Chemistry L5 Revision Notes:

Moles-
A mole is equal to 6.02X10
23.
This is Avogadros constant. In basic terms it
means, One mole of an atom or molecule will ALWAYS equal 6.023x10^23
units of that atom or molecule. This is related to the atomic weight of the
atom (or molecule) because the atomic weight is the number of grams in
one mole. Since carbon's atomic weight is 12, we know that one mole of
carbon (12 grams) will always contain 6.023x10^23 atoms of carbon.
Similarly, since oxygen's atomic weight is 16, we know that one mole of
oxygen (16 grams) will always contain 6.023x10^23 atoms of oxygen.

Molar mass=sum of all atomic numbers (atomic number e.g. oxygen = 16)
Mass=Moles*relative atomic mass
Moles=mass/relative atomic mass
Relative atomic mass= mass/moles
For gases- One mole of gas= 24000cm
3






Bonding-
Ionic Bonding:
Ions always need to have a full outer shell.
When an element is oxidized, it has lost electrons and it is positively
charged. When it has been reduced it has gained electrons,
negatively charged.
Depending on how many electrons it has gained or lost determines
what number of charge it has. E.g. Aluminium looses 2 electrons, it
is positively 2 charged.
Sometimes one atom of the element isnt enough. You need to get
the right amount of the atoms to fill out all of the outer shell. E.g.
NaO needs to be changed to Na2O because oxygen needs 2 electrons
on the outer shell and 1 Na atom can only supply 1 electron, so 2 is
needed.
When an atom goes through ionic bonding it turns into an ion.
Ionic bond only occur between two oppositely charged ions caused
be electron transfer. This makes the bond hard to break apart which
increases the melting and boiling points. And the higher the
electrostatic charge between the ions, (the more + charge or
charge they have) the greater the melting point or boiling point will
be.
An ionic crystal is a giant three-dimensional
lattice structure held together by the
attraction between oppositely charged ions.
Sodium chloride crystal-


Covalent Bonding:
Covalent bonds is caused by sharing a pair of
electrons between two atoms. These are strong attractions between
the bonding pair of electrons and nucleus.
Double bonds, or greater can occur when two or three covalent
bonds occur between the same two atoms.
Non-metal form these bonds with other non-metals, and only when
two atoms of the same element form a covalent bond are the shared
electrons actually shared equally (e.g. Cl2). When atoms of different
elements share electrons, the electrons are drawn more toward the
atom with the higher electronegativity, as in HCl. The result is a
polar covalent bond.
Diamond and graphite are giant covalent structures. Graphite can
conduct electricity and layers move over each other easily, diamond
doesnt react with anything and it is the strongest natural material.






Metallic Bonding:
When metallic bonding happens, the metal donates the electrons on
the outer shell to a sea of delocalized electrons.
They are electrical conductors because electrons can move around
them freely.
They are malleable because there is nothing keeping the ions in
place and can be easily/hard to push.

Formulae of Ionic compounds-




Periodic Table-

Oxygen and Oxides:
Gases present in air= 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen 0.04% Carbon
dioxide, and rest in gases.
Test for percentage of oxygen in air- whilst putting a flame under
the copper filings we pressed the air (100cm
3
) through it multiple
times until all the copper filings turned black. This meant the copper
oxidized and then the oxygen out the of air would have been gone
and so whatever is left is the air. Deduct the loss from the original
and you will get the percentage of oxygen in air.
Making oxygen- manganese oxide is put in with water and then
hydrogen peroxide is dropped into that mixture and from this you
will get oxygen gas, which can then be collected in a glass jar.
Magnesium with oxygen Dazzlingly bright light (alkaline)
Sulfur with oxygenBright blue flame (acid)
Carbon with oxygenFlame gets bigger (acid)
Making carbon dioxide- Mix a carbonate with an acid salt + water
+ carbon dioxide.
Thermal decomposition of a carbonate- Carbonate + (heat)
Carbon dioxide + something else. E.g. CuCO3 + (heat) CuO + CO2
Carbon dioxide is soluble in
water but the greater pressure or lower temperature, the more
soluble it becomes.
Carbon dioxide is soluble in carbonates drinks, that why it is used.
Carbon dioxide captures the suns heat and heats the planet, hence it
add greater change to the climate.

Hydrogen and water-
When acid react with metals such as aluminum, zinc, iron and
magnesium, it form metal chloride or Sulphate or nitrate +
hydrogen. When these metal react with acids they start to fizz,
which is the hydrogen gas being given off, and some fizz more
vigorously than others because of how reactive they are.
The combustion of hydrