waves of Korean immigration to Hawaii have occurred in the
last century. The first arrived in between 1903 and 1924; the second
wave began in 1965.
In 1900, Hawaii was granted self-governance and retained Iolani
The USS Shaw exploding during the Japanese
Palace as the territorial capitol building. Despite several attempts to
attack on Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941.
become a state, Hawaii remained a territory for sixty years. Plantation
owners and key capitalists, who maintained control through financial
institutions, or "factors", known as the "Big Five", found territorial status convenient, enabling them to continue
importing cheap foreign labor; such immigration was prohibited in various states.

Political changes of 1954the State of Hawaii (1959present)

Main article: Democratic Revolution of 1954 (Hawaii)
In the 1950s the power of the plantation owners was finally broken by descendants of immigrant laborers. Because
they were born in a U.S. territory, they were legal U.S. citizens. The Hawaii Republican Party, strongly supported by
plantation owners, was voted out of office. The Democratic Party of Hawaii dominated politics for 40 years. Eager to
gain full voting rights, Hawaii's residents actively campaigned for statehood.

283

Hawaii

In March 1959, Congress passed the Hawaii Admission Act and U.S.
President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed it into law. (The act excluded
Palmyra Atoll, part of the Kingdom and Territory of Hawaii, from the
new state.) On June 27 of that year, a referendum asked residents of
Hawaii to vote on the statehood bill. The Hawaii electorate voted
94.3% "yes for statehood" to 5.7% "no". The choices were to accept
the Act or to remain a territory, without the option of independence.
The United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization later
removed Hawaii from the United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing
Territories.

284

Certification of the Hawaii vote for Statehood

After statehood, Hawaii quickly modernized via construction and a rapidly growing tourism economy. Later, state
programs promoted Hawaiian culture. The Hawaii State Constitutional Convention of 1978 incorporated programs
such as the Office of Hawaiian Affairs to promote indigenous language and culture.

Demographics
Population
The United States Census Bureau
estimates that the population of Hawaii
was 1,404,054 on July 1, 2013, a 3.2%
increase since the 2010 United States
Census.
As of 2005, Hawaii has an estimated
population of 1,275,194, an increase of
13,070, or 1.0%, from the prior year
and an increase of 63,657, or 5.3%,
since 2000. This includes a natural
increase of 48,111 people (that is
96,028 births minus 47,917 deaths) and
an increase due to net migration of
16,956 people into the state.
Immigration from outside the United
States resulted in a net increase of
30,068 people, and migration within
the country produced a net loss of
13,112 people. The center of
population of Hawaii is located
Population density of the Hawaiian islands.
between the two islands of Oahu and
Molokai. So many Hawaiian residents
have moved to Las Vegas that it has been referred to as the "ninth island" of Hawaii.
Hawaii has a de facto population of over 1.4million, due to large military and tourist populations. Oahu, nicknamed
"The Gathering Place", is the most populous island (and has the highest population density), with a resident
population of just under one million in 597 square miles (1,546km2), about 1,650 people per square mile (for
comparison, New Jersey, which has 8,717,925 people in 7,417 square miles (19,210km2) is the most-densely
populated state in the Union with 1,134 people per square mile.)

Hawaii

285

Hawaii's 1,275,194 people, spread over 6,423 square miles (16,640km2) (including many unpopulated islands),
results in an average population density of 188.6 persons per square mile, which makes Hawaii less densely
populated than Ohio and Illinois.
The average projected lifespan of those born in Hawaii in 2000 was 79.8 years (77.1 years if male, 82.5 if female),
longer than any other state.
As of 2011[30] the U.S. military personnel reported 42,371 of its personnel on the islands.
The Hawaiian population changed dramatically after Europeans arrived.

Historical population
Year

Population

Notes

1778 400,000
1805 264,160
1831 130,313

Census

1850 82,000
1853 73,134

2,119 foreigners

1872 56,897
1876 53,900
1884 80,000

The native population continues to decline.

1890 40,000 native Hawaiians

1900 154,001

About 25% Hawaiian/part-Hawaiian; 40% Japanese; 16% Chinese; 12% Portuguese; and about 5% Caucasian

1910 191,874 people

26,041 Hawaiians and 12,056 part-Hawaiians

1920 255,881

42.7% of the population is of Japanese descent.

1930 368,336
1940 420,770
1950 499,794
1960 632,772
1970 769,913
1980 964,691
1990 1,108,228
2000 1,211,537

239,655 native Hawaiians; Japanese: 21%; Filipino: 17.7%; Chinese: 8.3%; German: 5.8%

Race and ethnicity

Further information: Europeans in Oceania
See also: Africans in Hawaii

Hawaii

286

Historical
population
Census

Pop.

1900

154,001

1910

191,874

24.6%

1920

255,881

33.4%

1930

368,300

43.9%

1940

422,770

14.8%

1950

499,794

18.2%

1960

632,772

26.6%

1970

769,913

21.7%

1980

964,691

25.3%

1990

1,108,229

14.9%

2000

1,211,537

9.3%

2010

1,360,301

12.3%

Est. 2013 1,404,054

3.2%

Source: 19102010

According to the 2010 United States Census, Hawaii had a population of 1,360,301. In terms of race and ethnicity,
the state was 38.6% Asian, 24.7% White (22.7% Non-Hispanic White Alone), 23.6% from Two or More Races,
10.0% Native Hawaiians and Other Pacific Islanders, 8.9% Hispanics and Latinos of any race, 1.6% Black or
African American, 1.2% from Some Other race, and 0.3% American Indian and Alaska Native.
Hawaii Racial Breakdown of Population
Racial composition 1990[31] 2000[32] 2010[33]
White

33.4%

24.3%

24.7%

Asian

61.8%

41.6%

38.6%

Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander

9.4%

10.0%

Black

2.5%

1.8%

1.6%

Native

0.5%

0.3%

0.3%

Other race

1.9%

1.2%

1.2%

Two or more races

21.4%

23.6%

Hawaii is demographically unique because it has the highest percentage of Asian Americans and Multiracial
Americans, as well as the lowest percentage of White Americans of any state. In 2011, non-Hispanic whites were
involved in 14.5% of all the births. Hawaii's Asian population mainly consists of 198,000 (14.6%) Filipino
Americans and 185,000 (13.6%) Japanese Americans. In addition, there are roughly 55,000 (4.0%) Chinese
Americans and 24,000 (1.8%) Korean Americans. Indigenous Hawaiians number over 80,000, which is 5.9% of the
population. Including those with partial ancestry, Samoan Americans make up 2.8% of Hawaii's population, and
Tongan Americans comprise 0.6% of the state population.

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287

Over 120,000 (8.8%) Hispanic and Latino Americans make Hawaii their home. Mexicans number over 35,000
(2.6%); Puerto Ricans exceed 44,000 (3.2%). Multiracial Americans form almost one-quarter of Hawaii's population,
exceeding 320,000 people. Eurasian Americans are a prominent mixed-race group; there are roughly 66,000 (4.9%)
Eurasian Americans in Hawaii. The Non-Hispanic White population numbers at 310,000 and forms just over
one-fifth of the population. The multiracial population outnumbers the non-Hispanic white population by about
10,000 people. In 1970, the Census Bureau reported Hawaii's population as 38.8% white and 57.7% Asian and
Pacific Islander.
The five largest European ancestries in Hawaii are German (7.4%), Irish (5.2%), English (4.6%), Portuguese (4.3%),
and Italian (2.7%). Approximately 82.2% of Hawaii's residents were born in the United States. Roughly 75.0% of the
foreign-born residents hail from Asia. Hawaii is a majority-minority state, and is expected to be one of three states
that will not have a white plurality in 2014, the other two being California and New Mexico.[34]

Ancestry groups
The largest ancestry groups in Hawaii as of 2008 are in the table at right. The third group of foreigners to arrive upon
Hawaii's shores, after those from Polynesia and Europe, was from China. Chinese workers on Western trading ships
settled in Hawaii starting in 1789. In 1820 the first American missionaries came to preach Christianity and teach the
Hawaiians Western ways.

Population of Hawaii
Ancestry

Percentage

Main article:

Filipino

13.6%

See Filipinos in Hawaii

Japanese

12.6%

See Japanese American

Polynesian

9.0%

See Native Hawaiians

German

7.4%

See German American

Irish

5.2%

See Irish American

English

4.6%

See English American

Portuguese

4.3%

See Portuguese American

Chinese

4.1%

See Chinese American

Korean

3.1%

See Korean American

Mexican

2.9%

See Mexican American

Puerto Rican

2.8%

See Puerto Rican

Italian

2.7%

See Italian American

African

2.4%

See African American

French

1.7%

See French American

Samoan

1.3%

See Samoans

Scottish

1.2%

See Scottish American

A large proportion of Hawaii's population is now of Asian ancestry (especially Chinese, Japanese and Filipino.)
Many are descendants of those immigrants brought to work on the sugar plantations in the 1850s and after. The first
153 Japanese immigrants arrived in Hawaii on June 19, 1868. They were not "legally" approved by the Japanese
government because the contract was between a broker and the Tokugawa shogunate, by then replaced by the Meiji
Restoration. The first Japanese government-approved immigrants arrived on February 9, 1885 after Kalkaua's
petition to Emperor Meiji when Kalkaua visited Japan in 1881.

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288

Almost 13,000 Portuguese had come by 1899. They too worked on the sugar plantations.[35] By 1901, over 5,000
Puerto Ricans had made new homes on the four islands.

Languages
The state of Hawaii has two official languages recognized in its 1978 constitution: English and Hawaiian. Article
XV, Section 4, specifies that "Hawaiian shall be required for public acts and transactions only as provided by law"
[italic added]. Hawaii Creole English (locally referred to as 'Pidgin') is the native language of many born-and-raised
residents and is a second language for many other residents.
English
As of the 2000 Census, 73.44% of Hawaii residents age 5 and older speak only English at home. According to the
2008 American Community Survey, 74.6% of Hawaii's residents over the age of five speak only English at home.
Minority languages
In addition, 2.6% of the state's residents speak Spanish; 1.6% speak other Indo-European languages; 21.0% speak an
Asian language; and 0.2% speak a different language at home.
After English, other popular languages are Tagalog, Japanese, and
Ilokano. Significant European immigrants and descendants also speak
their native languages; the most numerous are Spanish, German,
Portuguese and French.
Tagalog speakers make up 5.37% (which includes non-native speakers
of Filipino language, the national co-official Tagalog-based language),
followed by Japanese at 4.96%, Ilokano at 4.05%, Chinese at 1.92%,
Hawaiian at 1.68%, Spanish at 1.66%, Korean at 1.61%, and Samoan
at 1.01%.
Hawaiian

A Portuguese immigrant family in Hawaii during

the 19th century.

Main article: Hawaiian language

The Hawaiian language has about 2000 native speakers, less than 0.1%
of the total population. According to the United States Census, there
were over 24,000 total speakers of the language in Hawaii in
2006-2008.
Hawaiian is a Polynesian member of the Austronesian language
family. It is closely related to other Polynesian languages, such as
Marquesan, Tahitian, Mori, Rapa Nui (the language of Easter Island),
and less closely to Samoan, and Tongan.

Early Japanese immigrants to Hawaii.

According to Schtz (1994), the Marquesans colonized the archipelago in roughly 300 AD followed by later waves
of immigration from the Society Islands and Samoa-Tonga. Those Polynesians remained in the islands, thereby
becoming the Hawaiian people. Their languages, over time, became the Hawaiian language. Kimura and Wilson
(1983) also state, "Linguists agree that Hawaiian is closely related to Eastern Polynesian, with a particularly strong
link in the Southern Marquesas, and a secondary link in Tahiti, which may be explained by voyaging between the
Hawaiian and Society Islands." Before the arrival of Captain James Cook, the Hawaiian language had no written
form. That form was developed mainly by American Protestant missionaries during 18201826. They assigned
letters from the Latin alphabet that corresponded to the Hawaiian sounds.

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289

Interest in Hawaiian increased significantly in the late 20th century. With the help of the Office of Hawaiian Affairs,
specially designated immersion schools were established where all subjects would be taught in Hawaiian. Also, the
University of Hawaii developed a Hawaiian language graduate studies program. Municipal codes were altered to
favor Hawaiian place and street names for new civic developments.
Hawaiian distinguishes between long and short vowels. In modern practice, vowel length is indicated with a macron
(kahak). Also, Hawaiian uses the glottal stop as a consonant (okina). It is written as a symbol similar to the
apostrophe or opening single quote.
Hawaiian-language newspapers published from 18341948 and traditional native speakers of Hawaiian generally
omit the marks in their own writing. The okina and kahak are intended to help non-native speakers.
A sign language for the deaf, based on the Hawaiian language, has been in use in the islands since the early 1800s.
Hawaii Sign Language is now nearly extinct.
Hawaiian Pidgin
Main article: Hawaiian Pidgin
Some locals speak Hawaii Creole English (HCE), often called "pidgin". The lexicon of HCE derives mainly from
English but also has words from Hawaiian, Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, Ilocano and Tagalog. During the 19th
century, the increase in immigration (mainly from China, Japan, Portugaland especially from the Azores
archipelagoand Spain), caused a variant of English to develop. By the early 20th century pidgin speakers had
children who acquired the pidgin as their first language. HCE speakers use some Hawaiian words without those
words being considered archaic. Most place names are retained from Hawaiian, as are some names for plants or
animals. For example, tuna fish are often called ahi.
HCE speakers have modified the meanings of certain English words.
For example, "aunty" and "uncle" refer to any adult who is a friend, or
to show respect for an elder. Grammar is also different. For example,
instead of "It is hot today, isn't it?", an HCE speaker would say simply
"stay hot, eh?" When a word does not come to mind quickly, the term
"da kine" refers to any word you cannot think of. Through the surfing
boom in Hawaii, HCE has influenced surfer slang. Some HCE
expressions, such as brah and da kine, have found their way to other
places.

International Market Place, Honolulu, 1958.

Religion
The largest denominations by number of adherents were the Catholic
Church with 249,619 in 2010 and The Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-day Saints with 68,128 in 2009. The third largest group are the
non-denominational churches with 128 congregations and 32,000
members, the third largest are the United Church of Christ with 115
congregations and 20,000 members. The Southern baptist convention
has 108 congregations and 18,000 members.[36]
According to data provided by religious establishments, religion in
Hawaii in 2000 was distributed as follows:
Christianity: 351,000 (28.9%)
Buddhism: 110,000 (9%)
Judaism: 10,000 (0.8%)
Other: 100,000 (10%)*

Makiki Christian Church in Honolulu, 1958.

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290

Unaffiliated: 650,000 (51.1%)**

"Other" are religions other than Christianity, Buddhism, or Judaism; this group includes Bah' Faith, Confucianism,
Daoism, the Hawaiian religion, Hinduism, Islam, Sikhism, Shintoism, Zoroastrianism, and other religions.
"Unaffiliated" refers to people who do not belong to a congregation; this group includes agnostics, atheists,
humanists, deists and the irreligious.
A Pew poll found that the religious composition was as follows:[37]

44.0% - Protestantism
22.0% - Catholicism
6.0% - Buddhism
5.0% - The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
1.0% - Hinduism
0.5% - Judaism
0.5% - Islam
17.0% - Irreligion (including agnostics, atheists and deists)

A 2010 Glenmary Research Center study also places the Roman Catholic population as greater than 22%.
A special case is Hooponopono, an ancient Hawaiian practice of reconciliation and forgiveness, combined with
prayer. It is both philosophy and way of life. Traditionally hooponopono is practiced by healing priests or kahuna
lapaau among family members of a person who is physically ill.

LGBT
A 2012 poll by Gallup found that Hawaii had the largest proportion of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender adults
in the country, at 5.1 per cent. This constitutes a total LGBT adult population estimate of 53,966 individuals. The
number of same-sex couple households in 2010 stood at 3,239. This grew by 35.45% from a decade earlier.[38][39] In
2013, Hawaii became the fifteenth state to legalize same-sex marriage and a University of Hawaii researcher stated
that the law may boost tourism by $217 million.

Economy
See also: Hawaii locations by per capita income
The history of Hawaii can be traced through a succession of dominant
industries: sandalwood, whaling, sugarcane (see Sugar plantations in
Hawaii), pineapple, military, tourism, and education. Since statehood
in 1959, tourism has been the largest industry, contributing 24.3% of
the Gross State Product (GSP) in 1997, despite efforts to diversify. The
gross output for the state in 2003 was US$47billion; per capita income
for Hawaii residents was US$30,441.
Hawaiian exports include food and apparel. These industries play a
Punalu'u Beach on the Big Island. Tourism is
small role in the Hawaiian economy, however, due to the considerable
Hawaii's leading employer.
shipping distance to viable markets, such as the West Coast of the
United States. Food exports include coffee (see coffee production in
Hawaii), macadamia nuts, pineapple, livestock, sugarcane, and both honey and honeybees: "by weight, Hawaii's
honeybees may be the state's most valuable export." Agricultural sales for 2002, according to the Hawaii
Agricultural
Statistics
Service,
were
US$370.9million

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291

from diversified agriculture, US$100.6million from pineapple, and

US$64.3million from sugarcane. Hawaii's relatively constant climate
has attracted the Genetically modified food research industry which is
able to test three generations of crops in a single year on the islands as
compared to one or two on the mainland.
Hawaii was one of the few states to control gasoline prices through a
Gas Cap Law. Since oil company profits in Hawaii compared to the
mainland U.S. were under scrutiny, the law tied local gasoline prices to
those of the mainland. It took effect in September 2005 amid price
fluctuations caused by Hurricane Katrina, but was suspended in April
2006.

Famous Lanikai Beach on Oahu.

Hawaiian Electric Industries provides electricity (mostly from

fossil-fuel power stations) to 95% of the state's population.
As of January 2010, the state's unemployment rate was 6.9%.[40]
In 2009, the United States military spent $12.2billion in Hawaii,
accounting for 18% of spending in the state for that year. 75,000
United States Department of Defense personnel reside in Hawaii.[41]
According to a 2013 study by Phoenix Marketing International, Hawaii
had the fourth-largest number of millionaires per capita in the United
States, with a ratio of 7.18 percent.

A shipping dock in Hawaii.

Taxation
Hawaii has a relatively high state tax burden. In 2003, Hawaii residents had the highest state tax per capita at
US$2,838.Wikipedia:Citation needed This is partly because education, health care and social services are all
provided directly by the state, as opposed to local government in all other states.Wikipedia:No original
research#Synthesis of published material that advances a position
Millions of tourists contribute to the tax take by paying the general excise tax and hotel room tax; thus not all taxes
come directly from residents. Business leaders, however, consider the state's tax burden too high, contributing to
both higher prices and the perception of an unfriendly business climate.

Cost of living
The cost of living in Hawaii, specifically Honolulu, is quite high compared to most major cities in the United States.
However, the cost of living in Honolulu is 6.7% lower than in New York City and 3.6% lower than in San
Francisco.[42] These numbers may not take into account certain costs, such as increased travel costs for longer
flights, additional shipping fees, and the loss of promotional participation opportunities for customers "outside the
continental United States". While some online stores do offer free shipping on orders to Hawaii,[43] many merchants
exclude Hawaii and Alaska, as well as Puerto Rico and certain other US territories.
The median home value in Hawaii in the 2000 US Census was $272,700 while the national median home value was
less than half of that, at $119,600. Hawaii home values were the highest of all states, including California with a
median home value of $211,500.[44] More recent research from the National Association of Realtors places the 2010
median sale price of a single family home in Honolulu, Hawaii at $607,600 and the US median sales price at
$173,200. The sale price of single family homes in Hawaii was the highest of any US city in 2010, just above the
"Silicon Valley" area of California ($602,000).

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292

One of the most significant contributors to the high cost of living in Hawaii is the Merchant Marine Act of 1920
(also known as the Jones Act), which prevents foreign-flagged ships from carrying cargo between two American
ports (a practice known as cabotage). Most U.S. consumer goods are manufactured in East Asia at present, but
because of the Jones Act, foreign ships inbound with those goods cannot stop in Honolulu, offload Hawaii-bound
goods, load mainland-bound Hawaii-manufactured goods, and continue to West Coast ports. Instead, they must
proceed directly to the West Coast, where distributors break bulk and send Hawaiian-bound Asian-manufactured
goods back west across the ocean by U.S.-flagged ships.
Hawaiian consumers ultimately bear the expense of transporting goods again across the Pacific on U.S.-flagged ships
subject to the extremely high operating costs imposed by the Jones Act. This also makes Hawaii less competitive
with West Coast ports as a shopping destination for tourists from home countries with much higher taxes (like Japan
Wikipedia:Disputed statement), even though prices for Asian-manufactured goods in theory should be cheaper since
Hawaii is much closer to Asia.[45]

Culture
See also: Culture of the Native Hawaiians

Jack Johnson, folk rock musician, was born and

raised on Oahu's North Shore

The aboriginal culture of Hawaii is Polynesian. Hawaii represents the

northernmost extension of the vast Polynesian triangle of the south and
central Pacific Ocean. While traditional Hawaiian culture remains only
as vestiges in modern Hawaiian society, there are reenactments of the
ceremonies and traditions throughout the islands. Some of these
cultural influences are strong enough to affect the United States at
large, including the popularity (in greatly modified form) of luaus and
hula.

Arizona Memorial at Pearl Harbor, Oahu.

Cuisine of Hawaii
The Cuisine of Hawaii is a fusion of many foods brought by immigrants to the Hawaiian Islands including the
earliest Polyneseans and Native Hawaiian cuisine as well as American, Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Korean,
Polynesian and Portuguese origins, including plant and animal food sources imported from around the world for
agricultural use in Hawaii. Poi made from taro is one of the traditional foods of the islands. Many local restaurants
serve the ubiquitous plate lunch featuring the Asian staple, two scoops of rice, a simplified version of American
macaroni salad (consisting of macaroni and mayonnaise), and a variety of different toppings ranging from the
hamburger patty, a fried egg, and gravy of a Loco Moco, Japanese style tonkatsu or the traditional lu'au favorite,
kalua pig and beef, and curry. Spam musubi is an example of the fusion of ethnic cuisine that developed on the
islands among the mix of immigrant groups and military personnel. In the 1990s a group of chefs got together to
develop Hawaii regional cuisine as a contemporary fusion cuisine.

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Customs and etiquette in Hawaii

Some key customs and etiquette in Hawaii are as follows: When visiting a home, it is considered good manners to
bring a small gift (for example, a dessert) for one's host. Thus, parties are usually in the form of potlucks. Most locals
take their shoes off before entering a home. It is customary for Hawaii families, regardless of ethnicity, to hold a
luau to celebrate a child's first birthday. It is customary at Hawai'i weddings, especially at Filipino weddings, for the
bride and groom to do a Money dance (also called the pandango). Print media and local residents recommend that
one refer to non-Hawaiians as "locals of Hawaii" or "people of Hawaii".

Folklore in Hawaii
The folklore in Hawaii in modern times is a mixture of various aspects of Hawaiian mythology and various urban
legends that have been passed on regarding various places in the Hawaiian islands. According to Hawaiian legend,
night marchers (huakai po in Hawaiian) are ghosts of ancient warriors. Local folklore on the island of Oahu says
that one should never carry pork over the Pali Highway connecting Honolulu and Windward Oahu. In Paradise Park
and the Manoa Falls Hiking Trail, folk legends say you can hear a spectre screaming. Across the street from Kahala
Mall is a graveyard. It is said that if you drive past the remaining portion of this graveyard with your windows open,
you will feel somebody else is in your car. The story of the green lady is that of a woman who would visit the gulch
of Wahiawa and will take any child that she comes across.

Hawaiian mythology
Hawaiian mythology comprises the legends, historical tales, and sayings of the ancient Hawaiian people. It is
considered a variant of a more general Polynesian mythology, developing its own unique character for several
centuries before about 1800. It is associated with the Hawaiian religion. The religion was officially suppressed in the
19th century, but kept alive by some practitioners to the modern day.
Prominent figures and terms include Aumakua, the spirit of an ancestor or
family god and Kne, the highest of the four major Hawaiian deities.

List of Hawaiian state parks

There are many Hawaiian state parks. The main Hawaii (island) has state
parks, recreation areas, and historical parks. Kauai has the Ahukini State
Recreation Pier, six state parks, and the Russian Fort Elizabeth State
Historical Park. Maui has two state monuments, several state parks, and the
Polipoli Spring State Recreation Area. Molokai has the Pala'au State Park.
Oahu has several state parks, a number of state recreation areas, and a
number of monuments, including the Ulu P Heiau State Monument.

Literature in Hawaii

A statue of Hawaiian deity

The literature in Hawaii is diverse and includes authors such as Kiana

Davenport, Lois-Ann Yamanaka, and Kaui Hart Hemmings, author of The Descendants. Hawaiian magazines
include Hana Hou!, Hawaii Business Magazine and Honolulu, among others.

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294

Music of Hawaii
The music of Hawaii includes an array of traditional and popular styles, ranging from native Hawaiian folk music to
modern rock and hip hop. Hawaii's musical contributions to the music of the United States are out of proportion to
the state's small size. Styles like slack-key guitar are well-known worldwide, while Hawaiian-tinged music is a
frequent part of Hollywood soundtracks. Hawaii also made a major contribution to country music with the
introduction of the steel guitar.[46]
Traditional Hawaiian folk music is a major part of the state's musical heritage. The Hawaiian people have inhabited
the islands for centuries and have retained much of their traditional musical knowledge. Their music is largely
religious in nature, and includes chanting and dance music. Hawaiian music has had an enormous impact on the
music of other Polynesian islands; indeed, music author Peter Manuel called the influence of Hawaiian music a
"unifying factor in the development of modern Pacific musics".[47]

Polynesian mythology
Polynesian mythology is the oral traditions of the people of Polynesia, a grouping of Central and South Pacific
Ocean island archipelagos in the Polynesian triangle together with the scattered cultures known as the Polynesian
outliers. Polynesians speak languages that descend from a language reconstructed as Proto-Polynesian that was
probably spoken in the Tonga - Samoa area around 1000 BC.
Prior to the 15th century AD, Polynesian people fanned out to the east, to the
Cook Islands, and from there to other groups such as Tahiti and the
Marquesas. Their descendants later discovered the islands from Tahiti to
Rapa Nui, and later Hawaii and New Zealand.
Latest research puts the settlement of New Zealand at about 1300 AD. The
various Polynesian languages are all part of the Austronesian language
family. Many are close enough in terms of vocabulary and grammar to permit
communication between some other language speakers. There are also
substantial cultural similarities between the various groups, especially in
terms of social organisation, childrearing, as well as horticulture, building and
textile technologies; their mythologies in particular demonstrate local
reworkings of commonly shared tales. The various Polynesian cultures each
have distinct but related oral traditions, that is, legends or myths traditionally
considered to recount the history of ancient times (the time of "p") and the
adventures of gods (atua) and deified ancestors.

Tourism

A sacred god figure wrapping for the war

god 'Oro, made of woven dried coconut
fibre (sennit), which would have
protected a Polynesian god effigy (to'o),
made of wood.

Main article: Tourism in Hawaii

Tourism is an important part of the Hawaii economy. In 2003 alone, according to state government data, there were
over 6.4 million visitors to the Hawaiian Islands with expenditures of over $10 billion. Due to the mild year-round
weather, tourist travel is popular throughout the year. The summer months and major holidays are the most popular
times for outsiders to visit, however, especially when residents of the rest of the United States are looking to escape
from cold, winter weather. The Japanese, with their economic and historical ties to Hawaii and the USA as well as
relative geographical proximity, are also principal tourists.
Hawaii is home to numerous cultural events. The annual Merrie Monarch Festival is an international Hula
competition. The state is also home to the Hawaii International Film Festival, the premier film festival for Pacific
rim cinema. Honolulu is also home to the state's long running GLBT film festival, the Rainbow Film Festival.

Hawaii

Health
Main article: Hawaii Prepaid Health Care Act
Hawaii's health care system insures 92% (2009) of residents. Under the state's plan, businesses are required to
provide insurance to employees who work more than twenty hours per week. Heavy regulation of insurance
companies helps keep the cost to employers down. Due in part to heavy emphasis on preventive care, Hawaiians
require hospital treatment less frequently than the rest of the United States, while total health care expenses
(measured as a percentage of state GDP) are substantially lower. Given these achievements, proponents of universal
health care elsewhere in the U.S. sometimes use Hawaii as a model for proposed federal and state health care plans.

Education
Public schools
Main article: Hawai'i Department of Education
Hawaii has the only school system within the United States that is unified statewide. Policy decisions are made by
the fourteen-member state Board of Education. The Board sets policy and hires the superintendent of schools, who
oversees the state Department of Education. The Department of Education is divided into seven districts, four on
Oahu and one for each of the three other counties. The main rationale for centralization is to combat inequalities
between highly populated Oahu and the more rural Neighbor Islands, and between lower-income and more affluent
areas. In most of the United States, schools are funded from local property taxes. Educators struggle with children of
non-native-English-speaking immigrants, whose cultures are different from those of the mainland (where most
course materials and testing standards originate).
Public elementary, middle, and high school test scores in Hawaii are below national averages on tests mandated
under the No Child Left Behind Act. Some of the gap has been attributed to the Hawaii Board of Education's
requirement that all eligible students take these tests and report all student test scores (other states, Texas and
Michigan for example, do not). Results reported in August 2005, indicate that of 282 schools across the state, 185
(2/3) failed to reach federal minimum performance standards in math and reading. On the other hand, the ACT
college placement tests show that in 2005, seniors scored slightly above the national average (21.9 compared with
20.9).[48] In the widely accepted SAT examinations, Hawaii's college-bound seniors tend to score below the national
average in all categories except mathematics.

Private schools
Collectively, independent educational institutions of primary and secondary education have one of the highest
percentages of enrollment of any state. During the 2011-2012 school year, Hawaii public and charter schools had an
enrollment of 181,213, while private schools had 37,695. Private schools thus educated over 17% of the students that
school year, nearly three times the approximate national average of 6%. It has four of the largest independent
schools: Iolani School, Kamehameha Schools, Mid-Pacific Institute, and Punahou School. The second Buddhist
high school in the United States, and first Buddhist high school in Hawaii, Pacific Buddhist Academy, was founded
in 2003. The first native controlled public charter school was the Kanu O Ka Aina New Century Charter School.
Independent and charter schools can select their students, while the regular public schools must take all students in
their district. The Kamehameha Schools are the only schools in the United States that openly grant admission to
students based on ancestry, and the wealthiest schools in the United States, if not the world, having over nine billion
US dollars in estate assets. In 2005, Kamehameha enrolled 5,398 students, 8.4% of the Native Hawaiian children in
the state.
See also: List of elementary schools in Hawaii, List of middle schools in Hawaii and List of high schools in Hawaii

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Colleges and universities

Graduates of secondary schools in Hawaii often enter
directly into the work force. Some attend colleges and
universities on the mainland or other countries, and the rest
attend an institution of higher learning in Hawaii.
The largest is the University of Hawaii System. It consists
of: the research university at Mnoa; two comprehensive
campuses Hilo and West Oahu; and seven Community
Colleges.
Private
universities
include
Brigham
Young
UniversityHawaii, Chaminade University of Honolulu,
Hawaii Pacific University, and Wayland Baptist University.

Main Entrance of the University of Hawaii at Hilo

The Saint Stephen Diocesan Center is a seminary of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu.
Kona hosts the University of the Nations, which is not an accredited university.
See also: List of colleges and universities in Hawaii

Governance
See also: Politics of Hawaii and Political
party strength in Hawaii
The state government of Hawaii is modeled
after the federal government with
adaptations originating from the kingdom
era of Hawaiian history. As codified in the
Constitution of Hawaii, there are three
branches of government: executive,
legislative and judicial.
The executive branch is led by the Governor
of Hawaii assisted by the Lieutenant
The Hawaii State Capitol, as seen from the rim of Punchbowl Crater.
Governor of Hawaii, both elected on the
same ticket. The governor is the only state
public official elected statewide; all others are appointed by the governor. The lieutenant governor acts as the
Secretary of State. The governor and lieutenant governor oversee twenty agencies and departments from offices in
the State Capitol. The official residence of the governor is Washington Place. The legislative branch consists of the
bicameral Hawaii State Legislature, which is composed of the 51-member Hawaii House of Representatives led by
the
Speaker
of
the

Hawaii

House and the 25-member Hawaii Senate

led by the President of the Senate. The
Legislature meets at the State Capitol.
The unified judicial branch of Hawaii is the
Hawai'i State Judiciary. The state's highest
court is the Supreme Court of Hawaii, which
uses Aliilani Hale as its chambers. Unique
to Hawaii is the lack of municipal
governments. All local governments are
administered at the county level. The only
incorporated area in the state is a
consolidated citycounty, Honolulu County,
which governs the entire island of Oahu.
Aliilani Hale, home of the Supreme Court of Hawaii
County executives are referred to as mayors:
The mayor of Hawaii County, mayor of Honolulu, mayor of Kauai and mayor of Maui. The mayors are all elected
in nonpartisan races.

Political subdivisions
See also: Counties of Hawaii
The movement of the Hawaiian royal family from the Big Island to Maui, and subsequently to Oahu, explains why
population centers exist where they do today. Kamehameha III chose the largest city, Honolulu, as his capital
because of its natural harbor, the present-day Honolulu Harbor.
Now the state capital, Honolulu is located along the southeast coast of Oahu. The previous capital was Lahaina,
Maui, and before that Kailua-Kona, Hawaii. Some major towns are Hilo; Kneohe; Kailua; Pearl City; Waipahu;
Kahului; Kailua-Kona. Khei; and Lhue.
Hawaii comprises five counties: Hawaii County, Honolulu County, Kauai County, Kalawao County, and Maui
County.

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Federal government
Hawaii is represented in the United States Congress by two
Senators and two Representatives. All four are Democrats. Colleen
Hanabusa represents the 1st congressional district in the House,
representing southeastern Oahu, including central Honolulu. Tulsi
Gabbard represents the 2nd congressional district, representing the
rest of the state, which is mainly rural.

Brian Schatz is the senior United States Senator from

Hawaii

Brian Schatz is the senior United States Senator from Hawaii. He

was appointed to the office on the December 26, 2012, by
Governor Neil Abercrombie, following the death of former
Senator Daniel Inouye. The state's junior senator is Mazie Hirono,
the former Representative from the 2nd congressional district.
Hirono owns the distinction of being the first Asian American
female and first Buddhist senators. Hawaii incurred the biggest
seniority shift between the 112th the 113th Congress. The Aloha
state went from a delegation with senators who were first and 21st
in seniority before Inouyes death and Senator Daniel Akakas
retirement, to senators who are 87th and 93rd.

Federal officials in Hawaii are based at the Prince Khi Federal

Building near the Aloha Tower and Honolulu Harbor in Honolulu. The Federal Bureau of Investigation, Internal
Revenue Service and the Secret Service maintain their offices there, and the building is also the site of the federal
District Court for the District of Hawaii and the United States Attorney for the District of Hawaii.
National politics
Presidential elections results
Year

Republican

Democratic

2012 27.84% 121,015 70.55% 306,658

2008 26.58% 120,446 71.85% 325,588
2004 45.26% 194,191 54.01% 231,708
2000 37.46% 137,845 55.79% 205,286
1996 31.64% 113,943 56.93% 205,012
1992 36.70% 136,822 48.09% 179,310
1988 44.75% 158,625 54.27% 192,364
1984 55.10% 185,050 43.82% 147,154
1980 42.90% 130,112 44.80% 135,879
1976 48.06% 140,003 50.59% 147,375
1972 62.48% 168,865 37.52% 101,409
1968

38.70% 91,425

59.83% 141,324

1964

21.24% 44,022

78.76% 163,249

1960

49.97% 92,295

50.03% 92,410

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299

Since gaining statehood and participating in its first election in 1960, Hawaii has supported Democrats in every
presidential election but two (1972 and 1984, both landslide victories for Republicans Richard Nixon and Ronald
Reagan respectively). During that time, only Minnesota has supported Republican candidates fewer times in
presidential elections.
In 2004, John Kerry won the state's four electoral votes by a margin of nine percentage points with 54% of the vote.
Every county supported the Democratic candidate. In 1964, favorite son candidate Senator Hiram Fong of Hawaii
sought the Republican presidential nomination, while Patsy Mink ran in the Oregon primary in 1972.
Honolulu native Barack Obama, then serving as United States Senator from Illinois, was elected the 44th President
of the United States on November 4, 2008, and was reelected for a second term on November 6, 2012. Obama had
won the Hawaiian Democratic Caucus on February 19, 2008 with 76% of the vote. He was the third Hawaii-born
candidate to seek the nomination of a major party and the first presidential nominee from Hawaii.

Transportation
See also: Hawaii Department of Transportation and Aviation in Hawaii
A system of state highways encircles each main island. Only Oahu has federal highways, and is the only area
outside the contiguous 48 states to have signed Interstate highways. Travel can be slow due to narrow winding roads,
and congestion in populated places. Each major island has a public bus system.
Honolulu International Airport (IATA:HNL), which shares
runways with the adjacent Hickam Field (IATA:HIK), is the major
commercial aviation hub of Hawaii. The commercial aviation
airport offers intercontinental service to North America, Asia,
Australia, and Oceania. Within Hawaii, Hawaiian Airlines,
Mokulele Airlines and go! use jets between the larger airports in
Honolulu, Lhue, Kahului, Kona and Hilo, while Island Air and
Pacific Wings serve smaller airports. These airlines also provide
air freight service amongst the islands.
Until air passenger service became available in the 1920s, private
boats were the sole means of traveling between the islands.

The main welcome sign for Honolulu Airport

Seaflite operated hydrofoils between the major islands in the mid-1970s. The Hawaii Superferry operated between
Oahu and Maui between December 2007 and March 2009, with additional routes planned for other islands. Legal
issues over environmental impact statements and protests ended the service, though the company operating
Superferry has expressed a wish to begin ferry service again at a future date. Currently there is passenger ferry
service in Maui County between Molokai and Maui, and between Lanai and Maui, though neither of these takes
vehicles. Currently Norwegian Cruise Lines and Princess Cruises provide passenger cruise ship service between the
larger islands.

Rail
At one time Hawaii had a network of railroads on each of the larger islands that helped move farm commodities as
well as passengers. These railroads were all 3ft (914mm) narrow gauge for the majority; although there were some
2ft6in (762mm) gauge on some of the smaller islands. Standard US gauge is 4ft812in (1,435mm). The largest
railroad by far was the Oahu Railway and Land Company (OR&L) which ran multiple lines from Honolulu across
the western and northern part of Oahu.[49]
The OR&L was an important player moving troops and goods during World War II. Traffic on this line was busy
enough that there were signals on the lines facilitating movement of trains and wigwag signals at some railroad
crossings for the protection of motorists. The main line was officially abandoned in 1947; although part of it was

Hawaii

300

bought by the US Navy and operated until 1970. Thirteen miles (21km) of track remain and preservationists
occasionally run trains over a portion of this line. The Honolulu High-Capacity Transit Corridor Project aims to add
elevated passenger rail on Oahu to relieve highway congestion.

Niihau (70 sq. mi.)

Kauai (552.3 sq. mi.)

Oahu (598 sq. mi.)

Maui (727.3 sq. mi.)

Molokai (260 sq. mi.)

Lnai (140.5
sq. mi.)

Kahoolawe (44.6
sq. mi.)

Hawaii
(4,028.2 sq.
mi.)

Sister cities and twin towns

Hawaii has many sister cities and twin towns. Hawaii County is twinned with five Japanese cities and one
Philippines city. Hilo is twinned with a Chilean city and a Japanese city. Honolulu is twinned with over 25 foreign
cities, most notably Manila, Toronto, Seoul, and Tokyo. Kauai County is twinned with three Japanese cities. Maui
County is twinned with over 20 cities, most notably Madrid and Manila. Waikiki is twinned with Bixby, Oklahoma.
See also: List of sister cities in Hawaii

References
[1] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Hawaii&
params=21_18_41_N_157_47_47_W_type:adm1st_scale:3000000_region:US-HI
[2] Local usage generally reserves Hawaiian as an ethnonym referring to Native Hawaiians. Hawaii resident or islander is the preferred local
form to refer to state residents in general regardless of ethnicity. The Associated Press Stylebook, 42nd ed. (2007), also prescribes this usage
(p. 112).
[3] Elevation adjusted to North American Vertical Datum of 1988.
[4] The summit of Mauna Kea is the highest point in Oceania. Mauna Kea is also the tallest mountain on Earth as measured from base to summit.
The shield volcano sits on the floor of the Pacific Ocean at a depth of for a total height of
[5] http:/ / www. hawaii. gov
[6] Hawaii January 29, 2014 (http:/ / earthobservatory. nasa. gov/ IOTD/ view. php?id=82975)
[7] Pollexa reconstruction of the Proto-Polynesian lexicon, Biggs and Clark, 1994. The asterisk preceding the word signifies that it is a
reconstructed word form.
[8] Pukui, Elbert, and Mookini 1974.
[9] Blay, Chuck, and Siemers, Robert. Kauais Geologic History: A Simplified Guide. Kauai: TEOK Investigations, 2004. ISBN
9780974472300. (Cited in )
[10] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Hawaii& params=19_34_N_155_30_W_type:isle& title=Hawaii
[11] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Hawaii& params=20_48_N_156_20_W_type:isle& title=Maui
[12] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Hawaii& params=21_28_N_157_59_W_type:isle& title=Oahu
[13] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Hawaii& params=22_05_N_159_30_W_type:isle& title=Kauai
[14] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Hawaii& params=21_08_N_157_02_W_type:isle& title=Molokai
[15] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Hawaii& params=20_50_N_156_56_W_type:isle& title=Lanai
[16] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Hawaii& params=21_54_N_160_10_W_type:isle& title=Niihau
[17] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Hawaii& params=20_33_N_156_36_W_type:isle& title=Kahoolawe

Hawaii
[18] Swanson, D. A.; Rausch, J. (2008) Human Footprints in Relation to the 1790 Eruption of Klauea (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/
2008AGUFM. V11B2022S), American Geophysical Union.
[19] Mitchell, N. (2003) Susceptibility of mid-ocean ridge volcanic islands and seamounts to large scale landsliding. Journal of Geophysical
Research, 108, 1-23.
[20] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:History_of_Hawaii& action=edit
[21] By Oliver, Douglas L. (1989). The Pacific Islands. University of Hawaii Press. p. 45. ISBN 0-8248-1233-6
[22] Coulter, John Wesley. (Jun 1964) "Great Britain in Hawaii: The Captain Cook Monument". The Geographical Journal, Vol. 130, No. 2.
[23] Hawaii National Park. (June 1959). " Hawaii Nature Notes (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ history/ history/ online_books/ hawaii-notes/ vol6-59h.
htm)". The Publication of the Naturalist Division, Hawaii National Park, and the Hawaii Natural History Association.
[24] Stanley D. Porteus, Calabashes and Kings: An Introduction to Hawaii. Kessinger Publishing, 2005; p.17
[25] Kuykendall, "The Hawaiian Kingdom Volume I: Foundation and Transformation", p18 "Cook's plan was to get the king on board the
Resolution and keep him there until the stolen boat was returneda plan that had been effective under similar circumstances in the south
Pacific".
[26] To express the policy of the United States regarding the United States' relationship with Native Hawaiians, and for other purposes: report
(to accompany S. 2899). p.7. United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Indian Affairs (1993- ). U.S. G.P.O., 2000.
[27] Migration and Disease (https:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070207121510/ http:/ / www. digitalhistory. uh. edu/ database/ article_display.
cfm?HHID=422). Digital History.
[28] Kuykendall, R.S. (1967) The Hawaiian Kingdom, 18741893. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. p. 648.
[29] Hawaii Reporter: Rush Limbaugh Sounds Off on Akaka Bill. (http:/ / www. hawaiireporter. com/ rush-limbaugh-sounds-off-on-akaka-bill/
123) August 18, 2005.
[30] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Hawaii& action=edit
[31] Historical Census Statistics on Population Totals By Race, 1790 to 1990, and By Hispanic Origin, 1970 to 1990, For The United States,
Regions, Divisions, and States (http:/ / www. census. gov/ population/ www/ documentation/ twps0056/ twps0056. html)
[32] Population of Hawaii: Census 2010 and 2000 Interactive Map, Demographics, Statistics, Quick Facts (http:/ / censusviewer. com/ city/ HI)
[33] 2010 Census Data (http:/ / www. census. gov/ 2010census/ data/ )
[34] "California's Hispanic population projected to outnumber white in 2014" (http:/ / www. reuters. com/ article/ 2013/ 02/ 01/
us-usa-population-california-idUSBRE91006920130201) from Reuters (January 31, 2013)
[35] See pages 332-333.
[36] www.thearda.com/rcms2010/r/s/15/rcms2010_15_state_name_2010.asp (http:/ / www. thearda. com/ rcms2010/ r/ s/ 15/
rcms2010_15_state_name_2010. asp)
[37] U.S. Religion Map and Religious Populations - U.S. Religious Landscape Study - Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life (http:/ / religions.
pewforum. org/ maps)
[38] "LGBT Percentage Highest in D.C., Lowest in North Dakota". State of the States. Gallup Politics. 15 February 2013
[39] Williams Inst. Census Snapshot http:/ / williamsinstitute. law. ucla. edu/ category/ research/ census-lbgt-demographics-studies/
[40] Bls.gov (http:/ / www. bls. gov/ lau/ ); Local Area Unemployment Statistics
[41] Associated Press, " Study: Military spent $12B in Hawaii in 2009 (http:/ / www. navytimes. com/ news/ 2011/ 06/
ap-military-spending-strong-in-hawaii-060111/ )", Military Times, June 1, 2011.
[42] Cost of Living Wizard (http:/ / salary. nytimes. com/ costoflivingwizard/ layoutscripts/ coll_start. asp) on The New York Times website
[43] FreeShipping.org (http:/ / www. freeshipping. org/ category/ hawaii-free-shipping-coupons/ ) for examples of stores that ship free to Hawaii
[44] Historic Housing Values (http:/ / www. census. gov/ hhes/ www/ housing/ census/ historic/ values. html) on www.census.gov
[45] 2012 resolution introduced requesting Congress to exempt Hawaii, Alaska, Guam, and Puerto Rico from the Jones Act.
[46] Unterberger, pgs. 465 - 473
[47] Manuel, pgs. 236 - 241
[48] Honolulu Advertiser, August 17, 2005, p.B1
[49] Hawaiian Railway Album WW II Photographs Vol 2; Victor Norton Jr. and Gale E. Treiber; 2005; Railroad Press Hanover, PA

Further reading
Bushnell, O. A. The Gifts of Civilization: Germs and Genocide in Hawaii. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press,
1993.
Holmes, T. Michael. The Specter of Communism in Hawaii. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1994.
Russ Jr., William Adam. The Hawaiian Republic (1894-98) and Its Struggle to Win Annexation. Selinsgrove, PA:
Susquehanna University Press, 1961.
Schamel, Wynell and Charles E. Schamel. "The 1897 Petition Against the Annexation of Hawaii." Social
Education 63, 7 (November/December 1999): 402408.
Stokes, John F.G. "Spaniard and the Sweet Potato in Hawaii and Hawaiian-American Contacts." American
Anthropologist, New Series, vol. 34, no. 4 (1932) pp.594600.

301

Hawaii

302

External links
Official website (http://portal.ehawaii.gov/index.html)
Hawaii State Guide from the Library of Congress (http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/states/hawaii/index.
html)
Hawaii (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/North_America/United_States/Hawaii) at DMOZ
Hawaii State Fact Sheet (http://www.ers.usda.gov/statefacts/hi.htm) from the U.S. Department of Agriculture
USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Hawaii (http://www.usgs.gov/state/state.
asp?State=HI)
Energy Data & Statistics for Hawaii (http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/state/state_energy_profiles.cfm?sid=HI)
Satellite image of Hawaiian Islands (http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.
php3?img_id=15304) at NASA's Earth Observatory
Documents relating to Hawaii Statehood, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library (http://eisenhower.
archives.gov/research/online_documents/hawaii_statehood.html)
Happily a State, Forever an Island (http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/21/opinion/21theroux.
html?pagewanted=all) by The New York Times
Hawaii Then and Now (http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/50681/
hawaii-then-and-now)Wikipedia:Link rot slideshow by Life magazine

Geographic data related to Hawaii (http://www.openstreetmap.org/browse/relation/166563) at

OpenStreetMap
Precededby
Alaska

List of U.S. states by date of

statehood
Admitted on August 21, 1959 (50th)

Most recent

Niue

303

Niue
Niue
Niu

Flag

Coat of arms

Anthem:Ko e Iki he Lagi(Niuean)

The Lord in Heaven

Capital
and largest village

Alofi
[1]
1903S 16952W
Official languages

Demonym

Niuean
English

Niuean

Government

Unitary parliamentary
constitutional monarchy

- Monarch

Elizabeth II

- Governor-General

Sir Jerry Mateparae

- Premier

Toke Talagi
Legislature

Niue Assembly

Associated state
- Self-government in free association with New Zealand

19 October 1974

- Independence in foreign relations recognised by the UN 1994

Area
- Total

260km2
100sqmi

Niue

304
- Water(%)

0
Population

- July 2009estimate

1,398 (221st)

- Density

5.35/km2 (n/a)
13.9/sqmi

GDP(PPP)

estimate

- Total

$10 million (not ranked)

Currency

Niue dollar
New Zealand dollar

(NZD)
Time zone

(UTC11)

Drives on the

left

Calling code

+683

ISO 3166 code

NU

Internet TLD

.nu

Niue (/njue/ NEW-ay; Niuean: Niu) is an island country in the

South Pacific Ocean, 2,400 kilometres (1,500mi) northeast of New
Zealand within the triangle formed by Tonga to the west, Samoa to the
north, and the Cook Islands to the east. Its land area is 260 square
kilometres (100sqmi) and its population, predominantly Polynesian, is
around 1,400. They commonly refer to the island as "the Rock", a
reference
to
the
traditional
moniker
"Rock
of
Polynesia".Wikipedia:Citation needed
Niue is a self-governing state in free association with New Zealand,
and most of its diplomatic relations are conducted by New Zealand on
its behalf. Niueans are New Zealand citizens, and Queen Elizabeth II is
head of state in her capacity as Queen of New Zealand. 9095% of
Niuean people live in New Zealand, along with about 70% of the
speakers of the Niuean language.[2]

Interior of church building in Alofi, 1896.

Photo by Thomas Andrew (18551939).

Niue is not a member of the United Nations, but its status as a

freely-associated state has been accepted by UN organs as equivalent
to independence for international law purposes.[3] Niue is a member of
some UN Specialized Agencies.
In 2003, Niue became the world's first "Wi-Fi nation", in which free
wireless Internet access is provided throughout the country by The
Internet Users Society-Niue.

Coral chasm in Niue.

History
Main article: History of Niue
Niue was settled by Polynesians from Samoa around 900 AD.[4] Further settlers arrived from Tonga in the 16th
century.

Niue

305
Until the beginning of the 18th century, there appears to have been no national government or national leader: chiefs
and heads of families exercised authority over segments of the population. Around 1700 the concept and practice of
kingship appear to have been introduced through contact with Samoa or Tonga. A succession of patu-iki (kings)
ruled, the first of whom was Puni-mata. Tui-toga, who reigned from 1875 to 1887, was the first Christian king.
The first European to sight Niue was Captain James Cook in 1774. He made three attempts to land but was refused
permission to do so by the inhabitants. He named the island "Savage Island" because, legend has it, the natives that
"greeted" him were painted in what appeared to be blood. The substance on their teeth was hulahula, a native red
banana.
For the next couple of centuries Niue was known as Savage Island, until its original name Niu, which translates as
"behold the coconut", regained use.
The next notable European visitors were from the London Missionary Society, who arrived in 1846 on the
"Messenger of Peace". After many years of trying to land a European missionary, a Niuean named Nukai Peniamina
was taken to Samoa and trained as a Pastor at the Malua Theological College.Wikipedia:Citation needed Peniamina
returned as a missionary with the help of Toimata Fakafitifonua. He was finally allowed to land in Uluvehi Mutalau
after a number of attempts in other villages had failed. The Chiefs of Mutalau village allowed him to land and
assigned over 60 warriors to protect him day and night at the fort in Fupiu.
Christianity was first taught to the Mutalau people before it was spread to all the villages; originally other major
villages opposed the introduction of Christianity and had sought to kill Peniamina. The people from the village of
Hakupu, although the last village to receive Christianity, came and asked for a "word of god"; hence their village
was renamed "Ha Kupu Atua" meaning "any word of god", or "Hakupu" for short.
In 1887, King Fata-a-iki, who reigned from 1887 to 1896, offered to cede sovereignty to the British Empire, fearing
the consequences of annexation by a less benevolent colonial power. The offer was not accepted until 1900.
Niue was a British protectorate, but the UK's direct involvement ended in 1901 when New Zealand annexed the
island. Self-government was granted by the New Zealand parliament with the 1974 constitution, following a
referendum in 1974 whereby Niueans were given three options: independence, self-government or continuation as a
New Zealand territory. The majority selected self-government and Niue's written constitution was promulgated as
supreme law. Robert Rex, ethnically part European part native, was appointed the first premier, a position he held
until his death 18 years later. Rex was the first Niuean to receive a knighthood, in 1984.
In January 2004, Niue was hit by Cyclone Heta, which killed two people and caused extensive damage to the entire
island, including wiping out most of the south of the capital, Alofi.

Politics
Main article: Politics of Niue
The Niue Constitution Act vests executive authority in Her Majesty the Queen in Right of New Zealand and the
Governor-General of New Zealand. The Constitution specifies that in everyday practice sovereignty is exercised by
the Niue Cabinet of Ministers, comprising the premier and three other ministers. The premier and ministers are
members of the Niue Legislative Assembly, the nation's parliament.
The assembly consists of 20 democratically elected members, 14 of whom are elected by the electors of each village
constituency, six by all registered voters in all constituencies. Electors must be New Zealand citizens, resident for at
least three months, and candidates must be electors and resident for 12 months. Wikipedia:Citation needed Everyone
born in Niue must register on the electoral roll.
The Speaker is elected by the assembly and is the first official to be elected in the first sitting of the Legislative
Assembly following an election. The Speaker calls for nominations for premier; the candidate with the most votes
from the 20 members is elected. The premier selects three other members to form the Cabinet of Ministers, the
executive arm of government. The other two organs of government, following the Westminster model, are the

Niue

306
Legislative Assembly and the Judiciary. General elections take place every three years, most recently on 7 May
2011.
The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. There are a High Court and a Court of Appeal, with
appeals to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London.

Geography
Main article: Geography of Niue
See also: List of villages in Niue
Niue is a 269km raised coral atoll in the southern Pacific Ocean, east
of Tonga. The geographic co-ordinates are 190348S 1695211W
[5] [6]
.
There are three outlying coral reefs within the Exclusive
Economic Zone, with no land area:
1. Beveridge Reef, at 2000S, 16748W, 240km southeast,
submerged atoll drying during low tide, 9.5km north-south, 7.5km
East-West, total area56km, no land area, lagoon 11 metres deep
2. Antiope Reef, at 1815S, 16824W, 180km southeast, a circular
plateau approximately 400 metres in diameter, with a least depth of
9.5 metres
3. Haran Reef (Harans Reef), at 2133S, 16855W, reported to break
furiously, 294km southeast
Besides these, Albert Meyer Reef, (2053S, 17219W, almost 5km
long and wide, least depth 3 metres, 326km southwest) is not officially
claimed by Niue, and the existence of Haymet Rocks, (26S, 160W,
1273km ESE) is in doubt.

Map of Niue

Niue is one of the world's largest coral islands. The terrain consists of
steep limestone cliffs along the coast with a central plateau rising to
about 60 metres above sea level. A coral reef surrounds the island, with
the only major break in the reef being in the central western coast,
close to the capital, Alofi. A notable feature is the number of limestone
caves found close to the coast.
Niue coastline
The island is roughly oval in shape (with a diameter of about 18
kilometres), with two large bays indenting the western coast, Alofi Bay
in the centre and Avatele Bay in the south. Between these is the promontory of Halagigie Point. A small peninsula,
TeP Point (Blowhole Point), is close to the settlement of Avatele in the southwest. Most of the population resides
close to the west coast, around the capital, and in the northwest.

Some of the soils are geochemically very unusual. They are extremely highly weathered tropical soils, with high
levels of iron and aluminium oxides (oxisol) and mercury, and they contain high levels of natural radioactivity.
There is almost no uranium, but the radionucleides Th-230 and Pa-231 head the decay chains. This is the same
distribution of elements as found naturally on very deep seabeds, but the geochemical evidence suggests that the
origin of these elements is extreme weathering of coral and brief sea submergence 120,000 years ago. Endothermal
upwelling, by which mild volcanic heat draws deep seawater up through the porous coral, may also contribute.
No adverse health effects from the radioactivity or the other trace elements have been demonstrated, and calculations
show that the level of radioactivity is probably much too low to be detected in the population. These unusual soils
are very rich in phosphate, but it is not accessible to plants, being in the very insoluble form of iron phosphate, or

Niue

307
crandallite. It is thought that similar radioactive soils may exist on Lifou and Mare near New Caledonia, and Rennell
in the Solomon Islands, but no other locations are known.
According to the World Health Organization, residents are evidently very susceptible to skin cancer. In 2002 Niue
reported 2,482 deaths per 100,000 people far higher than any other country.[7]
Niue is separated from New Zealand by the International Date Line. The time difference is 23 hours during the
Southern Hemisphere winter and 24 hours when New Zealand uses Daylight Saving Time.

Climate
The island has a tropical climate, with most rainfall occurring between November and April.
Climate data for Alofi
Month

Feb

Mar

Apr May Jun

Jul

Aug Sep

Oct Nov Dec Year

Record high C (F)

38
38
(100) (100)

32
(90)

36
(97)

30
(86)

32
(90)

35
(95)

37
(99)

36
(97)

31
(88)

37
(99)

36
(97)

38
(100)

Average high C (F)

28
(82)

29
(84)

28
(82)

27
(81)

26
(79)

26
(79)

25
(77)

25
(77)

26
(79)

26
(79)

27
(81)

28
(82)

27
(81)

Daily mean C (F)

26
(79)

27
(81)

26
(79)

25
(77)

25
(77)

23
(73)

22
(72)

23
(73)

23
(73)

24
(75)

25
(77)

26
(79)

25
(77)

Average low C (F)

23
(73)

24
(75)

24
(75)

23
(73)

22
(72)

21
(70)

20
(68)

20
(68)

21
(70)

21
(70)

22
(72)

23
(73)

22
(72)

Record low C (F)

20
(68)

20
(68)

20
(68)

14
(57)

15
(59)

13
(55)

11
(52)

11
(52)

15
(59)

15
(59)

11
(52)

17
(63)

11
(52)

Precipitation cm (inches)

Jan

26
25
30
20
13
8
9
10
10
12
14
19
207
(10.2) (9.8) (11.8) (7.9) (5.1) (3.1) (3.5) (3.9) (3.9) (4.7) (5.5) (7.5) (81.5)
Source: Weatherbase

Defence and foreign affairs

Main article: Foreign relations of Niue
Niue has been self-governing in free association with New Zealand
since 3 September 1974 when the people endorsed the Constitution in a
plebiscite.[8] Niue is fully responsible for its internal affairs. Niue's
position concerning its external relations is less clear cut. Section 6 of
the Niue Constitution Act provides that: "Nothing in this Act or in the
Constitution shall affect the responsibilities of Her Majesty the Queen
in right of New Zealand for the external affairs and defence of Niue."
Section 8 elaborates but still leaves the position unclear:
Effect shall be given to the provisions of sections 6 and 7
[concerning external affairs and defence and economic and
administrative assistance respectively] of this Act, and to
any other aspect of the relationship between New Zealand
Premier Toke Talagi in Hawaii in 2011.
and Niue which may from time to time call for positive
co-operation between New Zealand and Niue after
consultation between the Prime Minister of New Zealand and the Premier of Niue, and in accordance
with the policies of their respective Governments; and, if it appears desirable that any provision be made
in the law of Niue to carry out these policies, that provision may be made in the manner prescribed in

Niue

308
the Constitution, but not otherwise."[9]
Niue has a representative mission in Wellington, New Zealand. It is a member of the Pacific Islands Forum and a
number of regional and international agencies. It is not a member of the United Nations, but is a state party to the
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change,
the Ottawa Treaty and the Treaty of Rarotonga. The country is a member state of UNESCO since 26 October 1993.
Traditionally, Niue's foreign relations and defence have been regarded as the responsibility of New Zealand.
However, in recent years Niue has begun to follow its own foreign relations, independent of New Zealand, in some
spheres. It established diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China on 12 December 2007. The Joint
Communique signed by Niue and China is different in its treatment of the Taiwan question from that agreed by New
Zealand and China. New Zealand "acknowledged" China's position on Taiwan but has never expressly agreed with
it, but Niue "recognises that there is only one China in the world, the Government of the People's Republic of China
is the sole legal government representing the whole of China and Taiwan is an inalienable part of the territory of
China." Niue established diplomatic relations with India on 30 August 2012. Niue's decision to follow independent
foreign policy objectives has been the subject of occasional criticism in the New Zealand press.[10]
The people of Niue have fought as part of the New Zealand army. In World War I, Niue sent about 200 soldiers as
part of the Maori Battalion under New Zealand forces.
Niue is not a republic but its full name was listed as "the Republic of Niue" for a number of years on the ISO list of
country names (ISO-3166-1). In its newsletter of 14 July 2011, the ISO acknowledged that this was a mistake and
the words "the Republic of" were deleted from the ISO list of country names.

Economy
Main article: Economy of Niue
Niue's economy is small, with a GDP of NZ$17 million in 2003, or
US$10 million at purchasing power parity. Most economic activity
revolves around the government, as the government has been in charge
of organising and managing the affairs of the country since 1974.
However, since the economy has reached a stage where state regulation
may now give way to the private sector, there is an ongoing effort to
develop the private sector. Following Cyclone Heta, the government
made a major commitment towards rehabilitating and developing the
private sector.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Alofi, the capital of Niue.

The government allocated $1 million for the private sector, which was
spent on helping businesses devastated by the cyclone, and on the construction of the Fonuakula Industrial Park. This
industrial park is now completed and some businesses are already operating from it. The Fonuakula Industrial Park is
managed by the Niue Chamber of Commerce, a not for profit organisation providing advisory services to businesses.
Most families grow their own food crops for subsistence and some are sold at the Niue Makete in Alofi, some
exported to their families in New Zealand.Wikipedia:Citation needed The taro is known in Samoa as "talo Niue" and
in international markets as pink taro. Niue exports taro to New Zealand. The Niue taro is a natural variety and is very
resistant to pests.Wikipedia:Citation needed
The government and the Reef Group from New Zealand started two joint ventures in 2003 and 2004 involving the
development of the fisheries and noni (Morinda citrifolia, a small tree with edible fruit). Niue Fish Processors, Ltd is
a joint venture company processing fresh fish, mainly tuna (yellow fin, big eye and albacore), for export to the
overseas markets. NFP operates out of their state-of-the-art fish plant in Amanau Alofi South, completed and opened
in October 2004.Wikipedia:Citation needed

Niue

309
In August 2005, an Australian mining company, Yamarna Goldfields, suggested that Niue might have the world's
largest deposit of uranium. By early September these hopes were seen as overoptimistic,[11] and in late October the
company cancelled its plans to mine, announcing that exploration drilling had identified nothing of commercial
value.[12] The Australian Securities and Investments Commission filed charges in January 2007 against two directors
of the company, now called Mining Projects Group Ltd, alleging that their conduct was deceptive and they engaged
in insider trading. This case was settled out of court in July 2008, both sides withdrawing their claims. There is an
Australian company that had been issued a mineral prospecting license in the early 1970s which is still very active in
doing research and collecting data on potential mineral deposits on Niue.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Remittances from expatriates were a major source of foreign exchange in the 1970s and early 1980s. Continuous
migration to New Zealand has shifted most members of nuclear and extended families there, removing the need to
send remittances back home. In the late 1990s, PFTAC conducted studies on the balance of payments, which
confirmed that Niueans are receiving little remittances but are sending more money overseas, mainly for paying for
imported goods and for the education of students sent to study in New Zealand.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Foreign aid, principally from New Zealand, has been Niue's principal source of income.[13] Although most aid comes
from New Zealand it is currently losing NZ$250,000 a year (i.e. reduction in New Zealand funding) meaning the
country will come to rely upon its own economy more.
Government expenses consistently exceed revenue to a substantial degree, with aid from New Zealand subsidising
public service payrolls. The government generates some revenue, mainly from income tax, import tax and the lease
of phone lines. The government briefly flirted with the creation of "offshore banking", but, under pressure from the
US Treasury, agreed to end its support for schemes designed to minimise tax in countries like New Zealand. Niue
provides automated Companies Registration, administered by the New Zealand Ministry of Economic Development.
The Niue Legislative Assembly passed the Niue Consumption Tax Act in the first week of February 2009, and the
12.5% tax on good and services was expected to come into effect on 1 April 2009. Income tax has been lowered, and
import tax may be reset to zero except for "sin" items like tobacco, alcohol and soft drinks. Tax on secondary income
has been lowered from 35% to 10%, with the stated goal of fostering increased labour productivity.
In 1997, the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), under contract with the US Department of Commerce,
assigned the Internet Users Society-Niue (IUS-N), a private charity, as manager of the .nu top-level domain on the
Internet. IUS-N's charitable purpose was and continues to be to use revenue from registering .nu domain names
to fund low-cost or free Internet services for the people of Niue. In a letter to ICANN in 2007, IUS-N's independent
auditors reported IUS-N had invested US$3 million for Internet services in Niue between 1999 and 2005 from .nu
domain name registration revenue during that period. In 1999, IUS-N and the Government of Niue signed an
agreement whereby the Government recognised that IUS-N managed the .nu ccTLD under IANA's authority and
IUS-N committed to provide free Internet services to government departments as well as to Niue's private citizens. A
newly elected Government later disputed that agreement and attempted to assert a claim on the domain name,
including a requirement for IUS-N to make direct payments of compensation to the Government. In 2005, a
Government-appointed Commission of Inquiry into the dispute released its report, which found no merit in the
government's claims; the government subsequently dismissed the claims in 2007. Starting in 2003, IUS-N began
installing WiFi connections throughout the capital village of Alofi and in several nearby villages and schools, and
has been expanding WiFi coverage into the outer villages since then, making Niue the first WiFi Nation. To assure
security for Government departments, IUS-N provides the government with a secure DSL connection to IUS-N's
satellite Internet link, at no cost.
In 2003, the government made a commitment to develop and expand vanilla production with the support of NZAID.
Vanilla has grown wild for a long time. Despite the setback caused by the devastation of Cyclone Heta in early 2004,
there was ongoing work on vanilla production. The expansion plan started with the employment of the unemployed
or underemployed labour force to help clear land, plant supporting trees and plant vanilla vines. The approach to
accessing land includes planning to have each household plant a small plot of around half to 1-acre (4,000m2) to be

Niue

310
cleared and planted with vanilla vines. There are a lot of planting materials for supporting trees to meet demand for
the expansion of vanilla plantations, however there is a severe shortage of vanilla vines for planting stock. There is
of course the existing vanilla vines, but cutting them for planting stock will reduce or stop the vanilla from producing
beans. At the moment, the focus is in the areas of harvesting and marketing.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Niue's economy suffered from the devastating tropical Cyclone Heta on 4 January 2004. The Niue Integrated
Strategic Plan (NISP) is the national development plan, setting national priorities for development. Cyclone Heta
took away about two years from the implementation of the NISP, while national efforts concentrate on the recovery
efforts. In 2008, Niue had yet to fully recover from the devastation of Cyclone Heta.
In the area of trade, Niue is negotiating with other Pacific countries free trade agreements, PICTA Trade in Services
(PICTA TIS), Economic Partnership Agreements with the European Union, and PACER Plus with Australia and
New Zealand. The Office of the Chief Trade Adviser (OCTA) has been set up to assist Niue and other Pacific
countries in the negotiation of the PACER Plus.
Niue uses the New Zealand dollar.

Agriculture
Agriculture is very important to the lifestyle of Niueans and the economy, and around 204 square kilometres of the
land area are available for agriculture.[14] Subsistence agriculture is very much part of Niue's agriculture, where
nearly all the households have plantations of taro. Taro is a staple food, and the pink taro now dominant in the taro
markets in New Zealand and Australia is an intellectual property of Niue. This is one of the natural taro varieties on
Niue, and has a strong resistance to pests.
Tapioca or cassava, yams and kumaras also grow very well,[15] as do different varieties of bananas. Copra,
passionfruit and limes dominated exports in the 1970s, but in 2008 vanilla, noni and taro are the main export crops.
Coconut crab, or uga is also part of the food chain; it lives in the forest and coastal areas.
The last agricultural census was in 1989.[16]

Tourism
Tourism has been identified as one of the three priority economic
sectors (the other two are fisheries and agriculture) for economic
development. In 2006, estimated visitor expenditure reached $1.6
million making tourism a major export industry for Niue. Niue will
continue to receive direct support from the government and overseas
donor agencies. The only airport is Niue International Airport. Air
New Zealand is the sole airline, flying once a week. In April 2013 a
fortnightly flight was added. It took over after Polynesian Airlines
stopped flying in November 2005. There is a tourism development
Avatele Beach
strategy to increase the number of rooms available to overseas tourists
at a sustainable level. Niue is trying to attract foreign investors to
invest in the tourism industry of Niue by offering import and company tax concessions as incentives.

Niue

311

Media
Niue has two broadcast media outlets, Television Niue and Radio Sunshine, managed and operated by the
Broadcasting Corporation of Niue, and one newspaper, the Niue Star.[17] The internet also provides opportunity for
other news services like http://talanet.okakoa.com.

Information technology
The first computers were Apple machines brought in by the University of the South Pacific Extension Centre around
the early 1980s. The Treasury Department computerised its general ledger in 1986 using NEC personal computers
that were IBM PC XT compatible. Wikipedia:Citation needed The Census of Households and Population in 1986
was the first to be processed using a personal computer with the assistance of David Marshall, FAO Adviser on
Agricultural Statistics, advising UNFPA Demographer Dr Lawrence Lewis and Niue Government Statistician Bill
Vakaafi Motufoou to switch from using manual tabulation cards. In 1987 Statistics Niue got its new personal
computer NEC PC AT use for processing the 1986 census data; personnel were sent on training in Japan and New
Zealand to use the new computer. The first Computer Policy was developed and adopted in 1988. Wikipedia:Citation
needed
In 2003, Niue became the first territory to offer free wireless internet to
all its inhabitants.[18] In August 2008 it has been reported that all
school students have what is known as the OLPC XO-1, a specialised
laptop by the One Laptop per Child project designed for children in the
developing world. Niue was also a location of tests for the OpenBTS
project, which aims to deliver low-cost GSM base stations built with
open source software. In July 2011, Niue Telecom launched pre-paid
mobile services (Voice/EDGE 2.5G) as Rokcell Mobile based on the
commercial GSM product of vendor Lemko. Three BTS sites will
cover the nation. International roaming is not currently available. Once
the fibre cable is completed around the island (FTTC), Internet/ADSL
services were planned to be rolled out towards the end of
2011.Wikipedia:Citation needed

Students using their OLPC laptops on the school

yard

Culture
See also: Music of Niue
Liku, the easternmost village, is the home of prominent international
artist Mark Cross and his wife, the master weaver, Ahitautama. Two
kilometres south of Liku is the Hikulagi Sculpture Park, an ongoing
environmental art project, supported by Reef Shipping, The Pacific
Development and Conservation Trust and several other organisations.
Niue is the birthplace of New Zealand artist and writer John Pule.
Author of The Shark That Ate the Sun, he also paints tapa cloth
inspired designs on canvas. In 2005, he co-wrote Hiapo: Past and
Present in Niuean Barkcloth, a study of a traditional Niuean artform,
with Australian writer and anthropologist Nicholas Thomas.

Niuean dancers at the Pasifika Festival.

Taoga Niue is a new Government Department responsible for the preservation of culture, tradition and heritage.
Recognising its importance, the Government has added Taoga Niue as the sixth pillar of the Niue Integrated
Strategic Plan (NISP).

Niue

312

Religion
Seventy-five percent of the population belong to the Ekalesia Nieue (a national Congregationalist body). About 15%
are Latter-day Saints and 7% are Catholics. About 1.5% of the population are Baha'i, a relatively large proportion
and ranking 19th worldwide on the list provided by Adherents.com. Two percent are Jehovah's Witnesses, the
second-highest proportion in the world (after St. Helena). Twenty Sikhs arrived from India in 2006 to work in the
vanilla and noni industries.

Renewable energy
The European Union is helping Niue convert to renewable energy. In
July 2009 a solar panel system was installed, injecting about 50kW
into the Niue national power grid. This is nominal 6% of the average
833kW electricity production. The solar panels are at Niue High
School (20kW), Niue Power Corporation office (1.7kW) and the Niue
Foou Hospital (30kW). The EU-funded grid-connected PV systems
are supplied under the REP-5 programme and were installed recently
by the Niue Power Corporation on the roofs of the high school and the
power station office and on ground-mounted support structures in front
of the hospital. They will be monitored and maintained by the NPC.

The Niue sevens team performing a takalo

Sport
See also: Rugby union in Niue
Despite being a small country, a number of sports are popular. Rugby union is the most popular sport, played by both
men and women; Niue were the 2008 FORU Oceania Cup champions. Netball is played only by women. There is a
nine-hole golf course at Fonuakula. There is a lawn bowling green under constructionWikipedia:Citation needed.
Association Football is a popular sport, as evidenced by the Niue Soccer Tournament, though the Niue national
football team has played only two matches. Rugby league is also a popular sport.

References
[1] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Niue& params=19_03_S_169_52_W_type:country
[2] Moseley, Christopher and R. E. Asher, ed. Atlas of the World's Languages (New York: Routelage, 1994) p. 100
[3] http:/ / www. justice. govt. nz/ publications/ publications-archived/ 2000/ pacific-peoples-constitution-report-september-2000/ documents/
Bibliography. doc
[4] Encyclopdia Britannica, "Niue"
[5] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Niue& params=19_03_48_S_169_52_11_W_
[6] Jacobson G, Hill PJ (1980) Hydrogeology of a raised coral atoll, Niue Island, South Pacific Ocean. Journal of Australian Geology and
Geophysics, 5 271278.
[7] World Health Organization, Global Health Observatory Data Repository, UV radiation: Burden of disease by country, 2002, http:/ / apps.
who. int/ gho/ data/ node. main. 165?lang=eng
[8] Masahiro Igarashi, Associated Statehood in International Law, p 167
[9] Section 8, Niue Constitution Act.
[10] The Hive, Pacific Watch : Has Niue's Constitutional Status Changed?, 16 December 2007
[11] Yamarna loses passion for Niue's uranium (http:/ / www. theage. com. au/ news/ business/ yamarna-loses-passion-for-niues-uranium/ 2005/
09/ 05/ 1125772467540. html), The Age, 2005-09-06. Retrieved 2007-12-24.
[12] NIUE: No Mineable Uranium, Says Exploration Company (http:/ / www. pacificmagazine. net/ news/ 2005/ 11/ 03/
niue-no-mineable-uranium-says-exploration-company), Pacific Magazine, 2005-11-03. Retrieved 2007-12-24.
[13] NZAID. Niue Snapshot. http:/ / www. aid. govt. nz/ programmes/ c-niue. html
[14] Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles: Niue (http:/ / www. fao. org/ ag/ AGP/ AGPC/ doc/ Counprof/ southpacific/ niue. htm), United
Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, January 2009.

Niue

313
[15] Agriculture Products (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ fields/ 2052. html), CIA World Factbook, Central
Intelligence Agency.
[16] Niue Agricultural Census 1989 Main Results (http:/ / www. fao. org/ fileadmin/ templates/ ess/ documents/ world_census_of_agriculture/
main_results_by_country/ Niue_1989. pdf), United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, 1989.
[17] "Le Programme international pour le dveloppement de la communication de l'UNESCO soutient le journal de Niue" (http:/ / www. unesco.
org/ webworld/ fr/ news/ 2002/ 020118_pina. shtml), UNESCO, 16 July 2002
[18] Creating a Wireless Nation (http:/ / nunames. nu/ about/ Niuepaper2. pdf), IUSN White Paper, July 2003

Further reading
See also: Bibliography of Niue
Hekau, Maihetoe & al., Niue: A History of the Island, Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies (USP) & the government
of Niue, 1982 [no ISBN]
Tregear, Edward, "Niue: or Savage Island" (http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/Volume_2_1893/
Volume_2,_No.1,_March_1893/Niue:_or_Savage_Island,_by_Edward_Tregear,_p_11-16/p1?action=null), The
Journal of the Polynesian Society, vol.2, March 1893, pp.1116

External links
Government
Niuean Government (http://www.gov.nu/) official site
General information
Niue (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ne.html) entry at The World
Factbook
Niue (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/niue.htm) from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Niue (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Oceania/Niue) at DMOZ

Wikimedia Atlas of Niue

Travel
Niue Tourism Office (http://www.niueisland.com)
Other
Niue Film Commission (http://www.niuefilmcommission.com)
Niue Island.nu (http://www.niueisland.nu/) portal for the people of Niue
Niue Island food and caves (http://www.niuetotal.com)
Coordinates: 1903S 16955W (http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Niue&
params=19_03_S_169_55_W_)

Pitcairn Islands

314

Pitcairn Islands
"Pitcairn" redirects here. For the ship, see HMS Pitcairn (K589).

Pitcairn Group of Islands

Pitkern Ailen
Overseas territory of the United Kingdom

Flag

Coat of arms

Anthem:Come Ye Blessed
Royal anthem:God Save the Queen

Location of the Pitcairn Islands relative to

the United Kingdom (white, top lefthand corner).

Location of the Pitcairn Islands relative to the west coast

of South America.

Capital
and largest city
Official languages

Adamstown
English

Pitcairn Islands

315
Recognised regionallanguages

Pitkern

Ethnicgroups

Demonym

British
Polynesian
Chilean
Mixed

Pitcairn Islander

Government

British Overseas Territorya

- Monarch

Elizabeth II

- Governor/ High Commissioner

Victoria Treadell

- Mayor

Shawn Christian

- Responsible Ministerb (UK)

Mark Simmonds MP
Area

- Total

47km
18.1sqmi
Population

- 2013estimate

56 (last)

- 2010census

45

- Density

1.19/km (240th)
3.09/sqmi

Currency

New Zealand dollar (NZD)

Time zone

UTC08

Calling code

+64

ISO 3166 code

PN

Internet TLD

.pn

a.

Representative democratic parliamentary dependency under constitutional monarchy.

b.

For the Overseas Territories.

c.

The Pitcairn Islands dollar is treated as a collectible/souvenir currency outside

Pitcairn.
UK Postcode: PCRN 1ZZ

The Pitcairn Islands (/ptkrn/;[1] Pitkern: Pitkern Ailen), officially named the Pitcairn Group of Islands, are a
group of four volcanic islands in the southern Pacific Ocean that form the last British Overseas Territory in the
Pacific. The four islands Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie, and Oeno are spread over several hundred miles of ocean
and have a total land area of about 47 square kilometres (18sqmi). Only Pitcairn, the second largest island
measuring about 3.6 kilometres (2.2mi) from east to west, is inhabited.
The islands are inhabited by the descendants of the Bounty mutineers and the Tahitians (or Polynesians) who
accompanied them, an event retold in numerous books and films. This history is still apparent in the surnames of
many of the islanders. With only about 56 inhabitants, originating from four main families, Pitcairn is the least
populous national jurisdiction in the world.[2] The United Nations Committee on Decolonization includes the
Pitcairn Islands on the United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories.

Pitcairn Islands

316

History
Main article: History of the Pitcairn Islands

The mutineers turning Bligh and part of the

officers and crew adrift from the Bounty, 29 April
1789

The earliest known settlers of the Pitcairn Islands were Polynesians

who appear to have lived on Pitcairn and Henderson, as well as nearby
Mangareva Island 400 kilometres (250mi) to the northwest, for several
centuries. They traded goods and formed social ties between the three
islands despite the long canoe voyages between them, helping the
small populations on each island survive despite having very limited
resources. Eventually important natural resources were used up,
inter-island trade broke down and a period of civil war began on
Mangareva, causing the small human populations on Henderson and
Pitcairn to be cut off and eventually go extinct. Although
archaeologists believe that Polynesians were living on Pitcairn as late
as the 15th century, the islands were uninhabited when they were

discovered by Europeans.
Ducie and Henderson Islands were discovered by Portuguese sailor Pedro Fernandes de Queirs, sailing for the
Spanish Crown, who arrived on 26 January 1606. He named them La Encarnacin ("The Incarnation") and San Juan
Bautista ("Saint John the Baptist"), respectively. However, some sources express doubt about exactly which of the
islands were visited and named by Queirs, suggesting that Queirs' La Encarnacin may actually have been
Henderson Island, and San Juan Bautista may have been Pitcairn Island.[3]
Pitcairn Island was sighted on 3 July 1767 by the crew of the British sloop HMS Swallow, commanded by Captain
Philip Carteret. The island was named after Midshipman Robert Pitcairn, a fifteen-year-old crew member who was
the first to sight the island. Robert Pitcairn was a son of British Marine Major John Pitcairn, who was killed at the
Battle of Bunker Hill in the American Revolution.
Carteret, who sailed without the newly invented accurate marine
chronometer, charted the island at 25 2' south and 133 21' west of
Greenwich, but although the latitude was reasonably accurate, the
longitude was incorrect by about 3. This made Pitcairn difficult to
find, as highlighted by the failure of Captain James Cook to locate the
island in July 1773.

Habitation
Further information: Mutiny on the Bounty
In 1790, nine of the mutineers from the Bounty and their Tahitian
Geodesy collection on Pitcairn Island
companions (six men, eleven women and a baby) some of whom
may have been kidnapped from Tahiti settled on Pitcairn Island and
set fire to the Bounty. The wreck is still visible underwater in Bounty Bay, discovered in 1957 by National
Geographic explorer Luis Marden. Although the settlers survived by farming and fishing, the initial period of
settlement was marked by serious tensions among them. Alcoholism, murder, disease and other ills took the lives of
most mutineers and Tahitian men. John Adams and Ned Young turned to the scriptures, using the ship's Bible as
their guide for a new and peaceful society. Young eventually died of an asthmatic infection. The Polynesians also
converted to Christianity. They later converted from their original form of Christianity to Seventh-day Adventism,
following a successful Adventist mission in the 1890s. After the rediscovery of Pitcairn, John Adams was granted
amnesty for his part in the mutiny.

Pitcairn Islands
Ducie Island was rediscovered in 1791 by Royal Navy Captain Edwards aboard HMS Pandora, while searching for
the Bounty mutineers. He named it after Francis Reynolds-Moreton, 3rd Baron Ducie, also a captain in the Royal
Navy.
The Pitcairn islanders reported it was not until 27 December 1795 that the first ship since the Bounty was seen from
the island, but it did not approach the land and they could not make out the nationality. A second ship appeared some
time in 1801, but made no attempt to communicate with them. A third came sufficiently near to see their house, but
did not try to send a boat on shore. Finally, the American trading ship Topaz under Mayhew Folger became the first
to visit the island, when the crew spent 10 hours on Pitcairn in February 1808. A report of Folger's discovery was
forwarded to the Admiralty, mentioning the mutineers and giving a more precise location of the island25 2' S
latitude, 130 W longitude However, this was not known to Sir Thomas Staines, who commanded a Royal Navy
flotilla of two ships (HMS Briton and HMS Tagus) which found the island at 25 4' S and 130 25' W (by meridian
observation) on 17 September 1814. Staines sent a party ashore and wrote a detailed report for the Admiralty.[][4][5]
Henderson Island was rediscovered on 17 January 1819 by a British Captain James Henderson of the British East
India Company ship Hercules. On 2 March 1819, Captain Henry King, sailing on the Elizabeth, landed to find the
king's colours already flying. His crew scratched the name of their ship into a tree, and for some years the island was
known as either Elizabeth or Henderson. Oeno Island was discovered on 26 January 1824 by USA Captain George
Worth aboard the whaler Oeno.

British colony
Pitcairn Island became a British colony in 1838, and was among the first territories to extend voting rights to women.
By the mid-1850s, the Pitcairn community was outgrowing the island and its leaders appealed to the British
government for assistance. They were offered Norfolk Island, and on 3 May 1856, the entire community of 193
people set sail for Norfolk on board the Morayshire, arriving on 8 June after a miserable five-week trip. But after
eighteen months on Norfolk, seventeen of the Pitcairners decided to return to their home island; five years later
another twenty-seven did as well.
In 1902, Henderson, Oeno and Ducie islands were annexed by Britain: Henderson on 1 July, Oeno on 10 July and
Ducie on 19 December. In 1938, the three islands, along with Pitcairn, were formally incorporated into a single
administrative unit called the "Pitcairn Group of Islands".
The population peaked at 233 in 1937, and has since fallen due to
emigration, primarily to New Zealand, leaving some fifty people living
on Pitcairn.

Sexual assault trials of 2004

Main article: Pitcairn sexual assault trial of 2004
In 2004, charges were laid against seven men living on Pitcairn and six
living abroad. The island held the record for highest number of sex
Church of Adamstown
offenders per capita. After extensive trials the men were convicted,
some with multiple counts of sexual attacks of children. On 25 October 2004, six men were convicted, including
Steve Christian, the island's mayor at the time. After the six men lost their final appeal, the British government set up
a prison on the island at Bob's Valley. The men began serving their sentences in late 2006. By 2010, all had served
their sentences or been granted home detention status.

317

Pitcairn Islands

318

Geography
Main article: Geography of the Pitcairn Islands
The Pitcairn Islands form the southeasternmost extension of the geological archipelago of the Tuamotus of French
Polynesia, and consist of four islands: Pitcairn Island, Oeno Island (atoll with five islets, one of which is Sandy
Island), Henderson Island and Ducie Island (atoll with four islets).
The Pitcairn Islands were formed by a centre of upwelling magma called the Pitcairn hotspot.
The only permanently inhabited island, Pitcairn, is accessible only by boat through Bounty Bay. Henderson Island,
covering about 86% of the territory's total land area and supporting a rich variety of animals in its nearly inaccessible
interior, is also capable of supporting a small human population despite its scarce fresh water, but access is difficult,
owing to its outer shores being steep limestone cliffs covered by sharp coral. In 1988 this island was designated as a
UNESCO World Heritage site.[6] The other islands are at a distance of more than 100km (62mi) and are not
habitable.
Island or atoll

Type

Land
area
(km)

Total
area
(km)

Pop.
July 2011

Coordinates

0.7

3.9*

244009S 1244711W [7]

Henderson Island Uplifted coral island

37.3

37.3

242201S 1281857W [8]

Oeno Island

Atoll

0.65

16.65*

235526S 1304403W [9]

Pitcairn Island

Volcanic island

4.6

4.6

Pitcairn Islands
(all islands)

43.25

62.45

Ducie Island

Atoll

68 250400S 1300600W [10]

68 235526 to 250400S,
1244711 to 1304403W

* Includes reef flat and lagoon of the atolls.

Pitcairn Island as seen

from a globe view
with other Pacific
Islands.

Satellite photo of
Pitcairn Island

Map of Pitcairn
Islands

View of Bounty Bay

Climate
Main article: Climate of the Pitcairn Islands
Pitcairn is located just south of the Tropic of Capricorn and enjoys year-round warm weather. Summer temperatures
average 25 to 35C (77 to 95F) from the months of October through to April, while the winter months range from
17 to 25C (63 to 77F). The average humidity in summer can exceed 95%. The rainy season is from November
through to March.

Pitcairn Islands

Flora and fauna

See also: List of birds of the Pitcairn Islands
About nine plant species are thought to occur only on Pitcairn. These include tapau, formerly an important timber
resource, and the giant nehe fern (Angiopteris chauliodonta). Some, such as red berry (Coprosma rapensis var.
Benefica), are perilously close to extinction.[11] The plant species Glochidion pitcairnense is endemic to Pitcairn and
Henderson Islands.[12]
In terms of fauna, an interesting and rare introduction is the Galpagos giant tortoise. The sole surviving tortoise,
Ms. T (also known as Turpen), was one of five which arrived on Pitcairn between 1937 and 1951, brought to the
island by Irving Johnson, skipper of the 96-foot (29m) Brigantine Yankee. Turpen usually resides at Tedside by
Western Harbour. A protection order makes it an offence should anyone kill, injure, capture, maim or cause harm or
distress to the tortoise.[13]
The birds of Pitcairn fall into several groups. These include seabirds, wading birds and a small number of resident
land bird species. Of twenty breeding species, Henderson Island has sixteen, including the unique flightless
Henderson Crake; Oeno hosts twelve; Ducie thirteen and Pitcairn six species. Birds breeding on Pitcairn include the
Fairy Tern, Common Noddy and Red-tailed Tropicbird. The Pitcairn Reed Warbler, known by Pitcairners as a
"sparrow", is endemic to Pitcairn Island; formerly common, it was added to the endangered species list in 2008.[14]
Important bird areas
The four islands in the Pitcairn group have been identified by BirdLife International as separate Important Bird
Areas (IBAs). Pitcairn Island itself is recognised because it is the only nesting site of the Pitcairn Reed-warbler.
Henderson Island is important for its endemic landbirds as well as its breeding seabirds. Oeno's ornithological
significance derives principally from its Murphy's Petrel colony. Ducie is important for its colonies of Murphy's,
Herald and Kermadec Petrels, and Christmas Shearwaters.[15]

Politics
Main article: Politics of the Pitcairn Islands
The Pitcairn Islands are a British overseas territory with a degree of local government. The Queen of the United
Kingdom is represented by a Governor, who also holds office as British High Commissioner to New Zealand and is
based in Auckland.[16]
The 2010 constitution gives authority for the islands to operate as a representative democracy, with the United
Kingdom retaining responsibility for matters such as defence and foreign affairs. The Governor and the Island
Council may enact laws for the 'peace, order and good government' of Pitcairn. The Island Council customarily
appoints a Mayor of Pitcairn as a day-to-day head of the local administration. There is a Commissioner, appointed by
the Governor, who liaises between the Council and the Governor's office.
The Pitcairn Islands has the smallest population of any democracy in the world.

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Pitcairn Islands

Military
The Pitcairn Islands are an overseas territory of the United Kingdom, meaning defence is the responsibility of the
Ministry of Defence and Her Majesty's Armed Forces. In 2004, the islanders had about 20 guns among them, which
they surrendered ahead of the sexual assault trials.[17]

Economy
The fertile soil of the Pitcairn valleys, such as Isaac's Valley on the gentle slopes south-east of Adamstown, produces
a wide variety of fruits: including bananas (Pitkern: plun), papaya (paw paws), pineapples, mangoes, watermelons,
rockmelons, passionfruit, breadfruit, coconuts, avocadoes, and citrus (including oranges, mandarins, grapefruit,
lemons and limes); and vegetables include: sweet potatoes (kumura), carrots, sweet corn, tomatoes, taro, yams, peas,
and beans. Arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea) and sugarcane are grown and harvested to produce arrowroot flour and
molasses. Pitcairn Island is remarkably productive and its benign climate allows a wide range of tropical and
temperate crops to be grown.[18]
Fish are plentiful in the seas around Pitcairn. Spiny lobster and a large variety of fish are caught for meals and for
trading aboard passing ships. Almost every day someone will go fishing, whether it is from the rocks, from a
longboat or diving with a spear gun. There are numerous types of fish around the island. Fish such as nanwee, white
fish, moi and opapa are caught in shallow water, while snapper, big eye and cod are caught in deep water, and yellow
tail and wahoo are caught by trawling. A range of mineralsincluding manganese, iron, copper, gold, silver and
zinchave been discovered within the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), which extends 370km offshore and
comprises 880,000km2.[19]

Souvenirs
The Pitcairners are involved in creating crafts and curios (made out of wood from Henderson). Typical wood
carvings include sharks, fish, whales, dolphins, turtles, vases, birds, walking sticks, book boxes and the famous
models of the Bounty. Miro (Thespesia populnea), a dark, durable and beautifully grained wood, is preferred for
carving. Islanders also produce exquisite tapa cloth and painted hattie leaves.[20]

Coins and stamps

The major sources of revenue, until recently, have been the sale of coins and postage stamps to collectors, .pn
domain names, and the sale of handicrafts to passing ships, most of which are on the United Kingdom to New
Zealand route via the Panama Canal.[21] Trade is restricted by the jagged geography of the island, which lacks a
harbour or airstrip, forcing all trade to be made by longboat to visiting ships. Occasionally, passengers from
expedition-type cruise ships will come ashore for a day, weather permitting.[22] Tourism is the main focus for
building the future economy focusing on small groups coming by charter vessel and staying at "home stays".
Providing accommodation is a growing source of revenue and some have invested in building separate self-contained
units adjacent to their homes.

Honey production
In 1998, the UK Government aid agency, the Department for International Development, funded an apiculture
programme for Pitcairn which included training for Pitcairn's beekeepers and a detailed analysis of Pitcairn's bees
and honey with particular regard to the presence or absence of disease. Pitcairn, it was discovered, has one of the
best examples of disease-free bee populations anywhere in the world and the honey produced was and remains
exceptionally high in quality. Pitcairn bees were also found to be a particularly placid variety and, within a short
time, the beekeepers were able to work with them wearing minimal protection.[23] As a result, Pitcairn today exports
its renowned honey to New Zealand and to the United Kingdom, where it is stocked in London by Fortnum and

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321

Mason and Partridges in Sloane Square. The honey has become a favourite of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince
Charles.[24] The Pitcairn Islanders, under the "Bounty Products" and "Delectable Bounty" brands, also export dried
fruit including bananas, papayas, pineapples and mangoes to New Zealand.[25]

Tourism
Tourism plays a major role on Pitcairn, providing the locals 80% of their annual income. Since 2009, the
Government has been operating the MV Claymore II as the island's only dedicated passenger/cargo vessel providing
tourists with adventure tourism holidays to Pitcairn for three- or ten-day visits. Tourists stay with local families and
get to experience the island's history while contributing to the local economy. Some families have invested in private
self-contained units for tourists to rent. Each year approximately ten cruise ships call at the island for a few hours,
generating income for the locals from the sale of souvenirs, landing fees and the stamping of passports. Children
under the age of 16 years require a completed entry clearance application to visit the island.[26]

Electricity
Electricity on the island is provided by diesel generators operating ten hours per day (from 8am to 1pm, and from
5pm to 10pm). A wind power plant was planned to be installed to help reduce the high cost of power generation
currently associated with the import of diesel, and provide 24-hour electricity to the islanders at 70 cents per
unitWikipedia:Please clarify with no government subsidy.Wikipedia:Citation needed
The wind power scheme was cancelled in 2013 after a project overrun of 3 years and a cost of 250,000.[27]

Demographics
In September 2003, a baby was born on the island for the first time in 17 years.[28] Another child, Adrianna Tracey
Christian, was born on Pitcairn on 3 March 2007.[29] In February 2005, Shirley and Simon Young became the first
married outsider couple in recorded history to obtain citizenship on Pitcairn.[30]

Language
Main article: Languages of the Pitcairn Islands
The majority of the resident Pitcairn Islanders are the descendants of
Polynesians). Pitkern is a creole language derived from 18th century
language. It is spoken as a first language by the population and is taught
only school. It is closely related to the creole language Norfuk, spoken
repopulated in the mid-19th century by Pitcairners.

the Bounty mutineers and Tahitians (or

English, with elements of the Tahitian
alongside standard English at the island's
on Norfolk Island, because Norfolk was

Religion
100% of the population is Seventh-day Adventist. A successful Seventh-day Adventist mission in the 1890s was
important in shaping Pitcairn society. In recent years, the church has declined, with only about eight islanders
worshipping regularly, but most of them still attend church on special occasions.[31] The Sabbath is observed as a
day of rest and as a mark of respect for observant Adventists.
The church was built in 1954 and is run by the Church board and resident pastor, who usually serves a two-year
term. The Sabbath School meets at 10am on Saturday mornings, and is followed by Divine Service an hour later. On
Tuesday evenings there is another service in the form of a prayer meeting.

Pitcairn Islands

322

Education
Education is free and compulsory between the ages of five and 16. All of Pitcairn's seven children were enrolled in
school in 2000.[32] The island's children have produced a book in Pitkern and English called Mi Bas Side orn
Pitcairn or My Favourite Place on Pitcairn.
The school at Palau provides pre-school and primary education based on the New Zealand syllabus. The teacher is
appointed by the governor from suitable qualified applicants who are New Zealand registered teachers. The contract
includes the role of editor of the Pitcairn Miscellany.

Historical population
Pitcairn's population has drastically decreased since its peak of over 250 in 1936 to 48 in 2012.

Pitcairn Islanders, 1916

Year

Population Year Population Year Population Year Population Year Population Year Population

1790

27

1880 112

1970 96

1992 54

2002 48

2012 48

1800

34

1890 136

1975 74

1993 57

2003 59

2013 56

1810

50

1900 136

1980 61

1994 54

2004 65

1820

66

1910 140

1985 58

1995 55

2005 63

1830

70

1920 163

1986 68

1996 43

2006 65

1840

119

1930 190

1987 59

1997 40

2007 64

1850

146

1936 250

1988 55

1998 66

2008 66

1856*

193

1940 163

1989 55

1999 46

2009 67

1859** 16

1950 161

1990 59

2000 51

2010 64

1870

1960 126

1991 66

2001 44

2011 67

70

* 1856 Immigration to Norfolk Island left Pitcairn uninhabited. ** 1859 First group returns from Norfolk Island.

Pitcairn Islands

Culture
The once-strict moral codes, which prohibited dancing, public displays of affection, smoking, and consumption of
alcohol, have been relaxed in recent years. Islanders and visitors no longer require a six-month licence to purchase,
import, and consume alcohol.[32] There is now one licensed cafe and bar on the island, and the Government Store
sells alcohol and cigarettes.
The unique cuisine and rich cultural heritage of the Pitcairn Islanders is detailed in a cookbook: A Taste of Pitcairn:
The First Pitcairn Island Cookbook, by Pitcairn resident Meralda Warren (updated ed. 2005).
Fishing and swimming are two popular recreational activities. A birthday celebration or the arrival of a ship or yacht
will involve the entire Pitcairn community in a public dinner in the Square, Adamstown. Tables are covered in a
variety of foods, including fish, meat, chicken, philhi, baked rice, boiled plun (banana), breadfruit, vegetable dishes,
an assortment of pies, bread, breadsticks, an array of desserts, pineapple, watermelon and more.
Public work ensures the ongoing maintenance of the island's numerous roads and paths. The island has a labour force
of over 35 men and women (as of 2011).

Media and communications

Telephones
Pitcairn uses New Zealand's international calling code, +64. It is still on the manual telephone system.
Radio
There is no broadcast station. Marine band walkie-talkie radios are used to maintain contact among people in
different areas of the island. Foreign stations can be picked up on shortwave radio.
Amateur Radio
QRZ.COM lists six amateur radio operators on the island, using the ITU prefix (assigned through the UK) of
VP6. Several of the operators are quite active. There are also DX-peditions to neighbouring islands; in 2008 a
major one visited Ducie.[33]
Television
There are two live English TV channels from satellite, CNN, and Turner Classic Movies. Free-to-air satellite
dishes can be used to watch foreign TV.
Internet
There is one Government-sponsored satellite internet connection, with networking provided to the inhabitants
of the island. Pitcairn's country code (top level domain) is .pn. Residents pay NZ$100 (about 50) for 2 GB of
data per month, at a rate of 256 kbit/s.[34]

Transport
The settlers of the Pitcairns all arrived by some form of boat or ship.
Pitcairn Island does not have an airport or seaport; the islanders rely on longboats to ferry people and goods between
ship and shore through Bounty Bay. The island has one small harbour and launch ramp that is used to dock and load
long-boats. Because it is small and the water is shallow, only small-craft can fit.[35]
A dedicated passenger/cargo supply ship chartered by the Pitcairn Island Government, the MV Claymore II, is the
principal transport from Mangareva, Gambier Islands, French Polynesia although passage can also be booked
through Pitcairn Travel, Pitcairn's locally owned tour operators who charter the SV Xplore, owned by Stephen
Wilkins, which also departs from Mangareva.
Totegegie Airport, Mangareva is reachable by air from the French Polynesian capital Papeete.[36]
There is one 6.4-kilometre (4mi) paved road leading up from Bounty Bay through Adamstown.

323

Pitcairn Islands

324

The main mode of transport on Pitcairn Islands is by four-wheel-drive quad bikes or on foot. As of December 2013
much of the road and track network and some of the footpaths of Pitcairn Island are viewable on Google's Street
View.[37][38]

Gallery

Bounty Bay in the 1970s

Pitcairn landing site

Pitcairn Island

Oeno

St. Paul's Point in west Pitcairn

Island

Garnets
Ridge,
Pitcairn Island

Henderson Island shelter

References
[1] Oxford English Dictionary
[2] Country Comparison :: Population (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ rankorder/ 2119rank.
html?countryname=Pitcairn Islands& countrycode=pc& regionCode=aus& rank=239#pc). CIA World Factbook.
[3] "History of Government and Laws, Part 15" History of Pitcairn Island (http:/ / library. puc. edu/ Pitcairn/ pitcairn/ govt-history15. shtml),
Pitcairn Study Centre. 30 September 2006
[4] The Annual Biography and Obituary for the Year ..., Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, 1831, Volume 15 "Chapter X Sir Thomas
Staines" pp. 366367 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ENoKAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA367)
[5] History of Pitcairn Island (http:/ / library. puc. edu/ pitcairn/ pitcairn/ history. shtml), Pitcairn Study Centre. Retrieved 15 September 2008.
[6] Pitcairn Island (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 461945/ Pitcairn-Island). Encyclopdia Britannica
[7] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Pitcairn_Islands& params=24_40_09_S_124_47_11_W_
[8] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Pitcairn_Islands& params=24_22_01_S_128_18_57_W_
[9] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Pitcairn_Islands& params=23_55_26_S_130_44_03_W_
[10] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Pitcairn_Islands& params=25_04_00_S_130_06_00_W_
[11] Waldren, S. & Kingston, N. (1998). Coprosma rapensis var. benefica (http:/ / www. iucnredlist. org/ details/ 38851/ 0). IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species.
[12] Waldren, S. & Kingston, N. (1998). Glochidion pitcairnense (http:/ / www. iucnredlist. org/ details/ 32345/ 0). IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species.
[13] Endangered Species Protection Ordinance (http:/ / www. government. pn/ Laws/ Endangered Species Protection Ordinance. pdf), 2004
revised edition. government.pn
[14] BirdLife International (2012). Acrocephalus vaughani (http:/ / www. iucnredlist. org/ details/ 106007621/ 0). IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species.
[15] BirdLife International. (2012). Important Bird Areas factsheet: Pitcairn Island (http:/ / www. birdlife. org/ datazone/ sitefactsheet.
php?id=19786).
[16] " Home (http:/ / pitcairn. pn/ )." Government of the Pitcairn Islands. Retrieved on 31 October 2011.
[17] Pitcairn islanders to surrender guns (http:/ / tvnz. co. nz/ content/ 441332). Reuters. 11 August 2004.
[18] Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC): Pitcairn Islands-Joint Country Strategy, 2008.
[19] "Pitcairn Economy", in The Commonwealth Yearbook 2010, ISBN 978-0-9563060-1-2
[20] Foreign and Commonwealth Office, Profile on Pitcairn Islands, British Overseas Territory, 11 February 2010.

Pitcairn Islands
[21] Pitcairn Island Report prepared by Jaques and Associates, 2003, p.18.
[22] Pitcairn Island Report prepared by Jaques and Associates, 2003, p.21.
[23] The Telegraph, 9 January 2010.
[24] Carmichael, Sri (8 January 2010) "I'll let you off, Mr Christian: you make honey fit for a queen" (http:/ / www. standard. co. uk/ news/
ill-let-you-off-mr-christian-you-make-honey-fit-for-a-queen-6798687. html), Evening Standard.
[25] Pitcairn Islands Study Center, News Release: Products from Pitcairn, 7 November 1999.
[26] Foreign travel advice: Pitcairn (https:/ / www. gov. uk/ foreign-travel-advice/ pitcairn-island). Foreign and Commonwealth Office. (6
December 2012). Retrieved on 2 April 2013.
[27] UK aid wasted on South Pacific windfarm fiasco: failed green energy scheme for only 55 people cost 250,000 (http:/ / www. dailymail. co.
uk/ news/ article-2305442/ UK-aid-wasted-South-Pacific-windfarm-fiasco-failed-green-energy-scheme-55-people-cost-250-000. html).
Dailymail.co.uk (4 August 2013). Retrieved on 20 September 2013.
[28] Pitcairn Miscellany, 2003.
[29] Pitcairn Miscellany, 2007.
[30] Pitcairn Miscellany, March 2005.
[31] "Turning Point for Historic Adventist Community on Pitcairn Island" (http:/ / news. adventist. org/ 2001/ 05/
turig-poit-for-historic-avetist-commuity-o-pitcair-isla. html) 30 September 2006
[32] Pitcairn Island Government Ordinance (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20110610134919/ http:/ / www. government. pn/ Laws/ index. html).
government.pn
[33] VP6DX- Ducie Island 2008 (http:/ / ducie2008. dl1mgb. com/ ). Ducie2008.dl1mgb.com. Retrieved on 20 September 2013.
[34] "iPad Makes Its Way to the Farthest Reaches of the Earth" (http:/ / www. macrumors. com/ 2010/ 10/ 17/
ipad-makes-its-way-to-the-farthest-reaches-of-the-earth/ ) MacRumors.com, retrieved 3 November 2010
[35] Pitkern Ilan, David Evans, 2007
[36] Lonely Planet South Pacific, 3rd ed. 2006, "Pitcairn Getting There" pp.42930
[37] "Pitcairn News" (http:/ / www. pitcairnnews. co. nz/ 131213. html#pitcairn_island_streetview), 2013-12-13, Retrieved 13 February 2014
[38] "View from the end of St Pauls Point on Street View" (https:/ / www. google. co. uk/ maps/ @-25. 075241,-130. 088754,3a,75y,210h,63t/
data=!3m5!1e1!3m3!1sgBvRJitfKC4-UH6qLcLmxg!2e0!3e5?hl=en), Retrieved 13 February 2014

Further reading
The Mutiny on the Bounty
The Bounty: The True Story of the Mutiny on the Bounty by Caroline Alexander (Harper Perennial, London, 2003
pp.491)
The Discovery of Fletcher Christian: A Travel Book by Glynn Christian, a descendant of Fletcher Christian,
Bounty Mutineer (Guild Press, London, 2005 pp.448)
After the Mutiny
The Pitcairners by Robert B. Nicolson (Pasifika Press, Auckland, 1997 pp.260)
After the Bounty: The Aftermath of the Infamous Mutiny on the HMS BountyAn Insight to the Plight of the
Mutineers by Cal Adams, a descendant of John Adams, Bounty Mutineer (Self-published, Sydney, 2008 pp.184)
Pitcairn Island Today
Pitkern Ilan=Pitcairn Island by David H. Evans (Self-published, Auckland, 2007 pp.46)

External links
Government of the Pitcairn Islands
Pitcairn Government (http://pitcairn.pn)

Wikimedia Atlas of Pitcairn Islands

Travel to Pitcairn
Pitcairn Island Tourism (http://www.visitpitcairn.pn/) Official tourism site of the Pitcairn Islands.
News from Pitcairn Island
Pitcairn News from Big Flower (http://www.young.pn) News from Big Flower, Pitcairn Island.
Pitcairn Miscellany (http://www.miscellany.pn) News from Pitcairn Island. The Editor is Pulau school teacher.

325

Pitcairn Islands

326

Pitcairn News (http://www.pitcairnnews.co.nz/index.html) information from Chris Double, a Bounty

descendant based in Auckland NZ
Uklun Tul Un Dem Tul (http://www.demtullpitcairn.com/downloads.html) Pitcairn news by Kari Young, a
Pitcairn resident.
Pitcairn Island Study Groups on the Internet
UK Pitcairn Study Group (http://www.pitcairnstudygroup.co.uk/)
US Pitcairn Islands Study Centre (http://library.puc.edu/pitcairn/index.shtml)
US Pitcairn Islands Study Group (http://www.pisg.net/)
Coordinates: 2504S 13006W (http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Pitcairn_Islands&
params=25_04_S_130_06_W_type:isle_region:PN)

Samoa
This article is about the nation of Samoa. For the neighbouring United States territory, see American Samoa. For the
island chain, see Samoan Islands. For other uses, see Samoa (disambiguation).

Independent State of Samoa

Malo Saoloto Tutoatasi o Smoa

Flag

Coat of arms

Motto:"Fa'avae i le Atua Smoa"

"Samoa is founded on God"
Anthem:The Banner of Freedom

Capital
and largest city
Official languages

Apia
[1]
1350S 17145W

Samoan
English

Samoa

327
Ethnicgroups (2001)

92.6% Samoans
7.0% Euronesians
0.4% Europeans

Demonym
Government

Samoan
Unitary parliamentary republic

- O le Ao o le Maloa Tufuga Efi

- Prime Minister
Legislature

Tuilaepa Aiono Sailele Malielegaoi

Legislative Assembly
Independence

- from New Zealand 1 January 1962

Area
- Total

2,842km (174th)
1,097sqmi

- Water(%)

0.3

Population
- 2012estimate

194,320 (166th)

- 2006census

179,186

- Density

63.2/km (144th)
163.7/sqmi

GDP(PPP)

2011estimate

- Total

$1.090 billion

- Per capita

$5,965

GDP(nominal)

2011estimate

- Total

$630 million

- Per capita

$3,451

HDI (2013)

0.702
medium 96th

Currency

Tala (WST)

Time zone

UTC+13:00 (UTC+13b)

- Summer(DST)

UTC+14:00(UTC+14)

Drives on the

leftc

Calling code

+685

ISO 3166 code

WS

Internet TLD

.ws

a.

Head of state.

b.

Since 31 December 2011.

c.

Since 7 September 2009.

Samoa ( i/smo./; Samoan: Smoa, IPA:[samoa]), officially the Independent State of Samoa (Samoan:
Malo Sa'oloto Tuto'atasi o Smoa), formerly known as Western Samoa, is a country encompassing the western part

Samoa

328

of the Samoan Islands in the South Pacific Ocean. It became independent from New Zealand in 1962. The two main
islands of Samoa are Upolu and Savai'i, one of the biggest islands in Polynesia. The capital city, Apia, and Faleolo
International Airport are situated on the island of Upolu.
Samoa was admitted to the United Nations on 15 December 1976. The entire island group, inclusive of American
Samoa, was called "Navigator Islands" by European explorers before the 20th century because of the Samoans'
seafaring skills.

History
Main article: History of Samoa
The oldest date so far from pre-historic remains in Samoa has been calculated by New Zealand scientists to a likely
true age of circa 3,000 years ago from a Lapita site at Mulifanua during the 1970s.
The origins of the Samoans are closely studied in modern research about Polynesia in various scientific disciplines
such as genetics, linguistics and anthropology. Scientific research is ongoing although a number of different theories
exist; including one proposing that the Samoans originated from Austronesian predecessors during the terminal
eastward Lapita expansion period from Southeast Asia and Melanesia between 2,500 and 1,500 BCE.[2] The Samoan
origins are currently being reassessed due to new scientific evidence and carbon dating findings from 2003 and
onwards.
Intimate sociocultural and genetic ties were maintained between the eastern Lapita colonies and the archaeological
record supports oral tradition and native genealogies that indicate inter-island voyaging and intermarriage between
prehistoric Samoans, Fijians, and Tongans.
Contact with Europeans began in the early 18th century. Jacob
Roggeveen (16591729), a Dutchman, was the first known European
to sight the Samoan islands in 1722. This visit was followed by French
explorer Louis-Antoine de Bougainville (17291811), who named
them the Navigator Islands in 1768. Contact was limited before the
1830s which is when English missionaries and traders began arriving.
Mission work in Samoa had begun in late 1830 by John Williams, of
the London Missionary Society arriving in Sapapali'i from The Cook
Islands and Tahiti. According to Barbara A. West, "The Samoans were
also known to engage in 'headhunting,' a ritual of war in which a
warrior took the head of his slain opponent to give to his leader, thus
proving his bravery."[3] There is recorded history of an event which
took place when two German lives were taken and then their corpses
beheaded by a citizen during that nation's administration of Samoa. A
return attempt between two Samoans led to similar beheading although
the practice was known not to be condoned amongst Samoans. The
event precedes the short time before further tripartite conflict for the
territories. Robert Louis Stevenson, the author, who lived in Samoa
from 1889 wrote in his record of the period 18821892 A Footnote to
History: Eight Years of Trouble in Samoa, "The Samoans are gentle
people."[4]

Studio photo depicting preparation of the Samoa

'ava ceremony c. 1911.

Interior of Samoan house, Apia, Urville 1842.

Samoa

329

The Germans in particular began to show great commercial interest in the

Samoan Islands, especially on the island of 'Upolu where German firms
monopolised copra and cocoa bean processing; the United States laid its own
claim and formed alliances with local native chieftains, most conspicuously on
the islands of Tutuila and Manu'a (which were later formally annexed to the USA
as American Samoa).
Britain also sent troops to protect British business enterprise, harbour rights, and
consulate office. There followed an eight-year civil war, where each of the three
powers supplied arms, training, and in some cases, combat troops to the warring
Samoan parties. The Samoan crisis came to a critical juncture in March 1889
when all three colonial contenders sent warships into Apia harbour, and a
larger-scale war seemed imminent, until a massive storm on 15 March 1889
damaged or destroyed the warships, ending the military conflict.

Wilhelm Solf, German governor of

Samoa 19001910

The Second Samoan Civil War was a conflict that reached a head in 1898 when
Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States were locked in dispute
over who should have control over the Samoa Islands. The Siege of Apia
occurred during the Second Samoan Civil War in March 1899 at Apia. Samoan
forces loyal to Prince Tanu were besieged by a larger force of Samoan rebels
loyal to Mata'afa Iosefo. Supporting Prince Tanu were landing parties from four
British and American warships. Over the course of several days of fighting, the
Samoan rebels were defeated.[5] American and British warships shelled Apia on
15 March 1899; including the USS Philadelphia. Germany, the United Kingdom
and the United States quickly resolved to end the hostilities; with the partitioning
of the island chain at the Tripartite Convention of 1899.[6]

18991914
The Tripartite Convention of 1899 partitioned the Samoan Islands into two parts:
Mata'afa Iosefo (18321912)
paramount
chief and rival for the
the eastern island-group became a territory of the United States (the Tutuila
kingship of Samoa
Islands in 1900 and officially Manu'a in 1904) and became known as American
Samoa; the western islands, by far the greater landmass, became known as
German Samoa after Britain vacated all claims to Samoa and accepted termination of German rights in Tonga and
certain areas in the Solomon Islands and West Africa.[7]
The Germans ruled Western Samoa from 1900 to 1914, although the German government under "Prince Bismarck"
had announced Samoa's "annexation" as early as 1885.[8]
In 1908, the Samoan people formed the non-violent Mau a Pule resistance movement. In 1909 the German
government deported the Mau leader, Lauaki Namulauulu Mamoe, to Saipan in the German-ruled Northern Mariana
Islands.[9]
By 1912 the German administration, preparing for war in Europe, maintained a semblance of local participation in
government, which they had been studying, in order to dominate it, in colonial fashion. There was no more Tupu
(King), nor even alii sili (similar to a governor), but the two Fautua (Advisors) were appointed.Wikipedia:Manual of
Style/Words to watch#Unsupported attributions Tumua and Pule (traditional governments of Upolu and Savaii) were
for a time silent; all decisions on matters affecting lands and titles were under the control of the Governor. To
complete the process, the Faalupega for all Samoa was revised. In a culture based on oratory, the Faalupega is a
formal greeting which acknowledges those being greeted and their status. The Faalupega, which had been
nationally accepted from at least the late 19th-century (and probably for much longer than that), was as follows:

Samoa

330

"Tulouna a Tumua ma Pule,

Tulouna a Ituau ma Alataua,
Tulouna a Aiga-i-le-Tai,
Ma le Vaa-o-Fonoti,
Tulouna a Tama ma a latou aiga
Poo aiga ma a latou tama".
This first recognised the authority and identity of principal districts of Samoa through their spokesmen Tumua ma
Pule, Ituau ma Alataua, Aiga-i-le-Tai, and the Va'a-o-Fonoti and the highest titles which were bestowed by these
groups. It concludes with the recognition of the great maximal descent groups of Samoa and their "sons" who had
been chosen to hold the highest titles.
The new Faalupega of German Samoa, which in its first line recognises the Kaiser (Kaisa), apparently required
Malietoa Tanumafili and Tupua Tamasese to be sworn on oath to become advisors to the governing council:
"Tulouna a lana Maiesitete le Kaisa o le tupu mamalu o lo tatou malo kasialika aoao.
Tulouna a lana afioga le kovana kasialika o le sui o le kaisa I Samoa nei.
Susu mai Malietoa, Afio mai Tupua
Ua faamanatuiana ai aiga e lua I o oulua tofiga Kasialika o le Fautua.
Tulouna a le vasega a Faipule Kasialika o e lagolago malosi I le Malo.
Afifio mai le nofo a vasega o tofiga Kasialika o e usu fita I le tautua I le malo".
The first German Governor, Wilhelm Solf, later went on to become Secretary for the Colonies of Imperial Germany.
New Zealand troops landed on 'Upolu unopposed on 29 August 1914 and seized control from the German
authorities, following a request by Britain for New Zealand to perform their "great and urgent imperial service".

New Zealand rule 19141962

From the end of World War I until 1962, New Zealand controlled Samoa as a
Class C Mandate under trusteeship through the League of Nations, then through
the United Nations. There followed a series of New Zealand administrators who
were responsible for two major incidents. In the first incident, approximately one
fifth of the Samoan population died in the influenza epidemic of 19181919. In
1919 The Royal Commission of Inquiry into the Epidemic concluded that there
had been no epidemic of pneumonic influenza in Western Samoa before the
arrival of the SS Talune from Auckland on 7 November 1918. The NZ
administration allowed the ship to berth in breach of quarantine; within seven
days of this ship's arrival influenza became epidemic in Upolu and then spread
rapidly throughout the rest of the territory.
The second major incident arose out of an initially peaceful protest by the Mau
(which literally translates as "strongly held opinion"), a non-violent popular
movement which had its beginnings in the early 1900s on Savai'i, led by Lauaki
Namulauulu Mamoe, an orator chief deposed by Solf. In 1909, Lauaki was exiled
to Saipan and died en route back to Samoa in 1915.
Exiled orator Lauaki Namulauulu
Mamoe

By 1918, Samoa had population of some 38,000 Samoans and 1,500 Europeans.
However Samoans greatly resented New Zealand's imperialism, and blamed inflation and the catastrophic 1918 flu
epidemic on its misrule.[10] By the late 1920s the resistance movement against colonial rule had gathered widespread
support during the mistreatment of the Samoan people by the New Zealand administration. One of the Mau leaders
was Olaf Frederick Nelson, a half Samoan and half Swedish merchant. Nelson was eventually exiled during the late
1920s and early 1930s, but he continued to assist the organisation financially and politically. In accordance with the

Samoa
Mau's non-violent philosophy, the newly elected leader, High Chief Tupua Tamasese Lealofi, led his fellow
uniformed Mau in a peaceful demonstration in downtown Apia on 28 December 1929.
The New Zealand police attempted to arrest one of the leaders in the demonstration. When he resisted, a struggle
developed between the police and the Mau. The officers began to fire randomly into the crowd and a Lewis machine
gun, mounted in preparation for this demonstration, was used to disperse the demonstrators. Chief Tamasese was
shot from behind and killed while trying to bring calm and order to the Mau demonstrators, screaming "Peace,
Samoa". Ten others died that day and approximately 50 were injured by gunshot wounds and police batons. That day
would come to be known in Samoa as Black Saturday. The Mau grew, remaining steadfastly non-violent, and
expanded to include a highly influential women's branch.

Independence 1962
After repeated efforts by the Samoan people, Western Samoa gained independence on 1 January 1962 and signed a
friendship treaty with New Zealand. Samoa, the first small-island country in the Pacific to become independent,
joined the Commonwealth of Nations on 28 August 1970. While independence was achieved at the beginning of
January, Samoa annually celebrates 1 June as its independence day.[11][12]
In 2002, New Zealand's prime minister Helen Clark, on a trip to Samoa, formally apologised for New Zealand's role
in the events of 1918 and 1929.
In July 1997 the government amended the constitution to change the country's name from Western Samoa to Samoa.
The US territory of American Samoa protested the move, asserting that the change diminished its own identity. As of
2012[13] American Samoans still use the terms Western Samoa and Western Samoans to describe the independent
State of Samoa and its inhabitantsWikipedia:Citation needed. Travel writer Paul Theroux noted marked differences
between the societies in Samoa and American Samoa.

21st century
On 7 September 2009, the government changed the driving orientation for motorists and Samoans now drive on the
left hand side of the road. This brings Samoa into line with many other countries in the region. Samoa is the first
country in recent years, and the first in the 21st century, to switch to driving on the left.
At the end of December 2011, Samoa jumped forward by one day, omitting 30 December from the local calendar,
when the nation moved to the west of the International Date Line. This was designed to help the nation boost its
economy by doing business with Australia and New Zealand. Before this change, Samoa was 21 hours behind
Sydney, but the change means it is now three hours ahead. The previous timezone was agreed on 4 July 1892, to
work in line with American traders based in California.

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Samoa

Politics
Main articles: Politics of Samoa and Fa'amatai
The 1960 constitution, which formally came into force with
independence from New Zealand in 1962, is based on the British
pattern of parliamentary democracy, modified to take account of
Samoan customs. The national modern Government of Samoa is
referred to as the 'Malo'. Samoa's first Prime Minister was Fiame
Mata'afa Faumuina Mulinuu II, one of the four highest-ranking
paramount chiefs in the country. Two other paramount chiefs at the
time of independence were appointed joint heads of state for life.
Tupua Tamasese Mea'ole died in 1963, leaving Malietoa Tanumafili II
Government buildings in Apia
sole head of state until his death on 11 May 2007, upon which Samoa
changed from a constitutional monarchy to a parliamentary republic.
The next Head of State, Tuiatua Tupua Tamasese Efi, was elected by the legislature on 17 June 2007 for a fixed
five-year term.
The unicameral legislature (Fono) consists of 49 members serving 5-year terms. Forty-seven are matai title holders
elected from territorial districts by Samoans; the other two are chosen by non-Samoans with no chiefly affiliation on
separate electoral rolls. Universal suffrage was extended in 1990, but only chiefs (matai) may stand for election to
the Samoan seats. There are more than 25,000 matais in the country, about 5% of whom are women. The prime
minister is chosen by a majority in the Fono and is appointed by the head of state to form a government. The prime
minister's choices for the 12 cabinet positions are appointed by the head of state, subject to the continuing confidence
of the Fono.
Prominent women in Samoan politics include the late Laulu Fetauimalemau Mata'afa (19282007) from Lotofaga
constituency, the wife of Samoa's first prime minister. Their daughter Fiame Naomi Mata'afa is a paramount chief
and a long-serving senior member of cabinet. Other women in politics include Samoan scholar and eminent
professor Aiono Fanaafi Le Tagaloa, orator-chief Matatumua Maimoana and Safuneitu'uga Pa'aga Neri, the current
Minister of Communication and Technology.
The judicial system is based on English common law and local customs. The Supreme Court of Samoa is the court of
highest jurisdiction. Its chief justice is appointed by the head of state upon the recommendation of the prime
minister.

Districts
Main article: Districts of Samoa
Samoa is made up of eleven itml (political districts). These are the traditional eleven districts that were
established well before European arrival. Each district has its own constitutional foundation (faavae) based on the
traditional order of title precedence found in each district's faalupega (traditional salutations).
The capital village of each district administers and coordinates the affairs of the district and confers each districts'
paramount title, amongst other responsibilities. For example, the District of A'ana has its capital at Leulumoega. The
paramount title of A'ana is the TuiA'ana. The orator group which confers this title the Faleiva (House of Nine) is
based at Leulumoega. This is also the same for the other districts. In the district of Tuamasaga, the paramount title of
the district The Malietoa title is conferred by the FaleTuamasaga based in Afega.

332

Samoa

333

Political districts of Samoa

1
2
3

Upolu
(including minor islands)

Savai'i

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Tuamasaga (Afega)
A'ana (Leulumoega)
Aiga-i-le-Tai (Mulifanua)1
Atua (Lufilufi)2
Va'a-o-Fonoti (Samamea)

Fa'asaleleaga (Safotulafai)
Gaga'emauga (Saleaula)3
Gaga'ifomauga (Safotu)
Vaisigano (Asau)
Satupa'itea (Satupa'itea)
Palauli (Vailoa)

including islands Manono, Apolima and Nu'ulopa

including the Aleipata Islands and Nu'usafe'e Island
smaller parts also on Upolu (Salamumu (incl. Salamumu-Uta) and Leauvaa villages)

Geography
Main article: Geography of Samoa
Samoa is located south of the equator, about halfway
between Hawaii and New Zealand in the Polynesian
region of the Pacific Ocean. The total land area is
2,842km (1,097sqmi), consisting of the two large
islands of Upolu and Savai'i which account for 99% of
the total land area, and eight small islets.
These are the three islets in the Apolima Strait
(Manono Island, Apolima and Nu'ulopa), the four
Map of Samoa.
Aleipata Islands off the eastern end of Upolu (Nu'utele,
Nu'ulua, Namua, and Fanuatapu), and Nu'usafe'e (less
than 0.01km 2 acres in area and about 1.4km (0.9mi) off the south coast of Upolu at the village of Vaovai).
The main island of Upolu is home to nearly three-quarters of Samoa's population, and its capital city is Apia.

Samoa

334

View of Falefa Valley from Le Mafa Pass, east

Upolu.

The Samoan islands have been produced by vulcanism, the source of

which is the Samoa hotspot which is probably the result of a mantle
plume. While all of the islands have volcanic origins, only Savai'i, the
western most island in Samoa, is volcanically active with the most
recent eruptions in Mt Matavanu (19051911), Mata o le Afi (1902)
and Mauga Afi (1725). The highest point in Samoa is Mt Silisili, at
1858m (6,096ft). The Saleaula lava fields situated on the central north
coast of Savai'i are the result of the Mt Matavanu eruptions which left
50km (20sqmi) of solidified lava.[14]

Samoa was previously located east of the international date line but in
2011, Samoan Prime Minister Tuilaepa Sailele announced his country would move the International Date Line to the
east of the country, so that Samoa would lie to the west of the date line. This change took effect on the night of 29
December, so that the Friday was skipped altogether and the following day was Saturday 31 December.

Climate
The climate is equatorial/monsoonal, with an average annual temperature of 26.5 C (79.7 F), and a rainy season
from November to April. Savai'i is the largest of the Samoan islands and the sixth largest Polynesian island after
New Zealand's North, South and Stewart Islands and the Hawaiian islands of Hawaii and Maui. The population of
Savai'i is 42,000 people.
Climate data for Apia
Month

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

Average
high C
(F)

30.4
(86.7)

30.6
(87.1)

30.6
(87.1)

30.7
(87.3)

30.4
(86.7)

30.0
(86)

29.5
(85.1)

29.6
(85.3)

29.9
(85.8)

30.1
(86.2)

30.3
(86.5)

30.5
(86.9)

30.22
(86.39)

Average
low C (F)

23.9
(75)

24.2
(75.6)

24.0
(75.2)

23.8
(74.8)

23.4
(74.1)

23.2
(73.8)

22.6
(72.7)

22.8
(73)

23.1
(73.6)

23.4
(74.1)

23.6
(74.5)

23.8
(74.8)

23.48
(74.27)

368.0
352.1
211.2
192.6
120.8
120.7
113.2
153.9
224.3
261.7
357.5
2,965
Precipitation 489.0
(19.252) (14.488) (13.862) (8.315) (7.583) (4.756) (4.752) (4.457) (6.059) (8.831) (10.303) (14.075) (116.733)
mm
(inches)
[15]

Source: World Meteorological Organization (UN)

Samoa

335

Environment
See also: List of birds of Samoa and List of protected areas of Samoa
Samoa is located within the Samoan tropical moist forests ecoregion. Since human habitation began, about 80% of
the lowland rain forests has been lost. Within the ecoregion about 28% of plants and 84% of land birds are endemic.

Economy
Main article: Economy of Samoa
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in purchasing power parity (PPP) in
2006 was estimated at $1.218 billion USD. Wikipedia:Citation needed
The industrial sector is the largest component of GDP at 58.4%,
followed by the services sector at 30.2% (2004 est.). Agriculture
represents only 11.4% of GDP (2004 est.). Samoan labour force is
estimated at 90,000. Wikipedia:Citation needed
The country currency is the Samoan tl, issued and regulated by the
Central Bank of Samoa. The economy of Samoa has traditionally been
dependent on agriculture and fishing at the local level. In modern
View above the Falealupo Rainforest canopy
times, development aid, private family remittances from overseas, and
walkway, Savaii.
agricultural exports have become key factors in the nation's economy.
Agriculture employs two-thirds of the labour force, and furnishes 90% of exports, featuring coconut cream, coconut
oil, noni (juice of the nonu fruit, as it is known in Samoan), and copra.
Outside of a large automotive wire harness factory (Yazaki Corporation), the manufacturing sector mainly processes
agricultural products. Tourism is an expanding sector which now accounts for 25% of GDP. Tourist arrivals have
been increasing over the years with more than 100,000 tourists visiting the islands in 2005, up from 70,000 in 1996.
The Samoan government has called for deregulation of the financial sector, encouragement of investment, and
continued fiscal discipline. Wikipedia:Citation needed Observers point to the flexibility of the labour market as a
basic strength for future economic advances. Wikipedia:Citation needed The sector has been helped enormously by
major capital investment in hotel infrastructure, political instability in neighbouring Pacific countries, and the 2005
launch of Virgin Samoa a joint-venture between the government and Virgin Australia (then Virgin Blue).
In the period before German colonisation, Samoa produced mostly
copra. German merchants and settlers were active in introducing large
scale plantation operations and developing new industries, notably
cocoa bean and rubber, relying on imported labourers from China and
Melanesia. When the value of natural rubber fell drastically, about the
end of the Great War (World War I), the New Zealand government
encouraged the production of bananas, for which there is a large
market in New Zealand. Wikipedia:Citation needed
Taro, a root crop, traditionally was Samoa's
largest export, generating more than half of all
export revenue in 1993. But a fungal blight
decimated the plants, and in each year since 1994
taro exports have accounted for less than 1% of
export revenue.

Because of variations in altitude, a large range of tropical and

subtropical crops can be cultivated, but land is not generally available
to outside interests. Of the total land area of 2,934km (725,000 acres),
about 24.4% is in permanent crops and another 21.2% is arable. About
4.4% is Western Samoan Trust Estates Corporation (WSTEC).
Wikipedia:Citation needed

Samoa
The staple products of Samoa are copra (dried coconut meat), cocoa bean (for chocolate), and bananas. The annual
production of both bananas and copra has been in the range of 13,000 to 15,000 metric tons (about 14,500 to 16,500
short tons). If the rhinoceros beetle in Samoa were eradicated, Samoa could produce in excess of 40,000 metric tons
(44,000 short tons) of copra. Samoan cocoa beans are of very high quality and used in fine New Zealand chocolates.
Most are Criollo-Forastero hybrids. Coffee grows well, but production has been uneven. WSTEC is the biggest
coffee producer. Rubber has been produced in Samoa for many years, but its export value has little impact on the
economy. Wikipedia:Citation needed
Other agricultural industries have been less successful. Sugarcane production, originally established by Germans in
the early 20th century, could be successful. Old train tracks for transporting cane can be seen at some plantations east
of Apia. Pineapples grow well in Samoa, but beyond local consumption have not been a major export.

Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Samoa
Samoa has a population of 194,320 of which 92.6% are Samoans, 7%
Euronesians (people of mixed, European and Polynesian ancestors) and
0.4% are Europeans, per the CIA World Factbook. About
three-quarters of the population live on the main island of Upolu. Only
the Mori of New Zealand outnumber Samoans among Polynesian
groups.
Samoans' religious adherence includes the following: Christian
Congregational Church of Samoa 31.8%, Roman Catholic 19.4%,
A Samoan family.
Mormons 15.2%, Methodist 13.7%, Seventh-day Adventist 3.9%,
Worship Centre 1.7%, other Christian 5.5%, other 0.7%, none 0.1%, unspecified 0.1% (2011 estimate). The Head of
State until 2007, His Highness Malietoa Tanumafili II, was a Bah' convert. Samoa hosts one of seven Bah'
Houses of Worship in the world; completed in 1984 and dedicated by the Head of State, it is located in Tiapapata,
8km (5mi) from Apia.
Samoan and English are official languages. Samoan Sign Language is used by at least some of the deaf population.

Culture
Main article: Culture of Samoa
See also: Music of Samoa
The fa'a Samoa, or traditional Samoan way, remains a strong force in Samoan life and politics. Despite centuries of
European influence, Samoa maintains its historical customs, social and political systems, and language. Cultural
customs such as the Samoa 'ava ceremony are significant and solemn rituals at important occasions including the
bestowal of matai chiefly titles. Items of great cultural value include the finely woven 'ie toga.
Samoan mythology includes many gods with creation stories and figures of legend such as Tagaloa and the goddess
of war Nafanua, the daughter of Saveasi'uleo, ruler of the spirit realm Pulotu. Other legends include the well known
story of Sina and the Eel which explains the origins of the first coconut tree.
Some Samoans are spiritual and religious, and have subtly adapted the dominant religion of Christianity to 'fit in'
with fa'a Samoa and vice versa. As such, ancient beliefs continue to co-exist side-by-side with Christianity,
particularly in regard to the traditional customs and rituals of fa'a Samoa. The Samoan culture is centred around the
principle of vfealoa'i, the relationships between people. These relationships are based on respect, or fa'aaloalo.
When Christianity was introduced in Samoa, most Samoan people converted. Currently 98% of the population
identify themselves as Christian. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has a strong presence in Samoa and

336

Samoa

337

claims 73,827(38%) members.[16] The other 2 percent either identify themselves as irreligious, or do not belong to
any congregation.
Some Samoans live a communal way of life, participating in activities collectively. Examples of this are the
traditional Samoan fale (houses) which are open with no walls, using blinds made of coconut palm fronds during the
night or bad weather.
The Samoan word for dance is siva with unique gentle movements of the body in time to music and which tells a
story, although the Samoan male dances can be more physical and snappy. The sasa is also a traditional dance where
rows of dancers perform rapid synchronised movements in time to the rhythm of wooden drums (pate) or rolled
mats. Another dance performed by males is called the fa'ataupati or the slap dance, creating rhythmic sounds by
slapping different parts of the body. This is believed to have been derived from slapping insects on the body.
The form and construction of traditional architecture of Samoa was a specialised skill by Tufuga fai fale that was
also linked to other cultural artforms.

Roman Catholic Immaculate

Conception of Mary
cathedral.

A Samoan fire
dancer.

A fale on Manono Island

LDS Apia Samoa

Temple

Tattooing
As with other Polynesian cultures (Hawaiian, Tahitian and Mori) with
significant and unique tattoos, Samoans have two gender specific and
culturally significant tattoos. For males, it is called the Pe'a and
consists of intricate and geometrical patterns tattooed that cover areas
from the knees up towards the ribs. A male who possesses such a tatau
is called a soga'imiti. A Samoan girl or teine is given a malu, which
covers the area from just below her knees to her upper thighs.

Contemporary culture

A Samoan woman with a traditional malu.

Albert Wendt is a significant Samoan writer whose novels and stories

tell the Samoan experience. In 1989, his novel Flying Fox in a Freedom Tree was made into a feature film in New
Zealand, directed by Martyn Sanderson. Another novel Sons for the Return Home had also been made into a feature
film in 1979, directed by Paul Maunder. The late John Kneubuhl, born in American Samoa, was an accomplished
playwright and screenwriter and writer. Sia Figiel won the 1997 Commonwealth Writers' Prize for fiction in the
south-east Asia/South Pacific region with her novel "Where We Once Belonged". Momoe Von Reiche is an
internationally recognised poet and artist. Tusiata Avia is a performance poet. Her first book of poetry Wild Dogs
Under My Skirt was published by Victoria University Press in 2004. Dan Taulapapa McMullin is an artist and writer.
Other Samoan poets and writers include Sapa'u Ruperake Petaia, Eti Sa'aga and Savea Sano Malifa, the editor of the
Samoa Observer.
In music, popular local bands include The Five Stars, Penina o Tiafau and Punialava'a. The Yandall Sisters' cover of
the song Sweet Inspiration reached number one on the New Zealand charts in 1974. King Kapisi was the first hip
hop artist to receive the prestigious New Zealand APRA Silver Scroll Award in 1999 for his song Reverse

Samoa
Resistance. The music video for Reverse Resistance was filmed in Savai'i at his villages. Other successful Samoan
hip hop artists include rapper Scribe, Dei Hamo, Savage and Tha Feelstyle whose music video Suamalie was filmed
in Samoa.
Lemi Ponifasio is a director and choreographer who is prominent internationally with his dance Company MAU.
Neil Ieremia's company Black Grace has also received international acclaim with tours to Europe and New York.
Hip hop has had a significant impact on Samoan culture. According to Katerina Martina Teaiwa, PhD from the
University of Hawaii at Manoa, "Hip hop culture in particular is popular amongst Samoan youth."[17] This is not
surprising considering the large amounts of migration between Samoa, Hawaii, and the United States mainland,
specifically California. In addition, the integration of hip hop elements into Samoan tradition also "testifies to the
transferability of the dance forms themselves," and to the "circuits through which people and all their embodied
knowledge travel."[18] Dance both in its traditional form and its more modern forms has remained a central cultural
currency to Samoans, especially youths.
The arts organisation Tautai is a collective of visual artists including Fatu Feu'u, Johnny Penisula, Shigeyuki Kihara,
Iosefa Leo, Michel Tuffery, John Ioane and Lily Laita.
Director Sima Urale is an award-winning filmmaker. Urale's short film O Tamaiti won the prestigious Best Short
Film at the Venice Film Festival in 1996. Her first feature film Apron Strings opened the 2008 NZ International Film
Festival. The feature film Siones Wedding, co-written by Oscar Kightley, was financially successful following
premieres in Auckland and Apia. The 2011 film The Orator was the first ever fully Samoan film, shot in Samoa in
the Samoan language with a Samoan cast telling a uniquely Samoan story. Written and directed by Tusi Tamasese, it
received much critical acclaim and attention at film festivals throughout the world.
In comedy, Laughing Samoans, the Naked Samoans and Kila Kokonut Krew have enjoyed sold-out tours.
Actor and director Nathaniel Lees has featured in many theatre productions and films including his role as Captain
Mifune in The Matrix movie trilogy. Published playwrights include Oscar Kightley, Victor Rodger, Makerita Urale
and Niuean Samoan playwright Dianna Fuemana.

Sport
See also: Sport in Samoa
The main sports played in Samoa are rugby union, rugby league,
Samoan cricket and netball. Rugby union is the national football code
of Samoa. In Samoan villages, volleyball is also popular.
Rugby union is the national sport in Samoa and the national team,
nicknamed the Manu Samoa, is consistently competitive against teams
from vastly more populous nations. Samoa has competed at every
Rugby World Cup since 1991, and made the quarter finals in 1991,
1995 and the second round of the 1999 world cup. At the 2003 world
Samoa (blue) vs. South Africa in June 2007.
cup, Manu Samoa came close to beating eventual world champions,
England. Samoa also played in the Pacific Nations Cup and the Pacific
Tri-Nations The sport is governed by the Samoa Rugby Football Union, who are members of the Pacific Islands
Rugby Alliance, and thus, also contribute to the international Pacific Islanders rugby union team.
At club level there is the National Provincial Championship and Pacific Rugby Cup. They also took home the cup at
Wellington and the Hong Kong Rugby Sevens in 2007for which the Prime Minister of Samoa, also Chairman of
the national rugby union, Tuilaepa Sailele Malielegaoi, declared a national holiday. They also were the IRB World
Sevens Series Champions in 2010 capping a year of achievement for the Samoans, following wins in the USA,
Australia, Hong Kong and Scotland Sevens tournaments.

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Samoa
Prominent Samoan players include Pat Lam and Brian Lima. In addition many Samoans have played for or are
playing for New Zealand.
Rugby league is mostly played by Samoans living in New Zealand and Australia, with Samoa reaching the quarter
finals of the 2000 Rugby League World Cup made of players playing in the NRL and Superleague. Many Samoans
and New Zealanders or Australians of Samoan descent play in the Super League and National Leagues in Britain.
Francis Meli, Ta'ane Lavulavu of Workington Town, Maurie Fa'asavalu of St Helens and David Fatialofa of
Whitehaven and Setima Sa who signed with London Irish rugby club. Other noteworthy players from NZ and
Australia have represented the Samoan National team. The 2011 domestic Samoan rugby league competition
contained 10 teams with plans to expand to 12 in 2012.
Samoans have been very visible in boxing, kickboxing, wrestling, and sumo; some Samoan sumo wrestlers, most
famously Musashimaru and Konishiki have reached the highest rank of Ozeki and yokozuna.
American football is occasionally played in Samoa, reflecting its wide popularity in American Samoa, where the
sport is played under high school sanction. About 30 ethnic Samoans, many from American Samoa, currently play in
the National Football League. A 2002 article from ESPN estimated that a Samoan male (either an American Samoan,
or a Samoan living in the mainland United States) is 40 times more likely to play in the NFL than a non-Samoan
American.

References
[1] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Samoa& params=13_50_S_171_45_W_type:country
[2] The Political Economy of Ancient Samoa: Basalt Adze Production and Linkages to Social Status (Winterhoff 2007)
[3] West, Barbara A. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC).
Infobase Publishing. p. 704. ISBN 0-8160-7109-8
[4] Stevenson, Robert Louis (1892). A Footnote to History: Eight Years of Trouble in Samoa (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ ebooks/ 536) at
Gutenberg. ISBN 978-1847187598
[5] Mains, P. John; McCarty, Louis Philippe (1906). The Statistician and Economist: Volume 23. p. 249
[6] Ryden, George Herbert. The Foreign Policy of the United States in Relation to Samoa. New York: Octagon Books, 1975. (Reprint by special
arrangement with Yale University Press. Originally published at New Haven: Yale University Press, 1928), p. 574; the Tripartite Convention
(United States, Germany, Great Britain) was signed at Washington on 2 December 1899 with ratifications exchanged on 16 February 1900
[7] Ryden, p. 571
[8] Papers Past Otago Daily Times 4 April 1885 OUR HOME LETTISH (http:/ / paperspast. natlib. govt. nz/ cgi-bin/ paperspast?a=d&
d=ODT18850404. 2. 32). Paperspast.natlib.govt.nz. Retrieved on 4 April 2014.
[9] World History at KMLA, http:/ / www. zum. de/ whkmla/ region/ pacific/ wsamoa18991918. html, accessed 16 December 2013
[10] Hermann Hiery, "West Samoans between Germany and New Zealand 19141921," War and Society (1992) 10#1 pp 5380.
[11] " Celebration of Samoas Independence Day (http:/ / www. teara. govt. nz/ en/ photograph/ 4202/
celebration-of-samoas-independence-day)", Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 1 June 2014.
[12] " Independence Day (http:/ / www. un. int/ samoa/ event/ independence-day)", United Nations. Retrieved 1 June 2014.
[13] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Samoa& action=edit
[14] Savai'i An Introduction (http:/ / www. samoa. travel/ sightseeing. aspx?sID=9), Samoa Tourism Authority.
[15] World Weather Information Service Apia (http:/ / worldweather. wmo. int/ 184/ c01230. htm), World Meteorological Organization.
Retrieved 15 October 2012.
[16] Samoa LDS Statistics and Church Facts | Total Church Membership (http:/ / www. mormonnewsroom. org/ facts-and-statistics/ country/
samoa/ ). Mormonnewsroom.org. Retrieved on 4 April 2014.
[17] Dances of Life | American Samoa (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080308172004/ http:/ / www. piccom. org/ dancesoflife/ samoa. html).
piccom.org
[18] Henderson, April K. Dancing Between Islands: Hip Hop and the Samoan Diaspora. In The Vinyl Aint Final: Hip Hop and the
Globalization of Black Popular Culture, ed. by Dipannita Basu and Sidney J. Lemelle, 180199. London; Ann Arbor, MI: Pluto Press, 2000

339

Samoa

Further reading
Watson, R M, History of Samoa (Wellington, 1918)
Meleisea, Malama. The Making of Modern Samoa: Traditional Authority and Colonial Administration in the
Modern History of Western Samoa. (Suva, 1987) Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific.
Schnee, Dr. Heinrich (former Deputy Governor of German Samoa and last Governor of German East Africa).
1926. German Colonization, Past and Future: The Truth about the German Colonies. London: George Allen &
Unwin.
Eustis, Nelson. [1979] 1980. Aggie Grey of Samoa. Adelaide, South Australia: Hobby Investments. ISBN
0-9595609-0-4.
Stevenson, Robert Louis. A Footnote to History: Eight Years of Trouble in Samoa. BiblioBazaar.
ISBN1-4264-0754-8.
Mead, Margaret. 1928, Coming of Age in Samoa: A Study of Adolescence and Sex in Primitive Societies.
Freeman, Derek. 1983. Margaret Mead in Samoa: the Making and Unmaking of an Anthropological Myth.
Urmenyhazi Attila. 2013 book publication "Samoan & Marquesan Life in Oceania: a probing travelogue". ISBN
9780646909127 National Library of Australia, Bib ID: 6377055.

External links
Government
Government of Samoa (http://www.govt.ws/)
Chief of State and Cabinet Members (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/
world-leaders-s/samoa.html)
General information
Samoa (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ws.html) entry at The World
Factbook
University of Colorado (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/samoa.htm) from UCB Libraries
GovPubs
Samoa (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Oceania/Samoa) at DMOZ
Samoa (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-15655855) from the BBC News

Wikimedia Atlas of Samoa

Samoa Tourism Authority (http://www.samoa.travel)
Key Development Forecasts for Samoa (http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=WS)
from International Futures

340

Tokelau

341

Tokelau
For other uses, see Tokelau (disambiguation).

Tokelau

Flag

Symbol

Motto:"Tokelau mo te Atua" (Tokelauan)

"Tokelau for the Almighty"
Anthem:God Save the Queen

Capital

Atafu (unofficial)
Largest city

Fakaofo (official)

Official languages

Tokelauan
English
Samoan

Wikipedia:Citation needed
Demonym

Tokelauan

Government

Constitutional monarchy

Monarch

Elizabeth II

Administrator

Jonathan Kingsb

Head of Government

Kuresa Nasauc
New Zealand territory

Tokelau Act

1948
Area

Total

10km2 (233rd)
3.86sqmi

Tokelau

342

Water(%)

negligible
Population

October 2011census

1,411d (237th)

Density

115/km2 (86th)
298/sqmi

GDP(PPP)

1993estimate

Total

$1.5 million (227th)

Per capita

$1,035 (not ranked)

Currency

New Zealand dollar (NZD)

Time zone

(UTC+13

Drives on the

left

Calling code

+690

ISO 3166 code

TK

Internet TLD

.tk

[1]

a.

Each atoll has its own administrative centre, but Atafu will host the General Fono in 2012.

b.

Since February 2011.

c.

Since 2012.

d.

[2]

Final count for 2011 Tokelau Census of Population and Dwellings , Statistics New Zealand. The Census population figure
of 1,411 includes 268 usual residents of Tokelau who were absent on census night.

Some data from the World Factbook (2004).

Tokelau /tokla/ is a territory of New Zealand in the South Pacific Ocean that consists of three tropical coral
atolls (from the northwest Atafu, Nukunonu and Fakaofo) with a combined land area of 10km2 (4sqmi) and a
population of approximately 1,400. Its capital rotates yearly between the three atolls. Tokelau lies north of the
Samoan Islands, Swains Island being the nearest, east of Tuvalu, south of the Phoenix Islands, southwest of the more
distant Line Islands, and northwest of the Cook Islands.
The United Nations General Assembly designates Tokelau a Non-Self-Governing Territory. Until 1976, the official
name was Tokelau Islands. It is a New Zealand territory, and is sometimes referred to by its older colonial name, the
Union Islands.

Tokelau

343

Etymology
The name Tokelau is a Polynesian word meaning "North Wind". The islands were named the Union Islands and
Union Group by European explorers at an unknown time.Wikipedia:Citation needed Tokelau Islands was adopted as
the name in 1946, and was contracted to Tokelau on 9 December 1976.

Geography
Tokelau includes three atolls in the South Pacific
Ocean between longitudes 171 and 173W and
between latitudes 8 and 10S, about midway between
Hawaii and New Zealand. They lie about 500km
(311mi) north of Samoa. The atolls are Atafu,
Nukunonu, both in a group of islands once called the
Duke of Clarence Group, and Fakaofo, once Bowditch
Island. Their combined land area is 10.8km2 (4sqmi).
There are no ports or harbours. Tokelau lies in the
Pacific tropical cyclone belt. A fourth island that is
culturally, historically, and geographically, but not
politically, part of the Tokelau chain is Swains Island
(Olohega), under United States control since about
1900 and administered as part of American Samoa
since 1925.
Swains Island was claimed by the United States
pursuant to the Guano Islands Act, as were the other
Map of all Tokelau Islands. Swains Island is shown to the south.
three islands of Tokelau, which claims were ceded to
Tokelau by treaty in 1979. In the draft constitution of
Tokelau subject to the Tokelauan self-determination referendum in 2006, Olohega is claimed as part of Tokelau, a
claim surrendered in the same 1979 treaty which established a boundary between American Samoa and Tokelau.
Tokelau's claim to Swains is generally comparable to the Marshall Islands' claim to US-administered Wake Island,
but the re-emergence of this somewhat dormant issue has been an unintended result of the United Nations' recent
efforts to promote decolonization in Tokelau. Tokelauans have proved somewhat reluctant to push their national
identity in the political realm: recent decolonization moves have mainly been driven from outside for ideological
reasons. But at the same time, Tokelauans are reluctant to disown their common cultural identity with Swains
Islanders who speak their language.

Geographic locations of Tokelau's atolls

Atoll

Coordinates
[3]

Atafu

8336S 172303W

Nukunonu

9106S 1714835W

Fakaofo

92155S 1711254W

[4]
[5]

Tokelau

344

Environment
See also: List of birds of Tokelau and List of mammals of Tokelau
Tokelau is located in the Western Polynesian tropical moist forests ecoregion. Most of the original vegetation has
been replaced by coconut plantations some of which have been abandoned and became scrubby forests. The atolls of
Tokelau provide habitat for 38 indigenous plant species, over 150 insect species and 10 land crab species. One of the
greatest threats to biodiversity is posed by introduced mammalian predators such as the Polynesian Rat.
In 2011 Tokelau declared its entire exclusive economic zone of 319,031km2 (123,179sqmi) a shark sanctuary.[6]

History
Archaeological evidence indicates that the atolls of Tokelau Atafu, Nukunonu, and Fakaofo were settled about
1,000 years ago and may have been a "nexus" into Eastern Polynesia. Inhabitants followed Polynesian mythology
with the local god Tui Tokelau; and developed forms of music (see Music of Tokelau) and art. The three atolls
functioned largely independently while maintaining social and linguistic cohesion. Tokelauan society was governed
by chiefly clans, and there were occasional inter-atoll skirmishes and wars as well as inter-marriage. Fakaofo, the
"chiefly island",[7] held some dominance over Atafu and Nukunonu after the dispersal of Atafu. Life on the atolls
was subsistence-based, with reliance on fish and coconut.

Western discovery and contact

Commodore John Byron discovered Atafu on 24 June 1765 and named it "Duke of York's Island". Parties onshore
reported that there were no signs of current or previous inhabitants.[8] Captain Edward Edwards, knowing of Byron's
discovery, visited Atafu on 6 June 1791Wikipedia:Citation needed in search of the Bounty mutineers. There were no
permanent inhabitants, but houses contained canoes and fishing gear, suggesting the island was used as a temporary
residence by fishing parties. On 12 June 1791, Edwards sailed southward and discovered Nukunonu, naming it
"Duke of Clarence's Island". A landing party could not make contact with the people but saw "morais", burying
places, and canoes with "stages in their middle" sailing across the lagoons.
On 29 October 1825 August R. Strong of the U.S.N Dolphin wrote of his crew's arrival at the atoll Nukunonu:
Upon examination, we found they had removed all the women and children from the settlement, which
was quite small, and put them in canoes lying off a rock in the lagoon. They would frequently come near
the shore, but when we approached they would pull off with great noise and precipitation.[9]
On 14 February 1835 Captain Smith of the United
States whaler General Jackson records discovering
Fakaofo, calling it "D'Wolf's Island". On 25 January
1841, the United States Exploring Expedition visited
Atafu and discovered a small population living on the
island. The residents appeared to be temporary,
evidenced by the lack of a chief and the possession of
double canoes (used for inter-island travel). They
desired to barter, and possessed blue beads and a
plane-iron, indicating previous interaction with
foreigners. The expedition reached Nukunonu on 28
January 1841 but did not record any information about
Fakaofo islanders, drawn in 1841 by the United States Exploring
inhabitants. On 29 January 1841, the expedition
Expedition.
discovered Fakaofo and named it "Bowditch".[10] The
islanders were found to be similar in appearance and nature to those in Atafu.

Tokelau
Missionaries preached Christianity in Tokelau from 1845 to the 1860s. French Catholic missionaries on Wallis
Island (also known as 'Uvea) and missionaries of the Protestant London Missionary Society in Samoa used native
teachers to convert the Tokelauans. Atafu was converted to Protestantism by the London Missionary Society,
Nukunonu was converted to Catholicism and Fakaofo was converted to both denominations.[11]
Peruvian slave traders arrived in 1863 and took nearly all (253) of the able-bodied men to work as labourers. The
men died of dysentery and smallpox, and very few returned to Tokelau. With this loss, the system of governance
became based on the "Taupulega", or "Councils of Elders", where individual families on each atoll were represented.
During this time, Polynesian immigrants and American, Scottish, French, Portuguese and German beachcombers
settled, marrying local women and repopulating the atolls.

Time zone
Main article: Time in New Zealand
Until December 2011, Tokelau was 11hours behind Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). At midnight 29 December
2011 Tokelau shifted to UTC+13:00 in response to Samoa's decision to switch sides of the International Dateline.
This brought Tokelau closer to New Zealand time (and in the process omitted 30 December).
Many sources claim that Tokelau is 14hours ahead of UTC (UTC -10 before the 2011 date switch), but the correct
time zone offset is UTC+13:00.

Government
Main article: Constitutional history of Tokelau
In 1877, the islands were included under the protection of the United Kingdom by an Order in Council which
claimed jurisdiction over all unclaimed Pacific Islands. Commander C. F. Oldham on HMS Egeria landed at each of
the three atolls in June 1889 and officially raised the Union Flag, declaring the group a British protectorate. In 1920,
Tokelauans became recognised as British subjects.
The British government annexed Tokelau to the colony of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands and transferred Tokelau to
New Zealand's administration in 1926, abolishing the islands' chiefdoms. By the Tokelau Act of 1948, sovereignty
over Tokelau was transferred to New Zealand. Defence is also the responsibility of New Zealand. When the British
Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948 came into effect on 1 January 1949, Tokelauans who were
British subjects gained New Zealand citizenship a status which they still hold.
Villages are entitled to enact their own laws regulating their daily lives and New Zealand law only applies where it
has been extended by specific enactment. Serious crime is rare and there are no prisons - offenders are publicly
rebuked, fined or made to work.

Politics
Main article: Politics of Tokelau
The head of state is Elizabeth II, the Queen in right of New Zealand, who also reigns over the United Kingdom and
the other Commonwealth realms. The Queen is represented in the territory by acting Administrator Jonathan Kings.
The current head of government is Foua Toloa, who presides over the Council for the Ongoing Governance of
Tokelau, which functions as a cabinet. The Council consists of the Faipule (leader) and Pulenuku (village mayor) of
each of the three atolls. The monarch is hereditary, the administrator appointed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs
and Trade in New Zealand, and the office of head of government rotates between the three Faipule for a one-year
term.
The Tokelau Amendment Act of 1996 confers legislative power on the General Fono, a unicameral body. The
number of seats each atoll receives in the Fono is determined by population at present, Fakaofo and Atafu each

345

Tokelau
have seven and Nukunonu has six. Faipule and Pukenuku (atoll leaders and village mayors) also sit in the Fono.
On 11 November 2004, Tokelau and New Zealand took steps to formulate a treaty that would turn Tokelau from a
non-self-governing territory to a self-governing state in free association with New Zealand. Besides the treaty, a
United Nations-sponsored referendum on self-determination took place, with the three islands voting on successive
days starting 13 February 2006. (Tokelauans based in Apia, Samoa, voted on 11 February.) Out of 581 votes cast,
349 were for Free Association, being short of the two-thirds majority required for the measure to pass. The
referendum was profiled (somewhat light-heartedly) in the 1 May 2006 issue of The New Yorker magazine. A repeat
referendum took place on 2024 October 2007, again narrowly failing to approve self-government. This time the
vote was short by just 16 votes or 3%.
In May 2008, the United Nations' Secretary General Ban Ki-moon urged colonial powers "to complete the
decolonization process in every one of the remaining 16 Non-Self-Governing Territories", including Tokelau.[12]
This led the New Zealand Herald to comment that the United Nations was "apparently frustrated by two failed
attempts to get Tokelau to vote for independence". In April 2008, speaking as leader of the National Party, future
New Zealand Prime Minister John Key stated that New Zealand had "imposed two referenda on the people of the
Tokelau Islands", and questioned "the accepted wisdom that small states should undergo a de-colonisation
process".[13]

Economy
According to the US Central Intelligence Agency's list
of countries by GDP (PPP) Tokelau has the smallest
economy of any country in the world. Tokelau has an
annual purchasing power of about US$1,000 (674)
per capita. The government is almost entirely
dependent on subsidies from New Zealand. It has
annual revenues of less than US$500,000 (336,995)
against expenditures of some US$2.8 million (1.9
million). The deficit is made up by aid from New
Zealand.
Tokelau annually exports around US$100,000
(67,000) of stamps, copra and woven and carved
Nukunonu Lagoon in Tokelau.
handicrafts and imports over US$300,000 (202,000)
of foodstuffs, building materials, and fuel to, and from, New Zealand. New Zealand also pays directly for the cost of
medical and education services. Local industries include small-scale enterprises for copra production, wood work,
plaited craft goods, stamps, coins, and fishing. Agriculture and livestock produces coconuts, copra, breadfruit,
papayas, bananas, figs, pigs, poultry and a few goats. Many Tokelauans live in New Zealand and support their
families in Tokelau through remittances.
Tokelau has plans to only use renewable energy. If this is achieved it will be the only nation to have achieved this
goal. It is expected that by mid-2012 Tokelau's electricity supply will be 93% generated by photovoltaics, with the
remainder generated from coconut oil.[14] On 7 November 2012, the islands have met these goals and become the
first territory in the world to meet all of their electricity needs from solar power, according to the Foreign Affairs
Minister of New Zealand, Murray McCully.[15]

346

Tokelau

Internet domain names

Main article: .tk
Tokelau has increased its GDP by more than 10% through registrations of domain names under its top-level domain,
.tk. Registrations can be either free, in which case the user owns only usage rights and not the domain itself, or paid,
which grants full rights. Free domains are pointed to Tokelau name servers, which redirects the domain via HTML
frames to a specified address or to a specified A or NS record, and the redirection of up to 250 email addresses to an
external address (not at a .tk domain). Free domains have no requirements for third party advertisements but have a
minimum traffic limit of 25 unique visitors in any 90-day period. If this limit is not reached, the domain is suspended
and the owner has 10 days to either convert the domain to a paid domain or have the domain deregistered.
In September 2003 Fakaofo became the first part of Tokelau with a high-speed Internet connection. Foundation
Tokelau financed the project. Tokelau gives most domain names under its authority away to anyone for free to gain
publicity for the territory. This has allowed the nation to gain enhanced telecommunications technologies, such as
more computers and Internet access for Tokelauan residents. By 2012, there were about 120 computers, mostly
laptops, and 1/6th of the economy consists of income from .tk domain names.[16]

Solar power
Three solar power stations are planned to provide 100% electricity from photovoltaics, with battery backup. The first
power station was completed in August 2012. In total, 4,032 solar panels will be used and 1,344 batteries weighing
250kg each, and make Tokelau the first nation in the world to be 100% powered by solar power. The systems are
designed to withstand winds of 230km/h (143mph). Previously electricity was generated using diesel generators,
and was only available about 16hours/day.[17]

Demographics
According to the 2011 Tokelau Census, Tokelau has a de jure usually
resident population of 1,411 people. The census shows a 3.8% decrease
in the de jure usually resident population between 2006 and 2011.
The nationals of Tokelau are called Tokelauans, and the major ethnic
group is Polynesian. The country has no minorities. The major religion
is the Congregational Christian Church and the main language is
Tokelauan, but English is also spoken.
Tokelau has fewer than 1,500 Polynesian inhabitants in three villages.
The atoll of Fakaofo, southernmost of the
Their isolation and lack of resources greatly limits economic
Tokelau Islands.
development and confines agriculture to the subsistence level. The
very limited natural resources and overcrowding are contributing to
emigration to New Zealand and Samoa, resulting in a population decline of about 0.9% per year.Wikipedia:Citation
needed Depletion of tuna has made fishing for food more difficult.
On the island of Atafu almost all inhabitants are members of the Congregational Christian Church of Samoa. On
Nukunonu almost all are Roman Catholic. On Fakaofo both denominations are present with the Congregational
Christian Church predominant. The total proportions are: Congregational Christian Church 62%, Roman Catholic
34%, other 5%.
While slightly more females than males live on Atafu and Fakaofo, males make up 57% of Nukunonu residents.[18]
Only 9% of Tokelauans aged 40 or more have never been married.[19] One-quarter of the population were born
overseas; almost all the rest live on the same atoll they were born on.[20] Most households own 5 or more pigs.[21]
Despite its low income, Tokelau has a life expectancy of 69 years, comparable with other Oceania islands.

347

Tokelau

Sport
See also: Rugby union in Tokelau and Rugby league in Tokelau
Due to its small size, Tokelau is unaffiliated to most international sports organisations, and rarely takes part in
international events. The only significant international competition the country takes part in is the Pacific Games.
Tokelau won its first ever gold medals at the 2007 Pacific Games in Apia, winning a total of five medals (three gold,
a silver and a bronze), all in lawn bowls, and finishing twelfth (out of twenty-two) on the overall medal table. This
included two gold medals for Violina Linda Pedro (in the women's pairs and the women's singles), making her
Tokelau's most successful individual athlete to date.[22]
In October 2010, table tennis became "the first sport in Tokelau to be granted membership at a Continental or World
level", when the Tokelau Table Tennis Association was formally established and became the 23rd member of the
Oceania Table Tennis Federation.[23]
Tokelau was due to take part, for the first time, in the 2010 Commonwealth Games, in Delhi,[24] but, for unknown
reasons, ultimately did not do so.[25]
Tokelau does have a National Sports Federation, and the most important sports event within the country is arguably
the Tokelau Games which are held yearly. When they are held, "all of Tokelau virtually stands still", as "[i]n excess
of 50% of the population take part and all work and school stops at the time". The 2010 Games included
competitions in rugby sevens, netball and kilikiti, alongside "a cultural evening [...] where each atoll showcases their
traditional songs and dances".
Netball is thought to have been introduced to Tokelau by the British, but became more popular when New Zealand's
government took over the territory. The sport is often played during inter-island sport competitions, alongside other
sports like rugby league and volleyball.

Healthcare and education

Main article: Healthcare in Tokelau
Each atoll has a school and hospital. The health services have a Director of Health based in Apia and a Chief Clinical
Advisor who moves from atoll to atoll as required to assist the doctors attached to each hospital. In 2007 there was
not always a doctor on each island and locums were appointed to fill the gaps. Upcoming Tokelaun medical
graduates should alleviate this shortage in the coming years.
Many Tokelauan youth travel to New Zealand to further their education and the ship is full around Christmas time
with students returning home and then heading off for another year of study.

Communications and transportation

348

Tokelau

Tokelau has a radio telephone service between the islands and to

Samoa. In 1997, a government-regulated telephone service (TeleTok)
with three satellite earth stations was established. Each atoll has a
radio-broadcast station that broadcasts shipping and weather reports
and every household has a radio or access to one.
Tokelau is served by the MV Tokelau, owned by the country, with the
trip from Apia in Samoa taking a little over a day. Ships load and
unload cargo by motoring up to the down-wind (leeward) side of the
islet where the people live and maintaining station, by intermittent use
A barge leaves the landing ramp in Nukunono to
of engines, close to the reef edge so that a landing barge can be
collect cargo and passengers from the MV
Tokelau
motored out to transfer cargo to or from the shore. On returning to
shore, the barge negotiates a narrow channel through the reef to the
beach. Usually this landing is subject to ocean swell and beaching requires considerable skill and, often, coral
abrasions to bodies.
When bad weather prevents the barge making the trip, the ship stands off to wait for suitable weather or goes off to
one of the other atolls to attempt to load or unload its passengers or cargo, or both.
There is no airport in Tokelau, so boats are the only means of travel and transport.

Cyclone Percy
Cyclone Percy struck and severely damaged Tokelau in late February and early March 2005. Forecasters
underestimated the cyclone's strength and the length of time it would be in vicinity to Tokelau. It coincided with a
spring tide which put most of the area of the two villages on Fakaofo and Nukunonu under a metre of seawater. The
cyclone also caused major erosion on several islets of all three atolls, damaging roads and bridges and disrupting
electric power and telecommunications systems. The cyclone did significant and widespread damage to food crops
including bananas, coconuts and pandanus. It did not seriously injure anyone but villagers lost significant amounts of
property. The geographic future of Tokelau depends on the height of the ocean. No significant land is more than two
metres above high water of ordinary tides. This means Tokelau is particularly vulnerable to any possible sea level
rises.

References
[1] Tokelau: Wrong local time for over 100 years (http:/ / www. timeanddate. com/ news/ time/ tokelau-wrong-time. html)
[2] http:/ / stats. govt. nz/ browse_for_stats/ people_and_communities/ pacific_peoples/ 2011-tokelau-census-landing-page/
final-count-2011-tokelau-census. aspx
[3] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Tokelau& params=8_33_6_S_172_30_3_W_region:TK_type:adm2nd&
title=Atafu
[4] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Tokelau& params=9_10_6_S_171_48_35_W_region:TK_type:adm2nd&
title=Nukunonu
[5] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Tokelau& params=9_21_55_S_171_12_54_W_region:TK_type:adm2nd&
title=Fakaofo
[6] PEW: Tokelau Declares Shark Sanctuary (http:/ / www. pewenvironment. org/ news-room/ press-releases/
tokelau-declares-shark-sanctuary-85899363741), 7 September 2011
[7] Fakaofo (http:/ / www. fakaofo. tk/ page001. html)
[8] MacGregor, 30
[9] The Journal of the South Pacific, 110 (3), p.296
[10] Nathaniel Bowditch (17731838) was an American mathematician remembered for his work on ocean navigation.
[11] People (http:/ / www. tokelau. org. nz/ About_Tokelau/ people. htm)
[12] "Colonialism has no place in today's world," says Secretary General in message to Decolonization Seminar in Indonesia" (http:/ / www. un.
org/ News/ Press/ docs/ / 2008/ sgsm11568. doc. htm), United Nations press release, 14 May 2008
[13] John Key's speech to the NZ Institute of International Affairs (http:/ / www. scoop. co. nz/ stories/ PA0804/ S00230. htm), 8 April 2008

349

Tokelau
[14] Coconuts and sunshine will power South Pacific islands (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/
dn20901-coconuts-and-sunshine-will-power-south-pacific-islands. html) New Scientist, published 2011-09-13, accessed 2011-09-14
[15] BBC (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ world-asia-20233754)
[16] Andres, Tommy. " The tiny island with a huge Web presence (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ 2012/ 06/ 13/ tech/ web/
tokelau-domain-name-holder/ index. html?hpt=hp_bn5)." CNN. 13 June 2012. Retrieved on 15 June 2012.
[17] NZ company turns on first Tokelau solar system (http:/ / www. nzherald. co. nz/ business/ news/ article. cfm?c_id=3& objectid=10826025)
[18] Tokelau Census of Population and Dwellings, Table 1.3.1.
[19] Tokelau Census of Population and Dwellings, Table 1.5.
[20] Tokelau Census of Population and Dwellings, Table 3.2.
[21] Tokelau Census of Population and Dwellings, Table 6.13.
[22] Medals at the 2007 Pacific Games (http:/ / www. sportingpulse. com/ medal. cgi?mt=11& pID=2), official website
[23] "Tokelau, a Speck in the Ocean but an Important New Member for Oceania" (http:/ / www. ittf. com/ stories/ Stories_detail. asp?Year=&
General_Catigory=general,+ Development,+ Waiting___& ID=22217), International Table Tennis Federation, 7 October 2010
[24] "SPORT: OUR QUEST FOR GOLD" (http:/ / www. islandsbusiness. com/ islands_business/ index_dynamic/
containerNameToReplace=MiddleMiddle/ focusModuleID=19325/ overideSkinName=issueArticle-full. tpl), Islands Business
[25] Participants (http:/ / results. cwgdelhi2010. org/ en/ Participant. mvc/ List), website of the 2010 Commonwealth Games

Further reading
Huntsman, Judith; Hooper, Antony (1996). Tokelau A Historical Ethnography. ISBN978-1-86940-153-5.
Huntsman, Judith; Kalolo, Kelihiano (2007). The Future of Tokelau Decolonising Agendas, 1975-2006.
ISBN978-1-86940-398-0.
McQuarrie, Peter (2007). Tokelau People, Atolls and History. ISBN978-1-877449-41-3.
Heller, Maxwell H. (2005). Where on Earth Is Tokelau A Doctor's Experiences in the South Seas.
ISBN978-0-901100-58-0.

External links
Tokelau (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tl.html) entry at The World
Factbook
Tokelau (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/tokelau.htm) from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Tokelau (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Oceania/Tokelau) at DMOZ

Wikimedia Atlas of Tokelau

Ethnology of Tokelau Islands (http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-MacToke.html)

Governance
Tokelau Council of Ongoing Government (http://www.tokelau.org.nz/), executive branch of the government
The Administrator of Tokelau (http://www.mfat.govt.nz/Foreign-Relations/Pacific/Tokelau/index.php),
Tokelau website of the NZ Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade

Atolls
Fakaofo (http://www.fakaofo.tk/)
Nukunonu (http://www.nukunonu.tk/)
Coordinates: 0910S 17150W (http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Tokelau&
params=09_10_S_171_50_W_region:TK_type:adm1st)

350

Tonga

351

Tonga
This article is about the Kingdom of Tonga. For other uses, see Tonga (disambiguation).

Kingdom of Tonga
Puleanga Fakatui o Tonga

Flag

Coat of arms

Motto:"Ko e Otua mo Tonga ko hoku tofia"

"God and Tonga are my Inheritance"
Anthem:Ko e fasi o e tui o e Otu Tonga
The Song of the King of the Tongan Islands

Capital
and largest city

Nukualofa
[1]
2108S 17512W

Tonga

352
Official languages
Demonym
Government

Tongan
English

Tongan
Unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy

- Monarch

King Tupou VI

- Prime Minister

Sialeataongo Tuivakan

Legislature

Legislative Assembly
Independence

- from British protection 4 June 1970

Area
- Total

748km2 (186th)
289sqmi

- Water(%)

4.0
Population
[2]

- 2011census

103,036

- Density

139/km (76th )
360/sqmi

GDP(PPP)

2011estimate

- Total

$763 million

- Per capita

$7,344

GDP(nominal)

2011estimate

- Total

$439 million

- Per capita

$4,220

HDI (2013)

0.710
medium 95th

Currency

Paanga (TOP)

Time zone

(UTC+13)
DST not observed

a.

Drives on the

left

Calling code

+676

ISO 3166 code

TO

Internet TLD

.to

Based on 2005 figures.

Tonga ([toa]; Tongan: Puleanga Fakatui o Tonga), officially the Kingdom of Tonga, is a Polynesian sovereign
state and archipelago comprising 176 islands with a surface area of about 750 square kilometres (290sqmi)
scattered over 700,000 square kilometres (270,000sqmi) of the southern Pacific Ocean, of which 52 are inhabited
by its 103,000 people.[3]
Tonga stretches over about 800 kilometres (500mi) in a north-south line about a third of the distance from New
Zealand to Hawaii. It is surrounded by Fiji and Wallis and Futuna (France) to the northwest, Samoa to the northeast,
Niue to the east, Kermadec (part of New Zealand) to the southwest, and New Caledonia (France) and Vanuatu to the

Tonga
west.
Tonga became known as the Friendly Islands because of the congenial reception accorded to Captain James Cook
on his first visit in 1773. He arrived at the time of the inasi festival, the yearly donation of the first fruits to the Tui
Tonga (the islands' paramount chief) and so received an invitation to the festivities. According to the writer William
Mariner, the chiefs wanted to kill Cook during the gathering but could not agree on a plan.[4]
Tonga has never lost its sovereignty to a foreign power.[5] In 2010 Tonga took a decisive step towards becoming a
fully functioning constitutional monarchy, after legislative reforms paved the way for its first partial representative
elections.

Etymology
In many Polynesian languages, Tongan included, the word tonga means "south", as the archipelago is the
southernmost group of islands of central Polynesia. In Tongan, the name is pronounced [toa],[6] and it is commonly
pronounced as /t/ or /t/ in English. The name of Tonga is cognate to the Hawaiian region of Kona.

History
Main article: History of Tonga
An Austronesian-speaking group linked to the archaeological construct known as the Lapita cultural complex
reached and colonised Tonga around 15001000BCE.[7] Scholars have much debated the exact dates of the initial
settlement of Tonga, but recently it has been thought that the first settlers came to the oldest town, Nukuleka, about
826 BCE, 8 years.[8] Not much is known before European contact because of the lack of a writing system, but oral
history has survived and been recorded after the arrival of the Europeans. The Tongan people first encountered
Europeans in 1616 when the Dutch vessel Eendracht made a short visit to trade.
By the 12th century Tongans and the Tongan paramount chief, the Tui
Tonga, had a reputation across the central Pacificfrom Niue, Samoa,
Rotuma, Wallis & Futuna, New Caledonia to Tikopialeading some
historians to speak of a Tui Tonga Empire. In the 15th century and
again in the 17th, civil war erupted. Into this situation the first
European explorers arrived, beginning in 1616 with the Dutch
explorers Willem Schouten and Jacob Le Maire (who called on the
northern island of Niuatoputapu), and in 1643 with Abel Tasman (who
Arrival of Abel Tasman in Tongatapu, 1643,
visited Tongatapu and Haapai). Later noteworthy European visitors
drawing by Isaack Gilsemans
included James Cook (British Navy) in 1773, 1774, and 1777,
Alessandro Malaspina (Spanish Navy) in 1793, the first London missionaries in 1797, and the Wesleyan Methodist
Rev. Walter Lawry in 1822.
In 1845 the ambitious young warrior, strategist, and orator Tufahau united Tonga into a kingdom. He held the
chiefly title of Tui Kanokupolu, but had been baptisedWikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch#Unsupported
attributions with the name Siaosi ("George") in 1831. In 1875, with the help of missionary Shirley Waldemar Baker,
he declared Tonga a constitutional monarchy; formally adopted the western royal style; emancipated the "serfs";
enshrined a code of law, land tenure, and freedom of the press; and limited the power of the chiefs.
Tonga became a protected state under a Treaty of Friendship with Britain on 18 May 1900, when European settlers
and rival Tongan chiefs tried to oust the second king. The treaty posted no higher permanent representative on Tonga
than a British Consul (19011970). Although under the protection of Britain, Tonga maintained its sovereignty, and
remained the only Pacific nation never to have given up its monarchical government (as did Tahiti and Hawaii). The
Tongan monarchy follows an uninterrupted succession of hereditary rulers from one family. The 1918 flu pandemic
killed 1,800 Tongans, around eight per cent of the residents.

353

Tonga

354

The Treaty of Friendship and Tonga's protection status ended in 1970 under arrangements established by Queen
Salote Tupou III prior to her death in 1965. Tonga joined the Commonwealth of Nations in 1970 (atypically as an
autochthonous monarchy, with its own local monarch rather than that of the United Kingdomcompare Malaysia,
Lesotho, and Swaziland), and became a member of the United Nations in September 1999. While exposed to
colonial pressures, Tonga has never lost indigenous governance, which makes it unique in the Pacific and gives
Tongans confidence in their monarchical system and much pride.
As part of cost-cutting measures across the British Foreign Service, the British Government closed the British High
Commission in Nukualofa in March 2006, transferring representation of British interests to the High Commissioner
in Fiji. The last resident British High Commissioner was Paul Nessling.[9]

Geography
Main article: Geography of Tonga
Administratively, Tonga is sub-divided into five divisions: Eua,
Haapai, Niuas, Tongatapu, and Vavau.[10][11]

Climate
Tonga has a tropical climate with only two seasons, wet and dry, with
most rain falling between February and April. The tropical cyclone
season currently runs from 1 November to 30 April, though tropical
cyclones can form and affect Tonga outside of the season.

Nuku Island Vavau.

Climate data for Nukualofa

Month

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

Record high C (F)

32
(90)

32
(90)

31
(88)

30
(86)

30
(86)

28
(82)

28
(82)

28
(82)

28
(82)

29
(84)

30
(86)

31
(88)

32
(90)

Average high C (F)

28
(82)

29
(84)

28
(82)

27
(81)

26
(79)

25
(77)

25
(77)

24
(75)

25
(77)

25
(77)

27
(81)

27
(81)

26
(79)

Daily mean C (F)

25
(77)

25
(77)

25
(77)

24
(75)

23
(73)

21
(70)

21
(70)

21
(70)

21
(70)

22
(72)

23
(73)

23
(73)

23
(73)

Average low C (F)

22
(72)

22
(72)

22
(72)

21
(70)

20
(68)

18
(64)

17
(63)

18
(64)

17
(63)

19
(66)

20
(68)

20
(68)

20
(68)

Record low C (F)

16
(61)

17
(63)

15
(59)

15
(59)

13
(55)

11
(52)

10
(50)

11
(52)

11
(52)

12
(54)

13
(55)

16
(61)

10
(50)

Rainfall mm (inches)

130
190
210
120
130
100
100
130
110
90
100
120
1,530
(5.12) (7.48) (8.27) (4.72) (5.12) (3.94) (3.94) (5.12) (4.33) (3.54) (3.94) (4.72) (60.24)

Avg. rainy days

11

13

14

12

12

10

10

12

10

10

10

10

134

% humidity

77

78

79

76

78

77

75

75

74

74

73

75

75.9

Source: Weatherbase

Tonga

355

Politics
Main article: Politics of Tonga
Tonga is a constitutional monarchy. Reverence for the monarch replaces that held in earlier centuries for the sacred
paramount chief, the Tui Tonga. Criticism of the monarch is heldWikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to
watch#Unsupported attributions to be contrary to Tongan culture and etiquette. King Tupou VI (a descendant of the
first monarch), his family, powerful nobles and a growing non-royal elite caste live in much wealth, with the rest of
the country living in relative poverty. The effects of this disparity are mitigated by education, medicine, and land
tenure.
Tonga provides for its citizens:
free and mandatory education for all
secondary education with only nominal fees
and foreign-funded scholarships for post-secondary education
The pro-democracy movement in Tonga promotes reforms, including better
representation in the Parliament for the majority commoners, and better
accountability in matters of state. An overthrow of the monarchy is not part of
the movement and the institution of monarchy continues to hold popular support,
even while reforms are advocated. Until recently, the governance issue was
generally ignored by the leaders of other countries, but major aid donors and
neighbours New Zealand and Australia are now expressing concerns about some
Tongan government actions.

Tufahau, King of Tonga

(18451893).

Following the precedents of Queen Slote and the counsel of numerous

international advisorsWikipedia:Avoid weasel words, the government of Tonga under King Tufahau Tupou IV
(reigned 19652006) monetised the economy, internationalised the medical and education system, and enabled
access by commoners to increasing forms of material wealth (houses, cars, and other commodities), education, and
overseas travel.
Tongans have universal access to a national health care system. The Tongan constitution protects land ownership:
land cannot be sold to foreigners (although it may be leased). While there is a land shortage on the urbanised main
island of Tongatapu (where 70% of the population resides), there is farmland available in the outlying islands. The
majority of the population engages in some form of subsistence production of food, with approximately half
producing almost all of their basic food needs through farming, sea harvesting, and animal husbandry. Women and
men have equal access to education and health care and are fairly equal in employment, but women are discriminated
against in land holding, electoral politics, and government ministries.

Education
Tongans enjoy a relatively high level of education, with a 98.9% literacy rate, and higher education up to and
including medical and graduate degrees (pursued mostly overseas).

Military
Main article: Tonga Defence Services
The Tongan government supported the American "coalition of the willing" action in Iraq and deployed 40+ soldiers
(as part of an American force) in late 2004. The contingent returned home on 17 December 2004.[12] In 2007 a
second contingent went to Iraq, and two more were sent during 2008 as part of continued support for the coalition.
Tongan involvement concluded at the end of 2008 with no reported loss of life.

Tonga

356

In 2010, Brigadier General Tauaika Utaatu, Commander of the Tonga Defence Services, signed an agreement in
London committing a minimum of 200 troops to co-operate with Britain's International Security Assistance Force
(ISAF) in Afghanistan. The task completed in April 2014 and the UK presented Operational Service Medals to each
of the soldiers involved during a Parade held in Tonga.
Tonga has contributed troops and police to the Bougainville conflict in Papua-New Guinea and to the Australian-led
RAMSI force in the Solomon Islands.

Policies
The previous king, Tufahau Tupou IV, and his government made some problematic economic decisions and were
accusedWikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch#Unsupported attributions of wasting millions of dollars in poor
investments. The problems have mostly been driven by attempts to increase national revenue through a variety of
schemes: considering making Tonga a nuclear waste disposal site (an idea floated in the mid 1990s by the current
crown prince);[13] selling Tongan Protected Persons Passports (which eventually forced Tonga to naturalise the
purchasers, sparking ethnicity-based concerns within Tonga); registering foreign ships (which proved to be engaged
in illegal activities, including shipments for al-Qaeda); claiming geo-orbital satellite slots (the revenue from which
seems to belong to the Princess Royal, not the state); holding a long-term charter on an unusable Boeing 757 that
was sidelined in Auckland Airport, leading to the collapse of Royal Tongan Airlines; building an airport hotel and
potential casino with an Interpol-accused criminal;Wikipedia:Citation needed and approving a factory for exporting
cigarettes to China (against the advice of Tongan medical officials, and decades of health promotion messaging).
The king proved vulnerable to speculators with big promises and lost reportedly US$26million to Jesse Bogdonoff,
a financial adviser who called himself the king's Court Jester. The police imprisoned pro-democracy leaders, and the
government repeatedly confiscated the newspaper The Tongan Times (printed in New Zealand and sold in Tonga)
because the editor had been vocally critical of the king's mistakes. Notably, the Kelea, produced specifically to
critique the government and printed in Tonga by pro-democracy leader Akilisi Phiva, was not banned during that
time. Phiva, however, had been subjected to harassment in the form of barratry (frequent lawsuits).
In mid-2003 the government passed a radical constitutional
amendment to "Tonganize" the press, by licensing and limiting
freedom of the press, so as to protect the image of the monarchy. The
amendment was defended by the government and by royalists on the
basis of traditional cultural values. Licensure criteria include 80%
ownership by Tongans living in the country. As of February 2004,
those papers denied licenses under the new act included the Taimi o
Tonga (Tongan Times), the Kelea, and the Matangi Tongawhile
those permitted licenses were uniformly church-based or
pro-government.

The Royal palace of Tonga.

The bill was opposed in the form of a several-thousand-strong protest

march in the capital, a call by the Tui Pelehake (a prince, nephew of the king and elected member of parliament) for
Australia and other nations to pressure the Tongan government to democratise the electoral system, and a legal writ
calling for a judicial investigation of the bill. The latter was supported by some 160 signatures, including seven of
the nine elected, "People's Representatives".
The then Crown Prince Tupoutoa and Pilolevu, the Princess Royal, remained generally silent on the issue. In total,
the changes threatened to destabilise the polity, fragment support for the status quo, and place further pressure on the
monarchy.
In 2005, the government spent several weeks negotiating with striking civil-service workers before reaching a
settlement. The civil unrest that ensued was not limited to Tonga; protests outside the King's New Zealand residence

Tonga
made headlines, too. A constitutional commission is currently (200506) studying proposals to update the
constitution.[14]
Prime Minister Prince Ahoeitu Unuakiotonga Tukuaho (Lavaka Ata Uluklala) (now King Tupou VI) resigned
suddenly on 11 February 2006, and also gave up his other cabinet portfolios. The elected Minister of Labour, Dr
Feleti Sevele, replaced him in the interim.
On 5 July 2006, a driver in Menlo Park, California caused the deaths of Prince Tuipelehake Uluvalu, his wife, and
their driver. Tuipelehake, 55, was the co-chairman of the constitutional reform commission, and a nephew of the
King.
The public expected some changes when George Tupou V succeeded his father in September 2006. On 16
November 2006, rioting broke out in the capital city of Nukualofa when it seemed that the parliament would adjourn
for the year without having made any advances in increasing democracy in government. Pro-democracy activists
burned and looted shops, offices, and government buildings. As a result, more than 60% of the downtown area was
destroyed, and as many as 6people died.
On 29 July 2008 the Palace announced that King George Tupou V would relinquish much of his power and would
surrender his role in day-to-day governmental affairs to the Prime Minister. The royal chamberlain said that this was
being done to prepare the monarchy for 2010, when most of the first parliament will be elected, and added: "The
Sovereign of the only Polynesian kingdom... is voluntarily surrendering his powers to meet the democratic
aspirations of many of his people." The previous week, the government said the king had sold state assets that had
contributed to much of the royal family's wealth.
On 15 March 2012, King George Tupou V contracted pneumonia and was hospitalised at Queen Mary Hospital in
Hong Kong. He was later diagnosed with leukaemia. His health deteriorated significantly shortly thereafter, and he
died at 3:15pm on 18 March 2012. He was succeeded by his brother Tupou VI.

Economy
Main article: Economy of Tonga
Tonga's economy is characterised by a large non-monetary sector and a
heavy dependence on remittances from the half of the country's
population who live abroad (chiefly in Australia, New Zealand and the
United States). The royal family and the nobles dominate and largely
own the monetary sector of the economy particularly the
telecommunications and satellite services. Tonga was named the sixth
most corrupt country in the world by Forbes magazine in 2008.
Tonga was ranked the 165th safest investment destination in the world
in the March 2011 Euromoney Country Risk rankings.
The manufacturing sector consists of handicrafts and a few other very
A Tongan one-cent (seniti taha) coin.
small scale industries, which contribute only about 3% of GDP.
Commercial business activities also are inconspicuous and, to a large
extent, are dominated by the same large trading companies found throughout the South Pacific. In September 1974,
the country's first commercial trading bank, the Bank of Tonga, opened. There are no patent laws in Tonga.[15]
Rural Tongans rely on plantation and subsistence agriculture. Plants grown for both market cash crops and home use
include bananas, Coconuts, coffee beans, vanilla beans, and root crops such as cassava, taro. The processing of
coconuts into copra and desiccated (dried) coconut was once the only significant industry but deteriorating prices on
the world market has brought this once vibrant industry, as everywhere throughout the island nations of the south
Pacific, to a complete standstill. In addition, the feudal land ownership system meant that farmers had no incentive to

357

Tonga
invest in planting long-term tree crops on land they did not own. Pigs and poultry are the major types of livestock.
Horses are kept for draft purposes, primarily by farmers working their api uta (a plot of bushland). More cattle are
being raised, and beef imports are declining. The export of squash to Japan once brought relief to a struggling
economy but recently local farmers are increasingly wary of this market due to price fluctuations, not to mention the
huge financial risks involved.
Tonga's development plans emphasise a growing private sector, upgrading agricultural productivity, revitalising the
squash and vanilla bean industries, developing tourism, and improving communications and transport. Substantial
progress has been made, but much work remains to be done. A small but growing construction sector is developing
in response to the inflow of aid monies and remittances from Tongans abroad. In recognition of such a crucial
contribution the present government has created a new department within the Prime Minister's Office with the sole
purpose of catering for the needs of Tongans living abroad. Furthermore, in 2007 the Tongan Parliament amended
citizenship laws to allow Tongans to hold dual citizenship.
The tourist industry is relatively undeveloped; however, the government recognises that tourism can play a major
role in economic development, and efforts are being made to increase this source of revenue. Cruise ships often stop
in Vavau, which has a reputation for its whale watching, game fishing, surfing, beaches and is increasingly
becoming a major player in the South Pacific tourism market.[16]
Tonga's postage stamps, which feature colourful and often unusual designs (including heart-shaped and
banana-shaped stamps), are popular with philatelists around the world.
In 2005, the country became eligible to become a member of the World Trade Organization. After an initial
voluntary delay, Tonga became a full member of the WTO on 27 July 2007.
The Tonga Chamber of Commerce and Industry (TCCI), incorporated in 1996, endeavours to represent the interests
of its members, private sector businesses, and to promote economic growth in the Kingdom.
Tonga is home to some 106,000 people, but more than double that number live overseas, mainly in the US, New
Zealand and Australia. Remittances from the overseas population has been declining since the onset of the 2008
global economic crisis. The tourism industry is improving, but remains modest at under 90,000 tourists per year.

Energy
Tonga has begun implementing tailor-made policies to power its remote islands in a sustainable way without turning
to expensive grid-extensions. A number of islands lack a basic electricity supply, a supply entirely coming from
imported diesel: in 2009, 19% of GDP and 25% of imports consisted of diesel.
In view of the decreasing reliability of fossil-fuel electricity generation, its increasing costs and negative
environmental side-effects, renewable energy solutions have attracted the government's attention. Together with
IRENA, Tonga has charted out a renewable energy based strategy to power the main and outer islands alike. The
strategy focuses on Solar Home Systems that turn individual households into small power plants. In addition, it calls
for the involvement of local operators, finance institutions and technicians to provide sustainable business models as
well as strategies to ensure the effective operation, management and maintenance once the systems are installed.
With the assistance of IRENA, Tonga has developed the 20102020 Tonga Energy Road Map (TERM), which aims
for a 50% reduction of diesel importation. This will be accomplished through a range of appropriate renewable
technologies, including wind and solar, as well as innovative efficiencies.

358

Tonga

359

Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Tonga
Over 70% of the 101,991 inhabitants live on
its main island, Tongatapu. Although an
increasing number of Tongans have moved
into the only urban and commercial centre,
Nukualofa, where European and indigenous
cultural and living patterns have blended,
village life and kinship ties remain
influential throughout the country. Despite
emigration, Tonga grew in population from
about 32,000 in the 1930s to more than
90,000 by 1976.[17]

Demographics of Tonga, data of FAO, year 2005; number of inhabitants in

thousands.

According to the government portal,

Tongans, Polynesian by ethnicity with a very small mixture of Melanesian, represent more than 98% of the
inhabitants. 1.5% are mixed Tongans and the rest are European (the majority are British), mixed European, and other
Pacific Islanders. According to a New Zealand paper in 2001 there were approximately 3,000 or 4,000 Chinese in
Tonga, thus comprising 3 or 4% of the total Tongan population.[18] In 2006, Nukualofa riots mainly targeted
Chinese-owned businesses, leading to the emigration of several hundred Chinese.[19] so that only about 300 remain.
Primary education between ages 6 and 14 is compulsory and free in state schools. Mission schools provide about 8%
of the primary and 90% of the secondary level of education. State schools make up for the rest. Higher education
includes teacher training, nursing and medical training, a small private university, a woman's business college, and a
number of private agricultural schools. Most higher education is pursued overseas.
Ninety percent of the population are considered overweight using NIH interpretation of body mass index (BMI) data,
with more than 60% of those obese.[20] 70% of Tongan women aged 1585 are obese. Tonga and nearby Nauru have
the world's highest overweight and obese populations.[21]

Languages
The Tongan language is the official language, along with English. Tongan, a Polynesian language, is closely related
to Wallisian (Uvean), Niuean, Hawaiian, and Samoan.

Religion
Everyday life is heavily influenced by Polynesian traditions and
especially by the Christian faith; for example, all commerce and
entertainment activities cease from midnight on Saturday until
midnight on Sunday, and the constitution declares the Sabbath sacred
forever. As of 2006[22] somewhat more than a third of Tongans
adhered to the Methodist tradition[23] [see figures below] with Catholic
and Mormon populations equalling another third of the adherents. A
minority of worshippers form the Free Church of Tonga. The official
figures from the latest government census of 2011 show that 90% of
the population are affiliated with a Christian church or sect, with the
four major church affiliations in the kingdom as follows:
Free Wesleyans/Methodists (36,592 or 36%)

The Free Wesleyan Church.

Tonga

360
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) (18,554 or 18%)
Roman Catholics (15,441 or 15%)
Free Church of Tonga (11,863 or 12%)
Baha'i Faith (5%)

Culture and diaspora

Main article: Culture of Tonga
Humans have lived in Tonga for nearly 3,000 years, since settlement in
late Lapita times. Before the arrival of European explorers in the late
17th and early 18th centuries, Tongans had frequent contacts with their
nearest oceanic neighbours, Fiji and Niue. In the 19th century, with the
arrival of Western traders and missionaries, Tongan culture changed,
especially in religion, such that As of 2013[22] almost 98percent of
residents profess Christianity. The people discarded some old beliefs
and habits and adopted others.

Kava culture.

Contemporary Tongans often have strong ties to overseas lands. Many

Tongans have emigrated to Australia, New Zealand, or the United
States to seek employment and a higher standard of living. The Tongan
diaspora retains close ties to relatives at home,Wikipedia:Citation
needed and a significant portion of Tonga's income derives from
remittancesWikipedia:Citation needed to family members (often aged)
who prefer to remain in Tonga.

Start of a Tongan tauolunga dance.

Sport
See also: Sport in Tonga

Rugby union is the national sport,Wikipedia:Citation needed and the national team (Ikale Tahi, or Sea Eagles) has
performed quite well on the international stage. Tonga has competed in five Rugby World Cups since 1987. The
2007 Rugby World Cup was its most successful to date, winning both of its first two matches, against the USA
2515, and Samoa 1915; and came very close to upsetting the eventual winners of the 2007 tournament, the South
African Springboks, losing 3025. A loss to England, 3620 in their last pool game ended their hopes of making the
knockout stages. Nevertheless, by picking up third place in their pool games behind South Africa and England,
Tonga earned automatic qualification for the 2011 Rugby World Cup in New Zealand. At this competition, they beat
France, the 5th ranked national team and eventual finalist.
Tonga's best result prior to 2007 came in 1995, when they beat Ivory Coast 2911, and 1999 when they beat Italy
2825 (although with only 14 men they lost heavily to England, 10110). Tonga perform the Ikale Tahi war dance
before their matches. Tonga used to compete in the Pacific Tri-Nations against Samoa and Fiji, now replaced by the
IRB Pacific 6 Nations involving Japan, the second string Junior All Blacks and Australia A, although from 2008 the
Junior All Blacks would be replaced by the Maori All Blacks. At club level, there are the Datec Cup Provincial
Championship and the Pacific Rugby Cup. Rugby union is governed by the Tonga Rugby Football Union, which is
also a member of the Pacific Islands Rugby Alliance. Tonga contributes to the Pacific Islanders rugby union team.
Jonah Lomu, Viliami (William) Ofahengaue and George Smith, Wycliff Palu, Doug Howlett, Tatafu Polota-Nau are
all of Tongan descent. British and Irish Lions and Welsh international player Taulupe Faletau is Tongan born and the
son of Tongan international Kuli Faletau. Rugby is popular in the nation's schools and students from schools such as
Tonga College, Tupou College are regularly offered scholarships from New Zealand, Australia and Japan.

Tonga

361

Rugby league has gained some success. In the 2008 Rugby League World Cup Tonga recorded wins against Ireland
and Scotland. In addition to the success of the national team, many players of Tongan descent make it big in the
Australian National Rugby League competition. These include Willie Mason, Manu Vatuvei, Brent Kite, Willie
Tonga, Anthony Tupou, Antonio Kaufusi, Israel Folau, Taniela Tuiaki, Michael Jennings, Tony Williams, Feleti
Mateo, Fetuli Talanoa, to name but a few. Subsequently, some Tongan Rugby League players have established
successful careers in the British Super League such as Antonio Kaufusi.
Tongan Boxer Paea Wolfgram won the silver medal in the Super Heavyweight division (>91 kg) at the 1996 Atlanta
Summer Olympics. Thus far, he remains the only athlete to have won an Olympic medal from the island nations of
the South Pacific outside Australia and New Zealand.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Tongan swimmer Amini Fonua won back-to-back gold medals at the Oceania Championships in the men's 50 m
breaststroke, and also competed in the 2011 FINA World Aquatics Championships in Shanghai,
China.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Luger, Bruno Banani was the first athlete to represent Tonga in the Winter Olympics. He finished 32nd in the men's
luge competition at Sochi 2014. Wikipedia:Citation needed

Fauna and flora named after Tonga

Many species of animals or plants have been named after Tonga; their
species name in Latin is usually tonganus or tongaensis. An example
is Naso tonganus, a fish of the family Acanthuridae from the Pacific
Ocean, named after Tonga by Achille Valenciennes in 1835.

Media
Regional distribution

Naso tonganus, a fish named after Tonga

Taimi o Tonga Tonga, New Zealand, Australia, United States of America

Domestic distribution

Kelea newspaper
Talaki newspaper
Kalonikali newspaper
Tauataina newspaper
Kakalu newspaper
Tonga Broadcasting Commission (Television Tonga, Television Tonga 2, Radio Tonga 1, Radio Tonga 2 Kool
90FM, 103FM)

References
[1] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Tonga& params=21_08_S_175_12_W_type:country
[2] Tonga National Population Census 2011; Preliminary Count (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20120105120058/ http:/ / www. pmo. gov. to/
press-releases/ 3220-tonga-national-population-census-2011-preliminary-count). pmo.gov.to (22 December 2011).
[3] Official Tongan Government Tourism Website (http:/ / www. tongaholiday. com)
[4] Mariner, William and Martin, John (1817). An account of the natives of the Tonga islands in the south Pacific ocean: With an original
grammar and vocabulary of their language. Compiled and arranged from the extensive communications of Mr. William Mariner, several
years' resident in those islands, Volume 2, pp. 6465 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=AD9CAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA64). Retrieved 3
November 2010.
[5] (http:/ / thecommonwealth. org/ our-member-countries/ tonga/ history). The Commonwealth.
[6] Churchward, C.M. (1985) Tongan grammar, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-908717-05-9

Tonga
[7] Kirch, Patrick Vinton (1997) The Lapita Peoples, Wiley, ISBN 1577180364.
[8] Uranium dating shows Polynesians came to Tonga in 826 BC (http:/ / prehist. org/ news/ 62/ Uranium+ dating+ shows+ Polynesians+ came+
to+ Tonga+ in+ 826+ BC/ ), Prehist.org, 10 November 2012
[9] " The sun finally sets on our men in paradise (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ main. jhtml?xml=/ news/ 2005/ 03/ 21/ wtonga21. xml&
sSheet=/ news/ 2005/ 03/ 21/ ixworld. html)", The Daily Telegraph, 21 March 2005.
[10] Population Census 2006: Population size, Trend, Distribution and Structure (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20081118160301/ http:/ / www.
spc. int/ prism/ Country/ TO/ stats/ Census06/ Population/ population. htm), Tonga Department of Statistics
[11] Divisions of Tonga (http:/ / www. statoids. com/ uto. html), Statoids.com
[12] Iraq Coalition Troops (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ ops/ iraq_orbat_coalition. htm), GlobalSecurity, 18 August 2005
[13] Tonga's king tricked by Korean sea water to natural gas scam (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071013151423/ http:/ / michaelfield. org/
tonga3. htm). michaelfield.org (December 1997).
[14] No resolution in sight in Tonga (http:/ / www. tvnz. co. nz/ view/ page/ 506420/ 607689), TVNZ, 30 August 2005
[15] Patents Gazetteer (http:/ / www. billanderson. com. au/ Gazetteer-Patents. htm). www.billanderson.com.au
[16] Background Note: Tonga (http:/ / www. state. gov/ r/ pa/ ei/ bgn/ 16092. htm#econ), US Department of State, 31 October 2011.
[17] Small, Cathy A. and Dixon, David L. " Tonga: Migration and the Homeland (http:/ / www. migrationinformation. org/ feature/ display.
cfm?ID=198)", Migration Policy Institute.
[18] "Editorial: Racist moves will rebound on Tonga" (http:/ / www. nzherald. co. nz/ section/ 1/ story. cfm?c_id=1& objectid=229612), New
Zealand Herald, 23 November 2001
[19] "Flight chartered to evacuate Chinese in Tonga" (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ news/ 2006-11-22/
flight-chartered-to-evacuate-chinese-in-tonga/ 1316302), ABC News, 22 November 2006
[20] Sands, Neil (10 April 2011) "Pacific island nations battle obesity epidemic" (http:/ / newsinfo. inquirer. net/ breakingnews/ world/ view/
20110410-330400/ Pacific-nations-battle-obesity-epidemic), Agence France-Presse.
[21] Mark Henderson (February 18, 2008) Welcome to the town that will make you lose weight (http:/ / www. thetimes. co. uk/ tto/ health/
article1881007. ece). Times Online. www.timesonline.co.uk
[22] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Tonga& action=edit
[23] Ernst, Manfred (1994) Winds of Change, Suva: Pacific Conference of Churches, p. 146, ISBN 9822000677.

Further reading
Ethnography, culture and history
On the Edge of the Global: Modern Anxieties in a Pacific Island Nation (2011) by Niko Besnier. Stanford, CA:
Stanford University Press, ISBN 9780804774062
Becoming Tongan: An Ethnography of Childhood by Helen Morton
Queen Salote of Tonga: The Story of an Era, 190065 by Elizabeth Wood-Ellem
Tradition Versus Democracy in the South Pacific: Fiji, Tonga and Western Samoa by Stephanie Lawson
Voyages: From Tongan Villages to American Suburbs Cathy A. Small
Friendly Islands: a history of Tonga (1977). Noel Rutherford. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. ISBN
0195505190
Tonga and the Tongans: heritage and identity (2007) Elizabeth Wood-Ellem. Alphington, Vic.: Tonga Research
Association, ISBN 9780646474663
Early Tonga: as the explorers saw it 16161810. (1987). Edwin N Ferdon. Tucson: University of Arizona Press;
ISBN 0816510261
The Art of Tonga (Ko e ngaahi'aati'o Tonga) by Keith St Cartmail. (1997) Honolulu : University of Hawai`i Press.
ISBN 0824819721
The Tonga Book by Paul. W. Dale
Tonga by James Siers
Wildlife and environment
Birds of Fiji, Tonga and Samoa by Dick Watling
A Guide to the Birds of Fiji and Western Polynesia: Including American Samoa, Niue, Samoa, Tokelau, Tonga,
Tuvalu and Wallis and Futuna by Dick Watling
Guide to the Birds of the Kingdom of Tonga by Dick Watling
Travel guides

362

Tonga
Lonely Planet Guide: Samoan Islands and Tonga by Susannah Farfor and Paul Smitz
Moon Travel Guide: Samoa-Tonga by David Stanley
Bibliography
Tonga: A New Bibliography by Martin Daly Google Books (http://books.google.com/
books?id=LsPR8tXQ69oC&lpg=PA91&ots=iNQeDRKlhg)
Fiction
Toki by Brian K. Crawford

External links
Tonga (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tn.html) entry at The World
Factbook
Tonga (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/tonga.htm) from UCB Libraries GovPubs
The Friendly Islands: 1616 to 1900 (http://www.touchoftonga.com/book.html)
Tonga (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Oceania/Tonga) at DMOZ
Tonga (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-16197014) from the BBC News

Wikimedia Atlas of Tonga

Key Development Forecasts for Tonga (http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=TO)
from International Futures
Government

Ministry of Information and Communications (http://www.mic.gov.to/)

Prime Minister's Office (http://www.pmo.gov.to/)
Tonga Visitors Bureau, Ministry of Tourism, Kingdom of Tonga (http://www.tongaholiday.com)
Chief of State and Cabinet Members (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/
world-leaders-t/tonga.html)
Tonga Chamber of Commerce and Industry (http://www.tongachamber.org)
Ministry of Finance, Kingdom of Tonga (http://finance.gov.to)
National Reserve Bank of Tonga, Kingdom of Tonga (http://reservebank.to)
News media (online only)
Matangi Tonga (http://matangitonga.to/article/global_index.shtml/) national magazine.

363

Tuvalu

364

Tuvalu
This article is about the country. For other uses, see Tuvalu (disambiguation).

Tuvalu

Flag

Coat of arms

Motto:"Tuvalu mo te Atua" (Tuvaluan)

"Tuvalu for the Almighty"
Anthem:Tuvalu mo te Atua(Tuvaluan)
Tuvalu for the Almighty
Royal anthem:God Save the Queen

Capital

Funafuti
[1]
832S 17913E
Official languages

Ethnicgroups
Demonym
Government

Tuvaluan
English

96% Polynesian
4% Micronesian

Tuvaluan
Parliamentary democracy under constitutional monarchy

- Monarch

Queen Elizabeth II

- Governor General

Iakoba Italeli

- Prime Minister

Enele Sopoaga

Legislature

Parliament
Independence

- from the United Kingdom

1 October 1978
Area

Tuvalu

365
- Total

26km2 (226th)
10sqmi

- Water(%)

negligible
Population

- 2012 (United Nations)estimate 10,837 (2012 Population & Housing Census Preliminary Analytical Report) (229th)
- Density

475.88/km2 (22nd)
1,142/sqmi

GDP(PPP)

2010 (est.)estimate

- Total

$36million (223rd)

- Per capita

$3,400 (2010 est.) (164th)

Currency

Tuvaluan dollar
Australian dollar

(AUD)
Time zone

(UTC+12)

Drives on the

left

Calling code

+688

ISO 3166 code

TV

Internet TLD

.tv

i
Tuvalu (
/tuvlu/ too-VAH-loo
or /tuvlu/ TOO-v-loo), formerly
known as the Ellice Islands, is a
Polynesian island nation located in the
Pacific Ocean, midway between
Hawaii and Australia. It comprises
three reef islands and six true atolls
spread out between the latitude of 5 to
10 south and longitude of 176 to
180, west of the International Date
Line. Tuvalu's Exclusive Economic
Zone (EEZ) covers an oceanic area of
approximately 900,000km2. Its nearest
[2]
Lat. and Long. 8.32S 179.13E
(Funafuti)
neighbours are Kiribati, Nauru, Samoa
and Fiji. Its population of 10,837
makes it the third-least populous sovereign state in the world, with only the Vatican City and Nauru having fewer
inhabitants. In terms of physical land size, at just 26 square kilometres (10sqmi) Tuvalu is the fourth smallest
country in the world, larger only than the Vatican City at 0.44km2 (0.17sqmi), Monaco at 1.98km2 (0.76sqmi),
and Nauru at 21km2 (8.1sqmi).

The first inhabitants of Tuvalu were Polynesians. In 1568 Spanish navigator lvaro de Mendaa was the first
European to sail through the archipelago, sighting the island of Nui during his expedition in search of Terra
Australis. In 1819 the island of Funafuti was named Ellice's Island; the name Ellice was applied to all nine islands
after the work of English hydrographer Alexander George Findlay (18121876).[3] The islands came under Britain's
sphere of influence in the late 19th century, when each of the Ellice Islands was declared a British protectorate by
Captain Gibson R.N., of HMS Curacoa, between 9 and 16 October 1892. The Ellice Islands were administered as

Tuvalu

366

British protectorate by a Resident Commissioner from 1892 to 1916 as part of the British Western Pacific Territories
(BWPT), and later as part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony from 1916 to 1974.
A referendum was held in December 1974 to determine whether the Gilbert Islands and Ellice Islands should each
have their own administration.[4] As a consequence of the referendum, the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony ceased
to exist on 1 January 1976 and the separate British colonies of Kiribati and Tuvalu came into existence.[5] Tuvalu
became fully independent within the Commonwealth on 1 October 1978. On 17 September 2000 Tuvalu became the
189th member of the United Nations.
See also: Outline of Tuvalu

History
Main article: History of Tuvalu
See also: Timeline of the history of Tuvalu

Pre-history
The origins of the people of Tuvalu are addressed in the theories regarding migration into the Pacific that began
about 3000 years ago. During pre-European-contact times there was frequent canoe voyaging between the nearer
islands including Tonga and Samoa. Eight of the nine islands of Tuvalu were inhabited; thus the name, Tuvalu,
means "eight standing together" in Tuvaluan. Possible evidence of fire in the Caves of Nanumanga may indicate
human occupation for thousands of years.
An important creation myth of the islands of Tuvalu is the story of the Eel and
the Flounder; the Flounder reminding the Tuvaluans of the flat atolls. The stories
as to the ancestors of the Tuvaluans vary from island to island. On Niutao,
Funafuti and Vaitupu the founding ancestor is described as being from Samoa;[6]
whereas on Nanumea the founding ancestor is described as being from Tonga.

Early contacts with other cultures

Tuvaluan man in traditional costume

drawn by Alfred Agate in 1841
during the United States Exploring
Expedition.

Tuvalu was first sighted by Europeans on 16 January 1568 during the voyage of
lvaro de Mandaa from Spain who sailed past Nui and charted it as Isla de
Jess (Spanish for "Island of Jesus") because it was discovered on the day
following the feast of the Holy Name. Mendaa made contact with the islanders
but was unable to land.[7] During Mendaa's second voyage across the Pacific he
passed Niulakita on 29 August 1595, which atoll he named La Solitaria.

Captain John Byron passed through the islands of Tuvalu in 1764 during his
circumnavigation of the globe as captain of HMS Dolphin. Byron charted the
atolls as Lagoon Islands. Keith S. Chambers and Doug Munro (1980) identify Niutao as the island that Francisco
Mourelle de la Ra sailed past on 5 May 1781, thus solving what Europeans had called The Mystery of Gran
Cocal.[8] Mourelle's map and journal named the island El Gran Cocal ('The Great Coconut Plantation'); however, the
latitude and longitude was uncertain. Longitude could only be reckoned crudely as accurate chronometers were
unavailable until the late 18th century.
The next European to visit was Arent Schuyler de Peyster, of New York, captain of the armed brigantine or privateer
Rebecca, sailing under British colours, which passed through the southern Tuvaluan waters in May 1819; de Peyster
sighted Nukufetau and Funafuti, which he named Ellice's Island after an English Politician, Edward Ellice, the
Member of Parliament for Coventry and the owner of the Rebecca's cargo.

Tuvalu

367

In 1820 the Russian explorer Mikhail Lazarev visited Nukufetau as commander of the Mirny. Louis Isidore
Duperrey, captain of La Coquille, sailed past Nanumanga in May 1824 during a circumnavigation of the earth
(18221825).
Whalers began roving the Pacific, although visiting Tuvalu only infrequently because of the difficulties of landing on
the atolls. Captain George Barrett of the Nantucket whaler Independence II has been identified as the first whaler to
hunt the waters around Tuvalu. In November 1821 he bartered coconuts from the people of Nukulaelae and also
visited Niulakita. A shore camp was established on Sakalua islet of Nukufetau, where coal was used to melt down
the whale blubber.
For less than a year between 186263, Peruvian ships, engaged in what
became to be called the "blackbirding" trade, combed the smaller islands of
Polynesia from Easter Island in the eastern Pacific to Tuvalu and the
southern atolls of the Gilbert Islands (now Kiribati), seeking recruits to fill
the extreme labour shortage in Peru.[9] While some islanders were
voluntary recruits the "blackbirders" were notorious for enticing islanders
on to ships with tricks, such as pretending to be Christian missionaries, as
well as kidnapping islanders at gun point. The Rev. A. W. Murray,[10] the
earliest European missionary in Tuvalu, reported that in 1863 about 170
people were taken from Funafuti and about 250 were taken from
Nukulaelae as there were fewer than 100 of the 300 recorded in 1861 as
living on Nukulaelae.

A man from the Nukufetau atoll, drawn by

Alfred Agate 1841.

Christianity came to Tuvalu in 1861 when Elekana, a deacon of a

Congregational church in Manihiki, Cook Islands became caught in a storm and drifted for 8 weeks before landing at
Nukulaelae on 10 May 1861. Elekana began proselytising Christianity. He was trained at Malua Theological
College, a London Missionary Society school in Samoa, before beginning his work in establishing the Church of
Tuvalu. In 1865 the Rev. A. W. Murray of the London Missionary Society a Protestant congregationalist
missionary society arrived as the first European missionary where he too proselytised among the inhabitants of
Tuvalu. By 1878 Protestantism was well established with preachers on each island. In the later 19th Century and
early 20th century the ministers of what became the Church of Tuvalu (Te Ekalesia Kelisiano Tuvalu) were
predominantly Samoans, who influenced the development of the Tuvaluan language and the music of Tuvalu.

Trading firms and traders

Trading companies became active in Tuvalu in the mid-nineteenth century; the trading companies engaged palagi
traders who lived on the islands. John (also known as Jack) O'Brien was the first European to settle in Tuvalu, he
became a trader on Funafuti in the 1850s. He married Salai, the daughter of the paramount chief of Funafuti. Louis
Becke, who later found success as a writer, was a trader on Nanumanga from April 1880 until the trading-station was
destroyed later that year in a cyclone. He then became a trader on Nukufetau. In 1892, Captain Davis of the
HMSRoyalist, reported on trading activities and traders on each of the islands visited. Captain Davis identified the
following traders in the Ellice Group: Edmund Duffy (Nanumea); Jack Buckland (Niutao); Harry Nitz (Vaitupu);
John (also known as Jack) O'Brien (Funafuti); Alfred Restieaux and Emile Fenisot (Nukufetau); and Martin Kleis
(Nui). During this time, the greatest number of palagi traders lived on the atolls, acting as agents for the trading
companies. Some islands would have competing traders while dryer islands might only have a single trader.
In the later 1890s and into first decade of the 20th century, structural changes occurred in the operation of the Pacific
trading companies; trading companies moved from a practice of having traders resident on each island to instead
becoming a business operation where the supercargo (the cargo manager of a trading ship) would deal directly with
the islanders when a ship visited an island. From 1900 the numbers of palagi traders in Tuvalu declined with the last
of the palagi traders being Fred Whibley on Niutao and Alfred Restieaux on Nukufetau. By 1909 there were no more

Tuvalu
resident palagi traders representing the trading companies, although both Whibley and Restieaux remained in the
islands until their deaths.

Scientific expeditions and travellers

The United States Exploring Expedition under Charles Wilkes visited
Funafuti, Nukufetau and Vaitupu in 1841.[11] During this expedition
Alfred Thomas Agate, engraver and illustrator, recorded the dress and
tattoo patterns of the men of Nukufetau.
The New Zealand photographer Thomas Andrew visited Funafuti and
Nui in about 1885-86.
In 1890 Robert Louis Stevenson, his wife Fanny Vandegrift Stevenson
and her son Lloyd Osbourne sailed on the Janet Nicoll, a trading
steamer owned by Henderson and Macfarlane of Auckland, New
Zealand, which operated between Sydney and Auckland and into the
central Pacific.[12] The Janet Nicoll visited Tuvalu;[13] while Fanny
records that they made landfall at Funafuti, Niutao and Nanumea, Jane
Resture suggests that it was more likely they landed at Nukufetau
Woman on Funafuti,
rather than Funafuti. An account of this voyage was written by Fanny
taken by Harry Clifford Fassett (1900)
Stevenson and published under the title The Cruise of the Janet
Nichol,[14] together with photographs taken by Robert Louis Stevenson and Lloyd Osbourne.
In 1894 Count Rudolf Festetics de Tolna, his wife Eila (ne Haggin) and her daughter Blanche Haggin visited
Funafuti aboard the yacht Le Tolna.[15] The Count spent several days photographing men and woman on Funafuti.
The boreholes on Funafuti, at the site now called Darwin's Drill, are the result of drilling conducted by the Royal
Society of London for the purpose of investigating the formation of coral reefs to determine whether traces of
shallow water organisms could be found at depth in the coral of Pacific atolls. This investigation followed the work
on The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs conducted by Charles Darwin in the Pacific. Drilling occurred in
1896, 1897 and 1898. Professor Edgeworth David of the University of Sydney was a member of the 1896 "Funafuti
Coral Reef Boring Expedition of the Royal Society", under Professor William Sollas and lead the expedition in
1897.[16] Photographers on these trips recorded people, communities, and scenes at Funafuti. Charles Hedley, a
naturalist at the Australian Museum, accompanied the 1896 expedition and during his stay on Funafuti collected
invertebrate and ethnological objects. The descriptions of these were published in Memoir III of the Australian
Museum Sydney between 1896 and 1900. Hedley also wrote the General Account of the Atoll of Funafuti, The
Ethnology of Funafuti, and The Mollusca of Funafuti.[17] Edgar Waite was also part of the 1896 expedition and
published an account of The mammals, reptiles, and fishes of Funafuti. William Rainbow described the spiders and
insects collected at Funafuti in The insect fauna of Funafuti.
Harry Clifford Fassett, captain's clerk and photographer, recorded people, communities and scenes at Funafuti in
1900 during a visit of USFC Albatross when the United States Fish Commission was investigating the formation of
coral reefs on Pacific atolls.

368

Tuvalu

Constitution and government

Main articles: Parliament of Tuvalu and Politics of Tuvalu
Further information: Elections and political parties in Tuvalu

Constitution
The Constitution of Tuvalu states that it is "the supreme law of Tuvalu" and that "all other laws shall be interpreted
and applied subject to this Constitution"; it sets out the Principles of the Bill of Rights and the Protection of the
Fundamental Rights and Freedoms.

Parliament
Tuvalu is a parliamentary democracy and Commonwealth realm with Queen Elizabeth II serving as the country's
head of state and bearing the title Queen of Tuvalu. Since the Queen does not reside in the islands, she is represented
in Tuvalu by a Governor General appointed by the Queen upon the advice of the Prime Minister of Tuvalu.
From 1974 (the creation of the British colony of Tuvalu) until independence, the legislative body of Tuvalu was
called the House of the Assembly or Fale I Fono. Following independence in October 1978 the House of the
Assembly was renamed the Parliament of Tuvalu or Palamene o Tuvalu. The unicameral Parliament has 15 members
with elections held every four years. The members of parliament select the Prime Minister (who is the head of
government) and the Speaker of Parliament. The ministers that form the Cabinet are appointed by the Governor
General on the advice of the Prime Minister.
There are no formal political parties and election campaigns are largely based on personal/family ties and
reputations.
The Tuvalu National Library and Archives holds "vital documentation on the cultural, social and political heritage of
Tuvalu", including surviving records from the colonial administration, as well as Tuvalu government archives.[18]

Judiciary
There are eight Island Courts and Lands Courts; appeals in relation to land disputes are made to the Lands Courts
Appeal Panel. Appeals from the Island Courts and the Lands Courts Appeal Panel are made to the Magistrates Court,
which has jurisdiction to hear civil cases involving up to $10,000. The superior court is the High Court of Tuvalu as
it has unlimited original jurisdiction to determine the Law of Tuvalu and to hear appeals from the lower courts. Sir
Gordon Ward is the current Chief Justice of Tuvalu. Rulings of the High Court can be appealed to the Court of
Appeal of Tuvalu. From the Court of Appeal there is a right of appeal to Her Majesty in Council, i.e., the Privy
Council in London.
The Law of Tuvalu comprises the Acts voted into law by the Parliament of Tuvalu and statutory instruments that
become law; certain Acts passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom (during the time Tuvalu was either a
British protectorate or British colony); the common law; and customary law (particularly in relation to the ownership
of land).

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Defence and law enforcement

Main article: Law enforcement in Tuvalu
Tuvalu has no regular military forces, and spends no money on the military. Its national police force, the Tuvalu
Police Service headquartered in Funafuti includes a maritime surveillance unit, customs, prisons and immigration.
Police officers wear British style uniforms.
The police have a Pacific-class patrol boat (HMTSS Te Mataili) provided by Australia in October 1994 under the
Pacific Patrol Boat Program for use in maritime surveillance and fishery patrol and for search-and-rescue missions.
("HMTSS" stands for His/Her Majesty's Tuvaluan State Ship or for His/Her Majesty's Tuvalu Surveillance Ship.)
Crime in Tuvalu is not a significant social problem due to an effective criminal justice system and also due to the
influence of the Falekaupule (the traditional assembly of elders of each island) and the central role of religious
institutions in the Tuvaluan community.

Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Tuvalu
Tuvalu participates in the work of Secretariat of the Pacific Community, or SPC (sometimes Pacific Community)
and is a member of the Pacific Islands Forum, the Commonwealth of Nations and the United Nations. Tuvalu has
maintained a mission at the United Nations in New York City since 2000. Tuvalu is a member of the World Bank
and the Asian Development Bank.
Tuvalu maintains close relations with Fiji, New Zealand, Australia, Japan, South Korea, the United Kingdom and the
European Union. It has diplomatic relations with the Republic of China (Taiwan); the ROC maintains the only
resident embassy in Tuvalu and has a large assistance programme in the islands.
A major international priority for Tuvalu in the UN, at the 2002 Earth Summit in Johannesburg, South Africa and in
other international fora, is promoting concern about global warming and the possible sea level rising. Tuvalu
advocates ratification and implementation of the Kyoto Protocol. In December 2009 the islands stalled talks on
climate change at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen, fearing some other developing
countries were not committing fully to binding deals on a reduction in carbon emissions. Their chief negotiator
stated, "Tuvalu is one of the most vulnerable countries in the world to climate change and our future rests on the
outcome of this meeting." Tuvalu participates in the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS), which is a coalition of
small island and low-lying coastal countries that have concerns about their vulnerability to the adverse effects of
global climate change. Under the Majuro Declaration, which was signed on 5 September 2013, Tuvalu has
commitment to implement power generation of 100% renewable energy (between 2013 and 2020), which is
proposed to be implemented using Solar PV (95% of demand) and biodiesel (5% of demand). The feasibility of wind
power generation will be considered. Tuvalu participates in the operations of the Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience
Commission (SOPAC) and the Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP).
Tuvalu is party to a treaty of friendship with the United States, signed soon after independence and ratified by the US
Senate in 1983, under which the United States renounced prior territorial claims to four Tuvaluan islands (Funafuti,
Nukufetau, Nukulaelae and Niulakita) under the Guano Islands Act of 1856.
Tuvalu participates in the operations of the Pacific Island Forum Fisheries Agency (FFA) and the Western and
Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC). The Tuvaluan government, the US government, and the
governments of other Pacific islands, are parties to the South Pacific Tuna Treaty (SPTT), which entered into force
in 1988. Tuvalu is also a member of the Parties to the Nauru Agreement which addresses the management of tuna
purse seine fishing in the tropical western Pacific. In May 2013 representatives from the United States and the
Pacific Islands countries agreed to sign interim arrangement documents to extend the Multilateral Fisheries Treaty
(which encompasses the South Pacific Tuna Treaty) to confirm access to the fisheries in the Western and Central
Pacific for US tuna boats for 18 months.

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371

In July 2013 Tuvalu signed the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) to establish the Pacific Regional Trade and
Development Facility, which Facility originated in 2006, in the context of negotiations for an Economic Partnership
Agreement (EPA) between Pacific ACP States and the European Union. The rationale for the creation of the Facility
being to improve the delivery of aid to Pacific island countries in support of the Aid-for-Trade (AfT) requirements.
The Pacific ACP States are the countries in the Pacific that are signatories to the Cotonou Agreement with the
European Union.

Local government
Elders and community councils
Each island has its own high-chief, or ulu-aliki, and several sub-chiefs (alikis). The community council is the
Falekaupule (the traditional assembly of elders) or te sina o fenua (literally: "grey-hairs of the land"). In the past,
another caste, the priests (tofuga), were also amongst the decision-makers. The ulu-aliki and aliki exercise informal
authority at the local level. Ulu-aliki are always chosen based on ancestry. Under the Falekaupule Act (1997), the
powers and functions of the Falekaupule are now shared with the pule o kaupule (elected village presidents; one on
each atoll).

Local government districts

Main article: Islands of Tuvalu
The Islands of Tuvalu consist of six atolls and reef islands. The
smallest, Niulakita, was uninhabited until it was settled by people from
Niutao in 1949.
Local government districts consisting of more than one islet:

Funafuti
Nanumea
Nui
Nukufetau
Nukulaelae
Vaitupu

Local government districts consisting of only one island:

Map of Tuvalu.

Nanumanga
Niulakita
Niutao

Tourism
See also: Funafuti Conservation Area, Public holidays in Tuvalu and Visa policy of Tuvalu
Due to the country's remoteness, tourism is not significant. Visitors totalled 1,684 in 2010, 65% were on business,
development officials or technical consultants, 20% were tourists (360 people), and 11% were expatriates returning
to visit family.
The main island of Funafuti is the focus of travellers, since the only airport in Tuvalu is the Funafuti International
Airport and the island has hotel facilities.[19] Ecotourism is a motivation of travellers to Tuvalu. The Funafuti
Conservation Area consists of 33 square kilometres (12.74 square miles) of ocean, reef, lagoon, channel and six
uninhabited islets.

Tuvalu
The outer atolls can be visited on the two passenger-cargo ships, Nivaga II and Manu Folau, which provide
round-trip visits to the outer islands every three or four weeks. There is guesthouse accommodation on many of the
outer atolls.

Economy
Main article: Economy of Tuvalu
See also: National Bank of Tuvalu and Tuvaluan dollar
From 1996 to 2002, Tuvalu was one of the best-performing Pacific Island economies and achieved an average real
gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate of 5.6% per annum. Since 2002 economic growth has slowed, with GDP
growth of 1.5% in 2008. Tuvalu was exposed to rapid rises in world prices of fuel and food in 2008, with the level of
inflation peaking at 13.4%. The International Monetary Fund 2010 Report on Tuvalu estimates that Tuvalu
experienced zero growth in its 2010 GDP, after the economy contracted by about 2% in 2009. On 5 August 2012, the
Executive Board of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) concluded the Article IV consultation with Tuvalu, and
assessed the economy of Tuvalu: A slow recovery is underway in Tuvalu, but there are important risks. GDP grew
in 2011 for the first time since the global financial crisis, led by the private retail sector and education spending. We
expect growth to rise slowly.
Banking services are provided by the National Bank of Tuvalu. Public sector workers make up about 65% of those
formally employed. Remittances from Tuvaluans living in Australia and New Zealand, and remittances from
Tuvaluan sailors employed on overseas ships are important sources of income for Tuvaluans. Approximately 15% of
adult males work as seamen on foreign-flagged merchant ships. Agriculture in Tuvalu is focused on coconut trees
and growing pulaka in large pits of composted soil below the water table. Tuvaluans are otherwise involved in
traditional subsistence agriculture and fishing.
Tuvaluans are well known for their seafaring skills, with the Tuvalu Maritime Training Institute on Amatuku motu
(island), Funafuti, providing training to approximately 120 marine cadets each year so that they have the skills
necessary for employment as seafarers on merchant shipping. The Tuvalu Overseas Seamen's Union (TOSU) is the
only registered trade union in Tuvalu. It represents workers on foreign ships. The Asian Development Bank (ADB)
estimates that 800 Tuvaluan men are trained, certified and active as seafarers. The ADB estimates that, at any one
time, about 15% of the adult male population works abroad as seafarers.
Government revenues largely come from sales of fishing licenses, income from the Tuvalu Trust Fund, and from the
lease of its highly fortuitous .tv Internet Top Level Domain (TLD). In 1998, Tuvalu began deriving revenue from the
use of its area code for premium-rate telephone numbers and from the commercialisation of its ".tv" Internet domain
name, which is now managed by Verisign until 2021. The ".tv" domain name generates around $2.2 million each
year from royalties, which is about ten per cent of the government's total revenue. Domain name income paid most
of the cost of paving the streets of Funafuti and installing street lighting in mid-2002. Tuvalu also generates income
from stamps by the Tuvalu Philatelic Bureau and income from the Tuvalu Ship Registry.
The Tuvalu Trust Fund was established in 1987 by the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand. The value of
the Tuvalu Trust Fund is approximately $100 million. Financial support to Tuvalu is also provided by Japan, South
Korea and the European Union. Australia and New Zealand continue to contribute capital to the Tuvalu Trust Fund
and provide other forms of development assistance.
The US government is also a major revenue source for Tuvalu. In 1999 the payment from the South Pacific Tuna
Treaty (SPTT) was about $9million, with the value increasing in the following years. In May 2013 representatives
from the United States and the Pacific Islands countries agreed to sign interim arrangement documents to extend the
Multilateral Fisheries Treaty (which encompasses the South Pacific Tuna Treaty) for 18 months.
The United Nations designates Tuvalu as a least developed country (LDC) because of its limited potential for
economic development, absence of exploitable resources and its small size and vulnerability to external economic

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and environmental shocks. Tuvalu participates in the Enhanced Integrated Framework for Trade-Related Technical
Assistance to Least Developed Countries (EIF), which was established in October 1997 under the auspices of the
World Trade Organisation. In 2013 Tuvalu deferred its graduation from least developed country (LDC) status to a
Developing country to 2015. Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga said that this deferral was necessary to maintain access
by Tuvalu to the funds provided by the United Nations's National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA), as
"Once Tuvalu graduates to a developed country, it will not be considered for funding assistance for climate change
adaptation programmes like NAPA, which only goes to LDCs". Tuvalu had meet targets so that Tuvalu was to
graduate from LDC status. Prime minister, Enele Sopoaga wants the United Nations to reconsider its criteria for
graduation from LDC status as not enough weight is given to the environmental plight of small island states like
Tuvalu in the application of the Environmental Vulnerability Index (EVI).

Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Tuvalu
See also: Women in Tuvalu
The country's population has more than doubled since 1980 with a growth rate of 0.702%. The population at the
2002 census was 9,561, and the population at the 2012 census was 10,837 (2012 Population & Housing Census
Preliminary Analytical Report). The population of Tuvalu is primarily of Polynesian ethnicity with approximately
4% of the population being Micronesian. The net migration rate is estimated at 7.02 migrant(s)/1,000 population
(2011 est.)
From 1947 to 1983 a number of Tuvaluans from Vaitupu migrated to Kioa, an island in Fiji. The settlers from
Tuvalu were granted Fijian citizenship in 2005. In recent years New Zealand and Australia are the primary
destinations for migration or seasonal work.
New Zealand has an annual quota of 75 Tuvaluans granted work permits under the Pacific Access Category, as
announced in 2001. The applicants register for the Pacific Access Category (PAC) ballots; the primary criteria is that
the principal applicant must have a job offer from a New Zealand employer. Tuvaluans also have access to seasonal
employment in the horticulture and viticulture industries in New Zealand under the Recognised Seasonal Employer
(RSE) Work Policy introduced in 2007 allowing for employment of up to 5,000 workers from Tuvalu and other
Pacific islands. Tuvaluans can participate in the Australian Pacific Seasonal Worker Program, which allows Pacific
Islanders to obtain seasonal employment in the Australian agriculture industry, in particular cotton and cane
operations; fishing industry, in particular aquaculture; and with accommodation providers in the tourism industry.
Life expectancy for women in Tuvalu is 66.9 years and 62.7 years for men (2011 est.).
The Tuvaluan language is spoken by virtually everyone, while a language very similar to Gilbertese is spoken on
Nui. English is also an official language but is not spoken in daily use. Parliament and official functions are
conducted in Tuvaluan language.

Religion
Main article: Religion in Tuvalu
See also: Church of Tuvalu
The introduction of Christianity ended the worship of ancestral spirits and other deities, along with the power of the
vaka-atua (the priests of the old religions). Laumua Kofe describes the objects of worship as varying from island to
island, although ancestor worship is described by Rev. D.J. Whitmee in 1870 as being common practice.[20] About
97% of Tuvaluans are members of the Ekalesia Kilisiano Tuvalu (Church of Tuvalu), a Protestant Christian church.
Tuvaluans continue to respect their ancestors within the context of a strong Christian faith.

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374

The other religions practised in Tuvalu include Seventh-day Adventist (1.4%), Bah' (1%) and the Ahmadiyya
Muslim Community (0.4%).[21]

Culture
Architecture
The traditional buildings of Tuvalu used plants and trees from the native
broadleaf forest, including timber from: Pouka, (Hernandia peltata); Ngia or
Ingia bush, (Pemphis acidula); Miro, (Thespesia populnea); Tonga, (Rhizophora
mucronata); Fau or Fo fafini, or woman's fibre tree (Hibiscus tiliaceus). and
fibre from: Coconut; Ferra, native fig (Ficus aspem); Fala, Screw Pine or
Pandanus. The buildings were constructed without nails and were lashed and tied
together with a plaited sennit rope that was handmade from dried coconut fibre.
Following contact with Europeans iron products were used including nails and
corrugated iron roofing material. Modern building in Tuvalu are constructed
from imported building materials including imported timber and concrete.
The church and community buildings are painted with white paint that is known
as lase, which is made by burning a large amount of dead coral with firewood.
The whitish powder that is the result is mixed with water and painted on the
buildings.

A Tuvaluan dancer at Auckland's

Pasifika Festival

Art of Tuvalu
Main article: Art of Tuvalu
The artistic traditions of Tuvalu have traditionally been expressed in the design of clothing and traditional
handicrafts such as the decoration of mats and fans. The material culture of Tuvalu uses traditional design elements
in artifacts used in every-day life such as the design of canoes and fish hooks made from traditional materials. The
design of women's skirts (titi), tops (teuga saka), headbands, armbands, and wristbands, which continue to be used in
performances of the traditional dance songs of Tuvalu, represents contemporary Tuvaluan art and design.

Dance and music

Main article: Music of Tuvalu
The traditional music of Tuvalu consists of a number of dances, including fatele, fakanau and fakaseasea. The fatele,
in its modern form, is performed at community events and to celebrate leaders and other prominent individuals, such
as the visit of the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge in September 2012. The Tuvaluan style can be described "as a
musical microcosm of Polynesia, where contemporary and older styles co-exist".

Tuvalu

Cuisine
Main article: Cuisine of Tuvalu
The cuisine of Tuvalu is based on the staple of coconut and the many species of fish found in the ocean and lagoons
of the atolls. Desserts made on the islands include coconut and coconut milk, instead of the animal milk. The
traditional foods eaten in Tuvalu are pulaka, taro, bananas, breadfruit and coconut. Tuvaluans eat seafood, including
coconut crab, fish from the lagoon and ocean. A traditional food source is seabirds (taketake or Black Noddy and
akiaki or White Tern), with pork being eaten mostly at fateles (or parties with dancing to celebrate events).
Pulaka is the main source for carbohydrates. Seafood provides protein. Bananas and breadfruit are supplemental
crops. Coconut is used for its juice, to make other beverages and to improve the taste of some dishes.
A 1560-square-metre pond was built in 1996 on Vaitupu to sustain aquaculture in Tuvalu.
Flying fish are caught as a source of food and as an exciting activity, using a boat, a butterfly net and a spotlight to
attract the flying fish.

Heritage
See also: Agriculture in Tuvalu
The traditional community system still survives to a large extent on Tuvalu. Each
family has its own task, or salanga, to perform for the community, such as
fishing, house building or defence. The skills of a family are passed on from
parents to children. The women of Tuvalu use cowrie and other shells in
traditional handicrafts.
Most islands have their own fusi, community owned shops similar to
convenience stores, where canned foods and bags of rice can be purchased.
Goods are cheaper and fusis give better prices for their own produce.
Another important building is the falekaupule or maneapa the traditional island
meeting hall, where important matters are discussed and which is also used for
wedding celebrations and community activities such as a fatele involving music,
Canoe carving on Nanumea
singing and dancing. Falekaupule is also used as the name of the council of
elders the traditional decision making body on each island. Under the
Falekaupule Act, Falekaupule means "traditional assembly in each island...composed in accordance with the Aganu
of each island". Aganu means traditional customs and culture.

Languages
Main article: Tuvaluan language
The Tuvaluan language and English are the national languages of Tuvalu. The Kiribati language is also spoken on
the island of Nui.[22]
Tuvaluan is of the Ellicean group of Polynesian languages, distantly related to all other Polynesian languages such as
Hawaiian, Mori, Tahitian, Samoan and Tongan. It is most closely related to the languages spoken on the Polynesian
outliers in Micronesia and northern and central Melanesia. The language has borrowed from the Samoan language,
as a consequence of Christian missionaries in the late 19th and early 20th centuries being predominantly Samoan.
There are about 13,000 Tuvaluan speakers worldwide.[23][24] The Tuvalu Media Corporation publishes Sikuleo o
Tuvalu Tuvalu Echo (previously: Tuvalu Echoes), a fortnightly newspaper and a news website.

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376

Sport and leisure

A traditional sport played in Tuvalu is kilikiti, which is similar to
cricket. A popular sport specific to Tuvalu is Ano, which is played with
two round balls of 12cm (5in) diameter. Ano is a localised version of
volleyball, in which the two hard balls made from pandanus leaves are
volleyed at great speed with the team members trying to stop the Ano
hitting the ground. Traditional sports in the late 19th century were foot
racing, lance throwing, quarterstaff fencing and wrestling, although the
Christian missionaries disapproved of these activities.

Tuvalu national football team (2011)

The sports now played by Tuvaluans include kilikiti, Ano, football,

volleyball, rugby union and Futsal are also played in the country as recreational activities. Weightlifting is a popular
sport in Tuvalu. At the 2013 Pacific Mini Games, Tuau Lapua Lapua won Tuvalu's first ever gold medal in major
sporting competition in the men's 62 kilogram snatch. (He also won bronze in the clean and jerk, and obtained the
silver medal overall for the combined event.)[25]
Tuvalu participates in the Oceanian Futsal Championship. Tuvalu has sports organisations for badminton, basketball,
football, rugby union, tennis, table tennis, volleyball and weightlifting. A major sporting event is the "Independence
Day Sports Festival" held annually on 1 October. The most important sports event within the country is arguably the
Tuvalu Games, which are held yearly since 2008.
Football in Tuvalu is played at club and national team level. The Tuvalu national football team trains at the Tuvalu
Sports Ground in Funafuti and competes in the Pacific Games and South Pacific Games. The Tuvalu National
Football Association is an associate member of the Oceania Football Confederation (OFC) and is seeking
membership in FIFA.[26]
Tuvalu first participated in the Pacific Games in 1978 and in the Commonwealth Games in 1998, when a weightlifter
attended the games held at Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Two table tennis players attended the 2002 Commonwealth
Games in Manchester, England; Tuvalu entered competitors in shooting, table tennis and weightlifting at the 2006
Commonwealth Games in Melbourne, Australia; and three athletes participated in the 2010 Commonwealth Games
in Delhi, India, entering the discus, shot put and weightlifting events. Tuvaluan athletes also participated in the men's
and women's 100-metre sprints at the 2009 World Athletic Championships and 2011 World Athletic Championships.
At the 2011 Pacific Games held in New Caledonia, Tuvaluan weightlifters won two silver medals and one bronze
medal. Okilani Tinilau represented Tuvalu at the 2013 World Championships in the men's 100-metre sprint.
The Tuvalu Association of Sports and National Olympic Committee (TASNOC) was recognised as a National
Olympic Committee in July 2007. Tuvalu entered the Olympic Games for the first time at the 2008 Summer Games
in Beijing, China, with a weightlifter and two athletes in the men's and women's 100-metre sprints. A team with
athletes in the same events represented Tuvalu at the 2012 Summer Olympics.
See also: Tuvaluan records in athletics, Tuvalu at the Commonwealth Games and Tuvalu at the Olympics

Tuvalu

377

Services
Transport
Transport services in Tuvalu are limited. There are about eight
kilometres of roads. The streets of Funafuti were paved and lit in
mid-2002 but other roads are unpaved. Tuvalu is among a few
countries that do not have railroads.
Funafuti is the only port but there is a deep-water berth in the harbour
at Nukufetau. The merchant marine fleet consists of two
passenger/cargo ships Nivaga II and Manu Folau. These ships carry
cargo and passengers between the main atolls and travel between Suva,
Fiji and Funafuti 3 to 4 times a year.[27]

Manu Folau off Vaitupu Harbour

The Nivaga II and Manu Folau provide round trip visits to the outer
islands every three or four weeks. The Manu Folau is a 50-meter vessel that was a gift from Japan to the people of
Tuvalu.
The single airport is Funafuti International Airport. It is a tarred strip. Air Pacific, the owner of Fiji Airlines (trading
as Pacific Sun) operates services twice a week between Suva (originating from Nadi) and Funafuti with a 40-seat
plane.

Radio and telecommunications

Main article: Telecommunications in Tuvalu
The Tuvalu Media Corporation (TMC) operates Radio Tuvalu, which broadcasts from Funafuti. In 2011 the
Japanese government provided financial support to construct a new AM broadcast studio. The installation of
upgraded transmission equipment allows Radio Tuvalu to be heard on all nine islands of Tuvalu. The new AM radio
transmitter on Funafuti replaced TMC's FM radio service to the outer islands and freed up satellite bandwidth for
mobile services.
The Tuvalu Telecommunications Corporation (TCC), a state-owned enterprise, provides fixed line telephone
communications to subscribers on each island, mobile phone services on Funafuti, Vaitupu and Nukulaelae and is a
distributor of the Fiji Television service (Sky Pacific satellite television service).
Communications in Tuvalu rely on satellite dishes for telephone and internet access. The available bandwidth is only
512 kbit/s uplink, and 1.5 Mbit/s downlink. Throughout Tuvalu are more than 900 subscribers who want to use the
satellite service, with demand slowing down the speed of the entire system.

Medical services
The Princess Margaret Hospital on Funafuti is the only hospital in Tuvalu. The Tuvaluan medical staff at PMH in
2011 comprised the Director of Health & Surgeon, the Chief Medical Officer Public Health, an anaesthetist, a
paediatric medical officer and an obstetrics and gynaecology medical officer. Allied health staff include two
radiographers, two pharmacists, three laboratory technicians, two dieticians and 13 nurses with specialised training
in fields including surgical nursing, anaesthesia nursing/ICU, paediatric nursing and midwifery. PMH also employs a
dentist. The Department of Health also employs nine or ten nurses on the outer islands to provide general nursing
and midwifery services.

Tuvalu

Education
Education in Tuvalu is free and compulsory between the ages of 6 and 15 years. Each island has a primary school.
Motufoua Secondary School is located on Vaitupu. Students board at the school during the school term, returning to
their home islands each school vacation. Fetuvalu High School, a day school operated by the Church of Tuvalu, is on
Funafuti.
Fetuvalu offers the Cambridge syllabus. Motufoua offers the Fiji Junior Certificate (FJC) at year 10, Tuvaluan
Certificate at Year 11 and the Pacific Senior Secondary Certificate (PSSC) at Year 12, set by the Fiji-based exam
board SPBEA. Sixth form students who pass their PSSC go on to the Augmented Foundation Programme, funded by
the government of Tuvalu. This program is required for tertiary education programmes outside of Tuvalu and is
available at the University of the South Pacific (USP) Extension Centre in Funafuti.
Required attendance at school is 10 years for males and 11 years for females (2001). The adult literacy rate is 99.0%
(2002). In 2010, there were 1,918 students who were taught by 109 teachers (98 certified and 11 uncertified). The
teacher-pupil ratio for primary schools in Tuvalu is around 1:18 for all schools with the exception of Nauti School,
which has a student-teacher ratio of 1:27. Nauti School on Funafuti is the largest primary in Tuvalu with more than
900 students (45 percent of the total primary school enrolment). The pupil-teacher ratio for Tuvalu is low compared
to the Pacific region (ratio of 1:29).
Community Training Centres (CTCs) have been established within the primary schools on each atoll. The CTCs
provide vocational training to students who do not progress beyond Class 8 because they failed the entry
qualifications for secondary education. The CTCs offer training in basic carpentry, gardening and farming, sewing
and cooking. At the end of their studies the graduates can apply to continue studies either at Motufoua Secondary
School or the Tuvalu Maritime Training Institute (TMTI). Adults can also attend courses at the CTCs.
The Tuvaluan Employment Ordinance of 1966 sets the minimum age for paid employment at 14 years and prohibits
children under the age of 15 from performing hazardous work.[28]

Geography and environment

Main article: Geography of Tuvalu
See also: Tuvalu Meteorological Service

Geography
Tuvalu consists of three reef islands and six true atolls. Its small,
scattered group of atolls have poor soil and a total land area of only
about 26square kilometres (less than 10sq.mi) making it the fourth
smallest country in the world. The islets that form the atolls are very
low lying. Nanumanga, Niutao, Niulakita are reef islands and the six
true atolls are Funafuti, Nanumea, Nui, Nukufetau, Nukulaelae and
Vaitupu. Funafuti is the largest atoll of the nine low reef islands and
atolls that form the Tuvalu volcanic island chain. It comprises
A beach at Funafuti atoll.
numerous islets around a central lagoon that is approximately 25.1
kilometres (15.6 miles) (NS) by 18.4 kilometres (11.4 miles) (W-E),
centred on 1797'E and 830'S. On the atolls, an annular reef rim surrounds the lagoon with several natural reef
channels. Surveys were carried out in May 2010 of the reef habitats of Nanumea, Nukulaelae and Funafuti and a
total of 317 fish species were recorded during this Tuvalu Marine Life study. The surveys identified 66 species that
had not previously been recorded in Tuvalu, which brings the total number of identified species to 607.

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379

Environmental pressures
The eastern shoreline of Funafuti Lagoon was modified during World
War II when the airfield (what is now Funafuti International Airport)
was constructed. The coral base of the atoll was used as fill to create
the runway. The resulting borrow pits impacted the fresh-water aquifer.
At these pits, the sea water can be seen bubbling up through the porous
coral rock to form pools with each high tide. Several piers were also
constructed in the lagoon, beach areas were filled and deep water
access channels were excavated. These alterations to the reef and
A wharf and beach at Funafuti atoll
shoreline resulted in changes to wave patterns with less sand
accumulating to form the beaches as compared to former times and the
shoreline is now exposed to wave action. Several attempts to stabilise the shoreline have not achieved the desired
effect. The reefs at Funafuti have suffered damage, with 80 per cent of the coral becoming bleached as a
consequence of the increase in ocean temperatures and ocean acidification. The coral bleaching, which includes
staghorn corals, is attributed to the increase in water temperature that occurred during the El Nios that occurred
from 19982000 and from 20002001. A reef restoration project has investigated reef restoration techniques; and
researchers from Japan have investigated rebuilding the coral reefs through the introduction of foraminifera. The
project of the Japan International Cooperation Agency is designed to increase the resilience of the Tuvalu coast
against sea level rise through ecosystem rehabilitation and regeneration and through support for sand production.
The rising population has resulted in an increased demand on fish stocks, which are under stress; although the
creation of the Funafuti Conservation Area has provided a fishing exclusion area to help sustain the fish population
across the Funafuti lagoon. Population pressure on the resources of Funafuti and inadequate sanitation systems have
resulted in pollution. The Waste Operations and Services Act of 2009 provides the legal framework for waste
management and pollution control projects funded by the European Union directed at organic waste composting in
eco-sanitation systems. Plastic waste is also a problem as much imported food and other commodities are supplied in
plastic containers or packaging.

Tropical cyclones
Because of the low elevation, the islands that make up this nation are
vulnerable to the effects of tropical cyclones and by the threat of
current and future sea level rise. The highest elevation is 4.6 metres
(15ft) above sea level on Niulakita, which gives Tuvalu the
second-lowest maximum elevation of any country (after the Maldives).
However, the highest elevations are typically in narrow storm dunes on
the ocean side of the islands which are prone to overtopping in tropical
cyclones, as occurred with Cyclone Bebe, which was a very
early-season storm that passed through the Tuvaluan atolls in October
1972.[29] Cyclone Bebe submerged Funafuti, eliminating 90% of
structures on the island. Sources of drinking water were contaminated
as a result of the system's storm surge and fresh water flooding.

Ocean side of Funafuti atoll showing the storm

dunes, the highest point on the atoll.

George Westbrook, a trader on Funafuti, recorded a cyclone that struck Funafuti in 1883. A cyclone caused severe
damage to the islands in 1894.
Cyclone Bebe in 1972 caused severe damage to Funafuti. Funafutis Tepuka Vili Vili islet was devastated by
Cyclone Meli in 1979, with all its vegetation and most of its sand swept away during the cyclone. Along with a
tropical depression that affected the islands a few days later, Severe Tropical Cyclone Ofa had a major impact on

Tuvalu
Tuvalu with most islands reporting damage to vegetation and crops. Cyclone Gavin was first identified during 2
March 1997, and was the first of three tropical cyclones to affect Tuvalu during the 1996-97 cyclone season with
Cyclones Hina and Keli following later in the season.

King tides
Tuvalu is also affected by perigean spring tide events which raise the sea level higher than a normal high tide. As a
result of historical sea level rise, the king tide events lead to flooding of low lying areas, which is compounded when
sea levels are further raised by La Nia effects or local storms and waves. In the future, sea level rise may threaten to
submerge the nation entirely as it is estimated that a sea level rise of 2040centimetres (816inches) in the next 100
years could make Tuvalu uninhabitable.[30]

Seasonal weather patterns

Tuvalu experiences westerly gales and heavy rain from October to March the period that is known as Tau-o-lalo;
with tropical temperatures moderated by easterly winds from April to November. Drinking water is mainly obtained
from rainwater collected on roofs and stored in tanks. These systems are often poorly maintained, resulting in a lack
of water.[31] Aid programmes of Australia and the European Union have been directed to improving the storage
capacity on Funafuti and in the outer islands.

Effects of climate change, El Nio and La Nia

Main article: Climate change in Tuvalu
As low-lying islands lacking a surrounding shallow shelf, the communities of Tuvalu are especially susceptible to
changes in sea level and undissipated storms. At its highest, Tuvalu is only 4.6 metres (15ft) above sea level, and
Tuvaluan leaders have been concerned about the effects of rising sea levels for a few years. It is estimated that a sea
level rise of 2040centimetres (816inches) in the next 100 years could make Tuvalu uninhabitable.
Whether there are measurable changes in the sea level relative to the islands of Tuvalu is a contentious issue. There
were problems associated with the pre-1993 sea level records from Funafuti which resulted in improvements in the
recording technology to provide more reliable data for analysis. The degree of uncertainty as to estimates of sea level
change relative to the islands of Tuvalu was reflected in the conclusions made in 2002 from the available data. The
2011 report of the Pacific Climate Change Science Program published by the Australian Government, concludes:
"The sea-level rise near Tuvalu measured by satellite altimeters since 1993 is about 5 mm per year."
Observable transformations over the last ten to fifteen years show Tuvaluans that there have been changes to the sea
levels. These include sea water bubbling up through the porous coral rock to form pools at high tide and the flooding
of low-lying areas including the airport during spring tides and king tides.
The atolls have shown resilience to gradual sea-level rise, with atolls and reef islands being able to grow under
current climate conditions by generating sufficient sand and shingle that accumulates and gets dumped on the islands
during cyclones. Gradual sea-level rise also allows for coral polyp activity to increase the reefs. However if the
increase in sea level occurs at faster rate as compared to coral growth, or if polyp activity is damaged by ocean
acidification, then the resilience of the atolls and reef islands is less certain.
The 2011 report of Pacific Climate Change Science Program of Australia concludes, in relation to Tuvalu, that over
the course of the 21st century:
Surface air temperatures and seasurface temperatures are projected to continually increase (very high
confidence).
Annual and seasonal mean rainfalls are projected to increase (high confidence).
The intensity and frequency of extreme heat days are projected to increase (very high confidence).
The intensity and frequency of extreme rainfall days are projected to increase (high confidence).

380

Tuvalu

381

The incidence of drought is projected to decrease (moderate confidence).

Tropical cyclone numbers are projected to decline in the south-east Pacific Ocean basin (040S, 170E130W)
(moderate confidence).
Ocean acidification is projected to continue (very high confidence).
Mean sea-level rise is projected to continue (very high confidence).
The South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) suggests that, while Tuvalu is vulnerable to climate
change, environmental problems such as population growth and poor coastal management also affect sustainable
development. SOPAC ranks the country as extremely vulnerable using the Environmental Vulnerability Index.[32]
While some commentators have called for the relocation of Tuvalu's population to Australia, New Zealand or Kioa
in Fiji, in 2006 Maatia Toafa (Prime Minister from 20042006) said his government did not regard rising sea levels
as such a threat that the entire population would need to be evacuated.[33][34] In 2013 Enele Sopoaga, the prime
minister of Tuvalu, said that relocating Tuvaluans to avoid the impact of sea level rise "should never be an option
because it is self defeating in itself. For Tuvalu I think we really need to mobilise public opinion in the Pacific as
well as in the [rest of] world to really talk to their lawmakers to please have some sort of moral obligation and things
like that to do the right thing."
In spite of persistent Internet rumours that New Zealand has agreed to accept an annual quota of 75 evacuees, the
annual quota of 75 Tuvaluans granted work permits under the Pacific Access Category (announced in 2001) is not
related to environmental concerns. Employment opportunities and family reunification has been the primary
motivation of Tuvaluans who obtain New Zealand work permits under the Pacific Access Category.

Tuvalu Meteorological Service, Fongafale, Funafuti atoll

Tuvalu experiences the effects of El Nio and La Nia

caused by changes in ocean temperatures in the
equatorial and central Pacific. El Nio effects increase
the chances of tropical storms and cyclones, while La
Nia effects increase the chances of drought. Typically
the islands of Tuvalu receive between 200mm to
400mm of rainfall per month. However, in 2011 a weak
La Nia effect caused a drought by cooling the surface
of the sea around Tuvalu. A state of emergency was
declared on 28 September 2011; with rationing of
fresh-water on the islands of Funafuti and Nukulaelae.
Households on Funafuti and Nukulaelae were restricted
to two buckets of fresh water per day (40 litres).

The governments of Australia and New Zealand responded to the 2011 fresh-water crisis by supplying temporary
desalination plants, and assisted in the repair of the existing desalination unit that was donated by Japan in 2006. In
response to the 2011 drought, Japan funded the purchase of a 100 m/d desalination plant and two portable 10 m/d
plants as part of its Pacific Environment Community (PEC) program. Aid programs from the European Union and
Australia also provided water tanks as part of the longer term solution for the storage of available fresh water.
The La Nia event that caused the drought ended in AprilMay 2012; by August 2012 the El Nio-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) Conditions indicated that the Tropical Pacific Ocean was moving to an El Nio event. A greater
than a 50% chance that an El Nio event will occur in 2014 was predicted by NOAAs Climate Prediction Center,
with other climate scientists predicting that an El Nio will occur with the question being as to the degree of
severity of the event.
See also: 2011 Tuvalu drought and Renewable energy in Tuvalu

Tuvalu

382

Environmental or resource management

The Constitution of Tuvalu does not specifically refer to the conservation of resources and sound environmental or
resource management; however the rights of future generations are acknowledged in Principles 2 & 3 of the
Constitution, which refer to the welfare of the people of Tuvalu, both present and future. The Waste Operations and
Services Act of 2009 provides the legal framework for waste management and pollution control projects.
In July 2012 a United Nations Special Rapporteur called on the Tuvalu Government to develop a national water
strategy to improve access to safe drinking water and sanitation. In 2012, Tuvalu developed a National Water
Resources Policy under the Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) Project and the Pacific Adaptation to
Climate Change (PACC) Project, which are sponsored by the Global Environment Fund/SOPAC. Government water
planning has established a target of between 50 and 100L of water per person per day accounting for drinking water,
cleaning, community and cultural activities.
Tuvalu is working with the South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) to implement composting
toilets and to improve the treatment of sewage sludge from septic tanks on Fongafale as septic tanks are leaking into
the freshwater lens in the sub-surface of the atoll as well as the ocean and lagoon. Composting toilets reduce water
use by up to 30%.
Rainwater harvesting is the principal source of freshwater in Tuvalu. Nukufetau, Vaitupu and Nanumea are the only
islands with sustainable groundwater supplies. The effectiveness of rainwater harvesting is diminished because of
poor maintenance of roofs, gutters and pipes. Reverse Osmosis (R/O) desalination units supplement rainwater
harvesting on Funafuti. The 65 m3 desalination plant operates at a real production level of around 40 m per day.
R/O water is only intended to be produced when storage falls below 30%, however demand to replenish household
storage supplies with tanker-delivered water means that the R/O desalination units are continually operating. Water
is delivered at a cost of A$3.50 per m. Cost of production and delivery has been estimated at A$6 per m, with the
difference subsidised by the government.

Filmography and bibliography

Filmography
Documentary films about Tuvalu:

Tu Toko Tasi (Stand by Yourself) (2000) Conrad Mill, a Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) production
Paradise Domain (2001) by Joost de Haas
The Disappearing of Tuvalu: Trouble in Paradise (2004) by Christopher Horner and Gilliane Le Gallic
Paradise Drowned: Tuvalu, the Disappearing Nation (2004) Written and produced by Wayne Tourell. Directed
by Mike O'Connor, Savana Jones-Middleton and Wayne Tourell
Going Under (2004) by Franny Armstrong, Spanner Films
Before the Flood: Tuvalu (2005) by Paul Lindsay
Time and Tide (2005) by Julie Bayer and Josh Salzman
Tuvalu: That Sinking Feeling [35] (2005) by Elizabeth Pollock from PBS Rough Cut
Atlantis Approaching (2006) by Elizabeth Pollock
King Tide | The Sinking of Tuvalu [36] (2007) by Juriaan Booij
Tuvalu: Renewable Energy in the Pacific Islands Series (2012) a production of the Global Environment Facility
(GEF), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and SPREP

Tuvalu

383

Bibliography
Bibliography of Tuvalu [37]

Further reading

Lonely Planet Guide: South Pacific & Micronesia, by various

Bennetts, Peter and Tony Wheeler, Time & Tide: The Islands of Tuvalu, Lonely Planet (2001)
Chalkley, John, Vaitupu An Account of Life on a Remote Polynesian Atoll, Matuku Publications (1999)
Ells, Philip, Where the Hell is Tuvalu? Virgin Books (2008)
Watling, Dick, A Guide to the Birds of Fiji and Western Polynesia: Including American Samoa, Niue, Samoa,
Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu and Wallis and Futuna, Environmental Consultants (Fiji) Ltd; 2nd edition (2003)

Customs and Traditions

Brady, Ivan, Kinship Reciprocity in the Ellice Islands, Journal of Polynesian Society 81:3 (1972), 290316
Brady, Ivan, Land Tenure in the Ellice Islands, in Henry P. Lundsaarde (ed). Land Tenure in Oceania, Honolulu,
University Press of Hawaii (1974)
Chambers, Keith & Anne Chambers Unity of Heart: Culture and Change in a Polynesian Atoll Society (January
2001) Waveland Pr Inc. ISBN 1577661664 ISBN 978-1577661665
Koch, Gerd, Die Materielle Kulture der Ellice-Inseln, Berlin: Museum fur Volkerkunde 1965) The English
translation by Guy Slatter, was published as The Material Culture of Kiribati, University of the South Pacific in
Suva (1986) ISBN 9789820200081
History
Tuvalu: A History (1983) Isala, Tito and Larcy, Hugh (eds.), Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South
Pacific and Government of Tuvalu
Suamalie N.T. Iosefa, Doug Munro, Niko Besnier, Tala O Niuoku, Te: the German Plantation on Nukulaelae
Atoll 18651890 (1991) Published by the Institute of Pacific Studies. ISBN 9820200733
Pulekai A. Sogivalu, Brief History of Niutao, A, (1992) Published by the Institute of Pacific Studies. ISBN
982020058X
Macdonald, Barrie, Cinderellas of the Empire: towards a history of Kiribati and Tuvalu, Institute of Pacific
Studies, University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji, (2001). ISBN 982-02-0335-X (Australian National University
Press, first published 1982)
Language
Besnier, Niko, Literacy, Emotion and Authority: Reading and Writing on a Polynesian Atoll, Cambridge
University Press (1995)
Besnier, Niko, Tuvaluan: A Polynesian Language of the Central Pacific. (Descriptive Grammars) (2000)
Routledge ISBN 0415024560 ISBN 978-0415024563
Jackson, Geoff W. & Jenny Jackson, Introduction to Tuvaluan, An (1999)
Jackson, Geoff W., Te Tikisionale O Te Gana Tuvalu, A Tuvaluan-English Dictionary (1994) Suva, Fiji, Oceania
Printers
Music and Dance
Christensen, Dieter, Old Musical Styles in the Ellice Islands, Western Polynesia, Ethnomusicology, 8:1 (1964),
3440
Christensen, Dieter and Gerd Koch, Die Musik der Ellice-Inseln, Berlin: Museum fur Volkerkunde (1964)
Koch, Gerd, Songs of Tuvalu (translated by Guy Slatter), Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South
Pacific (2000)

Tuvalu

References
[1] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Tuvalu& params=8_32_S_179_13_E_type:country
[2] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Tuvalu& params=-8. 32_N_179. 13_E_
[3] A Directory for the Navigation of the Pacific Ocean: With Description of Its Coasts, Islands, Etc. from the Strait of Magalhaens to the Arctic
Sea (1851)
[4] Nohlen, D, Grotz, F & Hartmann, C (2001) Elections in Asia: A data handbook, Volume II, p. 831, ISBN 0-19-924959-8
[5] Tuvalu: A History, Chapter 20, Secession and Independence, pp. 153177
[6] O'Brien, Talakatoa in Tuvalu: A History, Chapter 1, Genesis
[7] Maude, H.E. Spanish discoveries in the Central Pacific. A study in identification Journal of the Polynesian Society, Wellington, LXVIII,
(1959), p.299,303.
[8] Kofe, Laumua; Palagi and Pastors in Tuvalu: A History, Ch. 15
[9] Maude, H.E. (1981) Slavers in Paradise, Stanford University Press, ISBN 0804711062.
[10] Murray A.W. (1876). Forty Years' Mission Work. London Nisbet
[11] Tyler, David B. 1968 The Wilkes Expedition. The First United States Exploring Expedition (183842). Philadelphia: American
Philosophical Society
[12] The Circular Saw Shipping Line. (http:/ / homepages. ihug. co. nz/ ~tonyf/ CSL/ ) Anthony G. Flude. 1993. (Chapter 7)
[13] Janet Nicoll is the correct spelling of trading steamer owned by Henderson and Macfarlane of Auckland, New Zealand, which operated
between Sydney, Auckland and into the central Pacific. Fanny Vandegrift Stevenson miss-names the ship as the Janet Nicol in her account of
the 1890 voyage
[14] Stevenson, Fanny Van de Grift (1914) The Cruise of the Janet Nichol among the South Sea Islands (http:/ / archive. org/ details/
cruisejanetnich01stevgoog), republished in 2003, Roslyn Jolly (ed.), U. of Washington Press/U. of New South Wales Press, ISBN
0868406066
[15] Festetics De Tolna, Comte Rodolphe (1903) Chez les cannibales: huit ans de croisire dans l'ocan Pacifique bord du, Paris: Plon-Nourrit
[16] David, Mrs Edgeworth, Funafuti or Three Months on a Coral Atoll: an unscientific account of a scientific expedition, London: John Murray,
1899
[17] Fairfax, Denis (1983) "Hedley, Charles (18621926)" (http:/ / www. adb. online. anu. edu. au/ biogs/ A090259b. htm), pp. 252253 in
Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 9, MUP. Retrieved 5 May 2013
[18] "Tuvalu National Archives major project" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070202161907/ http:/ / www. bl. uk/ about/ policies/
endangeredarch/ 2006/ rovery. html), British Library
[19] Tuvalu's official Tourism web site (http:/ / www. timelesstuvalu. com/ ). Timelesstuvalu.com. Retrieved on 14 July 2013.
[20] Kofe, Laumua "Old Time Religion" in Tuvalu: A History
[21] Ahmadiyya Muslim Mosques Around the World, Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, USA, 2008, p. 344 ISBN 1-882494-51-2
[22] Tuvalu | Ethnologue (http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ country/ TV/ languages)
[23] Besnier, Niko (2000). Tuvaluan: A Polynesian Language of the Central Pacific (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=rhjgLnIMeawC&
printsec=frontcover). London: Routledge, ISBN 0-203-02712-4.
[24] Jackson, Geoff and Jackson, Jenny (1999). An introduction to Tuvaluan (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=0T6FBzA4pvUC&
printsec=frontcover). Suva: Oceania Printers, ISBN 982-9027-02-3.
[25] "Sport: Tuvalu make history at Mini Games" (http:/ / www. rnzi. com/ pages/ news. php?op=read& id=78826), Radio New Zealand
International, 3 September 2013
[26] 22 September 2008
[27] Fiji shipping agent, Williams & Gosling (http:/ / www. shipping. com. fj/ ).
[28] "Tuvalu" (http:/ / www. dol. gov/ ilab/ map/ countries/ tuvalu. htm). 2009 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor. Bureau of
International Labor Affairs, U.S. Department of Labor (2002). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
[29] Bureau of Meteorology (1975) Tropical Cyclones in the Northern Australian Regions 19711972 Australian Government Publishing
Service
[30] Hunter, J. A. (2002). Note on Relative Sea Level Change at Funafuti, Tuvalu (http:/ / staff. acecrc. org. au/ ~johunter/ tuvalu. pdf). Retrieved
13 May 2006.
[31] Kingston, P A (2004). Surveillance of Drinking Water Quality in the Pacific Islands: Situation Analysis and Needs Assessment, Country
Reports (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20120111155715/ http:/ / www. wpro. who. int/ NR/ rdonlyres/
C46440CE-2030-47F5-A1BC-14BFA54354FE/ 0/ Tuvalu. pdf). WHO. Retrieved 25 March 2010
[32] SOPAC. 2005. Tuvalu Environmental Vulnerability Index (http:/ / www. vulnerabilityindex. net/ EVI Country Profiles/ TV. pdf).
Retrieved 13 May 2006.
[33] Political Parties Cautious On Tuvalu-Kioa Plan (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20061023191321/ http:/ / www. pacificmagazine. net/ news/
2006/ 02/ 21/ fiji-political-parties-cautious-on-tuvalu-kioa-plan), Pacific Magazine, 21 February 2006.
[34] Kioa relocation not priority: Tuvalu PM (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070211061217/ http:/ / www. tuvaluislands. com/ news/ archives/
2006/ 2006-02-21. htm), Tuvalu Online, 21 February 2006.
[35] http:/ / www. pbs. org/ frontlineworld/ rough/ 2005/ 12/ tuvalu_that_sin_1. html
[36] http:/ / www. thesinkingoftuvalu. com/

384

Tuvalu
[37] http:/ / www. hawaii. edu/ cpis/ psi/ bibliography/ tuvalu. pdf

External links
Tuvalu (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tv.html) entry at The World
Factbook
Tuvalu (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/tuvalu.htm) from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Tuvalu (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Oceania/Tuvalu) at DMOZ
Tuvalu profile (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-16340072) from the BBC News

Wikimedia Atlas of Tuvalu

385

Wallis and Futuna

386

Wallis and Futuna

Territory of the Wallis and Futuna
Islands
Territoire des les Wallis et Futuna
Telituale o Uvea mo Futuna

Flag

Coat of arms

Motto:"Libert, galit, Fraternit"

Anthem:La Marseillaise

Capital
and largest city
Official languages
Vernacular
languages
Ethnicgroups
Demonym
Government
- President of France

Mata-Utu
[1]
1317S 17611W
French

Uvean
Futunan
[2]

Polynesians

Wallisian
Futunan

Overseas collectivity
Franois Hollande

- Administrator Superior Michel Jeanjean

- President of the
Territorial Assembly

Petelo Hanisi

- King of Uvea

Kapiliele Faupala (since 2008)

- King of Alo

vacant (since 2010)

Wallis and Futuna

387
- King of Sigave

Polikalepo Kolivai (since 2010)

Status

- Overseas territory

1959a

- Overseas collectivity

2003
Area

- Total

142.42km2 (211th)
55sqmi

- Water(%)

negligible
Population

- March 2014estimate

15,500 (228th)

- July 2008census

13,484

- Density

57.9/km (125th)
149.9/sqmi

GDP(nominal)

2005estimate

- Total

US$188million (not ranked)

- Per capita

US$12,640 (not ranked)

a.

Currency

CFP franc (XPF)

Time zone

(UTC+12)

Calling code

+681

ISO 3166 code

WF

Internet TLD

.wf

By popular vote.

Wallis and Futuna, officially the Territory of the Wallis and Futuna Islands (French: Wallis et Futuna or
Territoire des les Wallis et Futuna, Fakauvea and Fakafutuna: Uvea mo Futuna), is a French island collectivity in
the South Pacific between Tuvalu to the northwest, Rotuma of Fiji to the west, the main part of Fiji to the southwest,
Tonga to the southeast, Samoa to the east, the New Zealand-associated state of Tokelau to the northeast and to a
more distant north the Phoenix Islands (Kiribati). Wallis and Futuna is not part of French Polynesia, nor even
contiguous with it, as the former are located at the very opposite western end of Polynesia.
Its land area is 264km2 (102sqmi) with a population of about 15,000. Mata-Utu is the capital and biggest city. The
territory is made up of three main volcanic tropical islands along with a number of tiny islets, and is split into two
island groups that lie about 260km (160mi) apart, namely Wallis Islands (Uvea) in the northeast, and Hoorn Islands
(also called the Futuna Islands) in the southwest, including Futuna Island proper and the mostly uninhabited Alofi
Island.
Since 2003 Wallis and Futuna has been a French overseas collectivity (collectivit d'outre-mer, or COM). Between
1961 and 2003, it had the status of a French overseas territory (territoire d'outre-mer, or TOM), though its official
name did not change when the status changed.

Wallis and Futuna

388

Politics
Main article: Politics of Wallis and Futuna
The territory is divided into three traditional kingdoms (royaumes coutumiers): Uvea, on the island of Wallis,
Sigave, on the western part of the island of Futuna, and Alo, on the island of Alofi and on the eastern part of the
island of Futuna (only Uvea is further subdivided, into three districts):
Kingdom
District

Capital

Area
Population
Villages(1)
(km) July 2008 Census

Wallis Island
Uvea (Wallis)

Matutu

77.5

9,227

21

Hihifo ("west")

Vaitupu

23.4

2,203

Hahake ("east")

Matutu

27.8

3,759

Mu'a ("first")

Mala'efo'ou (2)

26.3

3,265

10

Hoorn Islands (Futuna and Alofi)

Sigave (Singave) Leava

30.0

1,591

Alo

Mala'e

85.0

2,666

overall total

Matutu

192.5

13,484

36

(1)

referred to the villages with municipal status

formerly called Mua

(2)

The capital of the collectivity is Matutu on the island of Uva, the most populous of the Wallis Islands. As an
overseas collectivity of France, it is governed under the French constitution of 28 September 1958, and has universal
suffrage for those over 18 years of age. The French president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term; the high
administrator is appointed by the French president on the advice of the French Ministry of the Interior; the presidents
of the Territorial Government and the Territorial Assembly are elected by the members of the assembly.
The head of state is President Franois Hollande of France as represented by the Administrator-Superior Michel
Jeanjean (since July 2010). The President of the Territorial Assembly is Petelo Hanisi since 11 December 2013.[3]
The Council of the Territory consists of three kings (monarchs of the three pre-colonial kingdoms) and three
members appointed by the high administrator on the advice of the Territorial Assembly.
The legislative branch consists of the unicameral Territorial Assembly or Assemble territoriale of 20 seats; the
members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms. Wallis and Futuna elects one senator to the French
Senate and one deputy to the French National Assembly.
Justice is generally administered under French law by a tribunal of first instance in Mata-Utu, but the three
traditional kingdoms administer justice according to customary law (only for non-criminal cases). The court of
appeal is in Nouma, New Caledonia.
The territory participates in the Franc Zone, and as a permanent member of the Secretariat of the Pacific Community
and as an observer of the Pacific Islands Forum.

Wallis and Futuna

History
Although the Dutch and the British
were the European discoverers of the
islands in the 17th and 18th centuries,
it was the French who were the first
Europeans to settle in the territory,
with the arrival of French missionaries
in 1837, who converted the population
to Roman Catholicism. Pierre Chanel,
canonized as a saint in 1954, is a major
Ruins of the Talietumu fort
patron of the island of Futuna and the
region. The Wallis Islands are named after the British explorer, Samuel Wallis. Wikipedia:Citation needed
On 5 April 1842, the missionaries asked for the protection of France after the rebellion of a part of the local
population. On 5 April 1887, the queen of Uvea (on the island of Wallis) signed a treaty officially establishing a
French protectorate. The kings of Sigave and Alo on the islands of Futuna and Alofi also signed a treaty establishing
a French protectorate on 16 February 1888. The islands were put under the authority of the French colony of New
Caledonia.
In 1917, the three traditional kingdoms were annexed to France and turned into the Colony of Wallis and Futuna,
which was still under the authority of the Colony of New Caledonia.Wikipedia:Citation needed
During World War II the island's administration was pro-Vichy until a Free French corvette from New Caledonia
deposed the regime on 26 May 1942. Units of the US Marine Corps landed on Wallis on 29 May 1942.[4]
In 1959, the inhabitants of the islands voted to become a French overseas territory, effective in 1961, thus ending
their subordination to New Caledonia.[5]
In 2005, the 50th king, Tomasi Kulimoetoke II, faced being deposed after giving sanctuary to his grandson who was
convicted of manslaughter. The king claimed his grandson should be judged by tribal law rather than by the French
penal system. There were riots in the streets involving the king's supporters, who were victorious over attempts to
replace the king. Two years later, Tomasi Kulimoetoke died on 7 May 2007. The state was in a six-month period of
mourning. During this period, mentioning a successor was forbidden. On 25 July 2008, Kapiliele Faupala was
installed as king despite protests from some of the royal clans.

389

Wallis and Futuna

390

Geography
Wallis and Futuna is located about
two-thirds of the way from Hawaii to
New Zealand, at 1318S 17612W
[6]
Coordinates: 1318S 17612W [6],
(225mi west of Samoa and 300mi
(480km) north-east of Fiji).
The territory includes the island of Uva
(the most populous), the island of Futuna,
the essentially uninhabited island of Alofi
(the population of Alofi was reportedly
eaten by the cannibal people of Futuna in
one single raid in the 19th century), and
20 uninhabited islets, totaling 274 square
kilometres (106sqmi) with 129
kilometres (80mi) of coastline. The
highest point in the territory is Mont Puke
(on the island of Futuna) at 524 metres
(1,719ft).

Map of the territory of Wallis and Futuna

The islands have a hot, rainy season from

November to April with associated storms
caused by the passage of tropical cyclones
over the islands. There is a cool, dry
season from May to October caused by
the predominance of the south-east trade
winds during this time. Average annual
Lake Lalolalo on Uvea
rainfall is 2,500 to 3,000 millimetres
(98118in) with rainfall likely on at least
260 days each year. The average humidity is 80% and the average temperature is 26.6C (79.9F), rarely falling
below 24.0C (75.2F) and ranging between 28.0C (82.4F) and 32.0C (89.6F) during the rainy season.
Only five percent of the islands' land area is arable land; permanent crops cover another 20%. Deforestation (only
small portions of the original forests remain), largely as a result of the continued use of wood as the main fuel
source, is a serious problem; as a consequence of cutting down the forests, the mountainous terrain of Futuna is
particularly prone to erosion. There are no permanent settlements on Alofi because of the lack of natural fresh water
resources.

Table of Islands

Wallis and Futuna

Island

391

Capital

Other Cities

Wallis and Futuna

Mata-Utu

Leava, Vaitupu, Alele, Liku, Falaleu, Utufua

Hoorn Islands

Leava

Alofi Island

Area(km) Population
142.42

15500

Fiua, Nuku, Taoa, Malae, Ono, Vele

64.1

4591

Alofitai

Mua, Saavaka, Gaino, Sologa

17.8

Futuna (Wallis and

Futuna)

Leava

Toloke, Fiua, Vaisei, Nuku, Taoa, Malae, Kolopelu, Ono, Kolia, Vele,
Kolotai, Laloua, Poi, Tamana, Tuatafa, Tavai

46.3

4589

Other

Somalama

Iles Wallis

Mata-Utu

Vaitupu, Alele, Liku, Falaleu, Utufua, Malaefoou

78.32

10909

Faioa

Fakaafu

Pointe Pagaga, Matakaviki, Lalofetau

0.68

Fenuafoou

Fenuafoou

0.03

0.18

0.03

0.18

Fugalei
Ilot St. Christophe

Chappel St.
Christophe

Luaniva
Nukuatea

Paagogo

0.74

Nukufotu

ile aux oiseaux

0.04

Nukuhifala

Nukuhifala

0.067

Nukuhione

Nukuhione

0.02

Nukuloa

Nukuloa

0.35

10

Nukutapu

Nukutapu

0.05

Nukuteatea

Chapelle

0.1

Other

Nukuato

0.043

Tekaviki

Tekaviki chappele

0.01

Wallis (island)

Mata-Utu

75.8

10895

142.42

15500

Nukufetao, Nukulaelae

Vaitupu, Alele, Liku, Falaleu, Utufua, Malaefoou

Other
Wallis and Futuna

Mata-Utu

Leava, Vaitupu, Alele, Liku, Falaleu, Utufua

Economy
Main article: Economy of Wallis and Futuna
The GDP of Wallis and Futuna in 2005 was 188 million US dollars at market exchange rates. The territory's
economy is limited to traditional subsistence agriculture, with about 80% of the labor force earning its livelihood
from agriculture (coconuts and vegetables), livestock (mostly pigs), and fishing. About 4% of the population is
employed in government. Revenues come from French government subsidies, licensing of fishing rights to Japan and
South Korea, import taxes, and remittances from expatriate workers in New Caledonia, French Polynesia and France.
Industries include copra, handicrafts, fishing, and lumber. In 1991, BNP Nouvelle-Caldonie, a subsidiary of BNP
Paribas, established a subsidiary, Banque de Wallis et Futuna, which currently is the only bank in the territory. Two
years earlier Banque Indosuez had closed the branch at Mata-Utu that it had opened in 1977, leaving the territory
without any bank.

Wallis and Futuna

392

Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Wallis and
Futuna
The total population of the territory at the
July 2008 census was 13,484 (68.4% on the
island of Wallis, 31.6% on the island of
Futuna), down from 14,944 at the July 2003
census. The vast majority of the population
are of Polynesian ethnicity, with a small
minority of Metropolitan French descent
and/or native-born whites of French descent.
More than 16,000 Wallisians and Futunians
live as expatriates in New Caledonia, which
is more than the total population of Wallis
and Futuna. The overwhelming majority of
the people in Wallis and Futuna are Catholic.

Unofficial but commonly used flag

Languages
Further information: Wallisian language and Futunan language
At the 2008 census, among the population whose age was 14 and older, 60.2% of people reported that the language
they speak the most at home is Wallisian, 29.9% reported that the language they speak the most at home is Futunan,
and 9.7% reported that the language they speak the most at home is French. On Wallis Island, the languages most
spoken at home were Wallisian (86.1%), French (12.1%), and Futunan (1.5%). On Futuna, the languages most
spoken at home were Futunan (94.9%), French (4.2%), and Wallisian (0.8%).
At the same 2008 census, 88.5% of people whose age was 14 or older reported that they could speak, read and write
either Wallisian or Futunan, whereas 7.2% reported that they had no knowledge of either Wallisian or Futunan.
78.2% of people whose age was 14 or older reported that they could speak, read and write French, whereas 17.3%
reported that they had no knowledge of French. On Wallis Island, 81.1% of people whose age was 14 or older
reported that they could speak, read and write French, whereas 14.3% reported that they had no knowledge of
French. On Futuna, 71.6% of people whose age was 14 or older reported that they could speak, read and write
French, whereas 24.3% reported that they had no knowledge of French.

Historical population
1969

1976

1983

1990

1996

2003

2008

8,546 9,192 12,408 13,705 14,166 14,944 13,484

Official figures from past censuses.

Culture
Main article: Culture of Wallis and Futuna
The culture of Wallis and Futuna is Polynesian, and is very similar to the cultures of its neighbouring nations Samoa
and Tonga. The Wallisian and Futunan cultures share very similar components in language, dance, cuisine and
modes of celebration.

Wallis and Futuna

Fishing and agriculture are the traditional practices and most people live in traditional fate houses in an oval shape
made of thatch. Kava, as with many Polynesian islands, is a popular beverage brewed in the two islands, and is a
traditional offering in rituals. Highly detailed tapa cloth art is a specialty of Wallis and Futuna.

Transport and communications

In 1994, the territory had 1,125 telephones in use, had one AM radio station, and two television broadcast stations.
Communication costs are high, costing up to ten times as much as western countries. The island of Wallis has about
100 kilometres (62mi) of highway, of which 16 are paved, while the island of Futuna has only 20 kilometres
(12mi), none paved. The territory has two main ports and harbours, Mata-Utu and Leava (on the island of Futuna),
that support its merchant marine fleet consisting of three ships (two passenger ships and a petroleum tanker), totaling
92,060 GRT or 45,881 tonnes. There are two airports, one on Wallis with a paved runway of 2.1 kilometres (1.3mi),
and one on Futuna with a 1 kilometre (0.62mi) unpaved strip. New Caledonia-based Aircalin operates the only
commercial flights that go to Wallis, where it has an office in Mata-Utu. There are no commercial boat operators.

Miscellaneous
The territory's data code and country code (top level Internet domain) is .wf. Currently this is suspended in favor of
the .fr and .nc (Nouvelle Caldonie) data code.

References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]

http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Wallis_and_Futuna& params=13_17_S_176_11_W_type:country

World factbook: Wallis and Futuna (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ wf. html)
Wallis and Futuna (http:/ / rulers. org/ rulvw. html#wallis_and_futuna) Rulers.org
p.213 Rottman, Gordon L. U.S. Marine Corps World War II Order of Battle: Ground and Air Units in the Pacific War, 1939-1945
Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002
[5] http:/ / www. infoplease. com/ ipa/ A0107555. html
[6] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Wallis_and_Futuna& params=13_18_S_176_12_W_type:isle

External links
Great content source about Wallis and Futuna (http://www.lesilesrevees.com/) (French)
Official website of the French Administrateur suprieur de Wallis et Futuna (http://www.wallis-et-futuna.pref.
gouv.fr/) (French)
Wallis and Futuna (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/wf.html) entry at The
World Factbook
Wallis and Futuna (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/wallisfutuna.htm) from UB Libraries
GovPubs
Wallis and Futuna (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Oceania/Wallis_and_Futuna) at DMOZ

Wikimedia Atlas of Wallis and Futuna

Map of Wallis and Futuna, with district boundaries (http://www.outre-mer.gouv.fr/outremer/galerie/
WallisetFutuna/carte_WF.gif)
Information about Wallis and Futuna (http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/pacifique/wallis-futuna.htm) (French)
Pictures of Wallis (http://www.photos-nouvelle-caledonie.com/v/wallis-futuna/) (French)

393

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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

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en.wikipedia
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Bonriki International Airport.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bonriki_International_Airport.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors:
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File:Marshall Islands on the globe (small islands magnified) (Polynesia centered).svg Source:
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Contributors: TUBS
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Corps Photograph, Graflex-Made. Donated by Joseph Garofalo - 121st Seabees, 4th Marine Division.. Original uploader was Kevin Saff at en.wikipedia
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File:Marshallese Rito Fans.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Marshallese_Rito_Fans.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Angela K. Kepler
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File:Nauru Island under attack by Liberator bombers of the Seventh Air Force..jpg Source:
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Edmund G. Love
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Department of the Interior
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Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
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uploader was Randyqs at en.wikipedia
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States Air Force
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

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File:F 2 070 182 Uk Uni grinding stone 1957 Myer's plantation, Samoa.jpg Source:
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Scanlan, Telim tor
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File:American Samoa Highway 001.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:American_Samoa_Highway_001.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Imzadi1979
File:Cook Islands on the globe (Polynesia centered).svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cook_Islands_on_the_globe_(Polynesia_centered).svg License: Creative
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Image:Wyspy Cooka.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wyspy_Cooka.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Aotearoa
Image:rarotonga beach.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rarotonga_beach.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User Tristanb on
en.wikipedia
Image:Parliament of the Cook Islands - 2006.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Parliament_of_the_Cook_Islands_-_2006.JPG License: Creative Commons
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File:Aitutakitopo.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aitutakitopo.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Nevers
File:Aitutaki Aerial.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aitutaki_Aerial.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Aotearoa, Cqdx
File:Mangaia english version.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mangaia_english_version.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Nevers
File:Mangaia (Correct Orientation).JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mangaia_(Correct_Orientation).JPG License: unknown Contributors: NASA
File:Atiumap.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Atiumap.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Nevers
File:Atiu Aerial.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Atiu_Aerial.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: JMPerez, Juiced lemon
File:Mauke map.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mauke_map.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Mr Minton from San Diego, US
File:Mauke Aerial.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mauke_Aerial.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Aotearoa
File:Mitiaro Island map.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mitiaro_Island_map.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: EVS-Islands
File:Mitiaro Aerial.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mitiaro_Aerial.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Aotearoa
File:Manihiki.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Manihiki.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: US Army
File:Manihiki Aerial.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Manihiki_Aerial.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Aotearoa, Juiced lemon
File:Penrhyn.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Penrhyn.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Nevers
File:Penhryn atoll.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Penhryn_atoll.jpg License: unknown Contributors: NASA
File:Rakahanga.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rakahanga.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: US Army
File:ISS002-E-10047rakahanga.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ISS002-E-10047rakahanga.jpg License: unknown Contributors: NASA. Original uploader was
Mohonu at en.wikipedia
File:Pukapuka.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pukapuka.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Nevers
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Palmerston Island map.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Palmerston_Island_map.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: EVS-Islands
File:Palmerston Aerial.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Palmerston_Aerial.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA
File:Rarotopo.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rarotopo.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Nevers
Image:Rarotonga-8-Maeva-Nui.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rarotonga-8-Maeva-Nui.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported
Contributors: Ian Sewell
File:Cook Islands carved wood figure, British Museum.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cook_Islands_carved_wood_figure,_British_Museum.jpg License: Public
Domain Contributors: Afrodita nz, Foroa, 1 anonymous edits
File:Tiar tahiti.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tiar_tahiti.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Ayacop, Hardscarf, Ies, Kilom691,
Vilallonga
File:Logotipo de la Gobernacin de Isla de Pascua.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Logotipo_de_la_Gobernacin_de_Isla_de_Pascua.svg License: unknown
Contributors: Kall
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File:Easter Island map-en.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Easter_Island_map-en.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Eric
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File:Moai Rano raraku.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moai_Rano_raraku.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Aurbina
File:Hodges easter-island.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hodges_easter-island.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dmitry Rozhkov, Millevache, Sebastian
Nizan, Telim tor, WereSpielChequers
File:Rano-Kau-2b-Birdman-Cult.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rano-Kau-2b-Birdman-Cult.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0
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File:Queen of Easter Island meets Pinart in 1877.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Queen_of_Easter_Island_meets_Pinart_in_1877.jpg License: unknown
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File:General Pinochet junto a una pascuense.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:General_Pinochet_junto_a_una_pascuense.jpg License: unknown Contributors:
Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional de Chile
File:Easter island and south america.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Easter_island_and_south_america.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original
uploader was Pascal at en.wikipedia
File:Rapa-Nui-Landscape.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rapa-Nui-Landscape.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
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File:RapaNui L7 03jan01.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RapaNui_L7_03jan01.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Jesse Allen, NASA Earth Observatory,
using data obtained from the University of Marylands Global Land Cover Facility.
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File:Pano Anakena beach.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pano_Anakena_beach.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Rivi
File:Magnify-clip.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magnify-clip.png License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Erasoft24
File:Easter Island cave.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Easter_Island_cave.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Angr, Attilios, Csernica, Lightdarkness,
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Unported Contributors: Ian Sewell
File:Rongo-rongo script.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rongo-rongo_script.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Kwamikagami
File:Skeletal easter island statue.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Skeletal_easter_island_statue.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: WereSpielChequers
File:Fat wooden Moai.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fat_wooden_Moai.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
WereSpielChequers
File:Ancestor Figure (moai kavakava) LACMA M.2008.66.6 (2 of 3).jpg Source:
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File:TAMURE.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TAMURE.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: Lufke
File:HangaroaAlcalda.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HangaroaAlcalda.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Torbenbrinker
File:EasterIslandsFishingBoats.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:EasterIslandsFishingBoats.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors:
www.viajar24h.com
File:Hanga Roa Catholic Church exterior 1.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hanga_Roa_Catholic_Church_exterior_1.JPG License: Creative Commons
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File:Coat of arms of French Polynesia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coat_of_arms_of_French_Polynesia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: PavelD
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File:French Polynesia.pdf Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:French_Polynesia.pdf License: Public Domain Contributors: United Nations General Assembly
File:Floreal-Bora-Bora.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Floreal-Bora-Bora.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Gaetano56, Grand-Duc, Illegitimate Barrister,
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Tahitiennes en robe mission.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tahitiennes_en_robe_mission.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Non identifi Unknown
File:TuamotuCemetery.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TuamotuCemetery.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: www.viajar24h.com
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Contributors: User:Clindberg, User:Sodacan
File:Hawaii in United States (zoom) (US50) (-grid).svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hawaii_in_United_States_(zoom)_(US50)_(-grid).svg License: Public Domain
Contributors: TUBS
File:HI-66.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HI-66.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: TwinsMetsFan
File:2008 HI Proof.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2008_HI_Proof.png License: Public Domain Contributors: United States Mint
File:ISS038-E-032755 lrg.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ISS038-E-032755_lrg.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Fotaun, Sfan00 IMG
File:Akaka Falls Hawaii.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Akaka_Falls_Hawaii.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: (Intentionally left blank
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File:Hawaje-NoRedLine.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hawaje-NoRedLine.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Palladinus
File:Kauai04.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kauai04.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Julius Silver
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File:Silversword.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Silversword.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Medicaster40
Image:Strae nach Hana.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Strae_nach_Hana.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Hakilon
File:King Kalaniopuu Greeting Cook 1781.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:King_Kalaniopuu_Greeting_Cook_1781.png License: Public Domain Contributors:
John Webber (1751-1793). From: Cook, J. A voyage to the Pacific Ocean ...(London, Strahan, 1784). Atlas. Plate 61
File:Entrevue de l'expedition de M. Kotzebue avec le roi Tammeamea dans l'ile d'Ovayhi, Iles Sandwich (detailed).jpg Source:
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File:USS Boston landing force, 1893 (PP-36-3-002).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:USS_Boston_landing_force,_1893_(PP-36-3-002).jpg License: Public Domain
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File:Iolani Palace (1328).JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Iolani_Palace_(1328).JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Jiang
Image:US Shaw exploding in Pearl Harbor.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:US_Shaw_exploding_in_Pearl_Harbor.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: U.S.
Navy (photo 80-G-16871), Naval Historical Center photo NH 86118
File:Hawaiivotesinset.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hawaiivotesinset.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: J.delanoy, Monkeybait, Mrdthree, Rettetast, 2
anonymous edits
File:Hawaii population map.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hawaii_population_map.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original
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File:Portuguese immigrant family in Hawaii during the 19th century.jpg Source:
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File:Early Japanese immigrants to Hawaii.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Early_Japanese_immigrants_to_Hawaii.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: not
given
File:International Mkt Place, Hawaii, 1958.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:International_Mkt_Place,_Hawaii,_1958.JPG License: Creative Commons Zero
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File:Makiki Christian Church, Honolulu.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Makiki_Christian_Church,_Honolulu.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Father of
JGKlein, used with permission
File:Punaluu Beach Park, Big Island, Hawaii.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Punaluu_Beach_Park,_Big_Island,_Hawaii.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation
License Contributors: Dcoetzee, Julius07, Look2See1, Poco a poco, Telim tor, Toutorx
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File:Dockhawaii.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dockhawaii.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Angela2109
File:Bonnaroo08 jackjohnson2 lg.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bonnaroo08_jackjohnson2_lg.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: Josh Rhinehart
File:Arizona Memorial at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Arizona_Memorial_at_Pearl_Harbor,_Hawaii.JPG License: Creative Commons
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File:Ethnologisches Museum Dahlem Berlin Mai 2006 009.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ethnologisches_Museum_Dahlem_Berlin_Mai_2006_009.jpg License:
Public Domain Contributors: Gryffindor
File:Tahiti-Oro.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tahiti-Oro.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: American at de.wikipedia
File:University of Hawaii at Hilo.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:University_of_Hawaii_at_Hilo.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
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File:Hawaii State Capitol.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hawaii_State_Capitol.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Sullynyflhi
File:US Federal Court Oahu Hawaii Photo D Ramey Logan.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:US_Federal_Court_Oahu_Hawaii_Photo_D_Ramey_Logan.JPG
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Image:Brian Schatz, official portrait, 113th Congress.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brian_Schatz,_official_portrait,_113th_Congress.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: United States Senate
Image:HonoluluAirportWelcomeSign.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HonoluluAirportWelcomeSign.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0
Contributors: hellochris
File:Niihau sep 2007.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Niihau_sep_2007.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors:
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Telim tor, (Searobin)
File:Island of Oahu - Landsat mosaic.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Island_of_Oahu_-_Landsat_mosaic.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Hawaii Land
Cover Analysis project, NOAA Coastal Services Center
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File:Molokai.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Molokai.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Earth Sciences and Image Analysis, NASA-Johnson Space Center
File:LanaiLandsat.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LanaiLandsat.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Landsat satellite image from NASA
File:KahoolaweLandsat.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KahoolaweLandsat.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Landsat satellite image from NASA
File:Island of Hawai'i - Landsat mosaic.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Island_of_Hawai'i_-_Landsat_mosaic.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Hawaii
Land Cover Analysis project, NOAA Coastal Services Center
File:Openstreetmap logo.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Openstreetmap_logo.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors:
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Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: TUBS

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File:Inside.Church,Niue,Thomas Andrew 1896.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Inside.Church,Niue,Thomas_Andrew_1896.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: Thomas Andrew (18551939)
Image:CoralChasminNiue.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CoralChasminNiue.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: fearlessRich
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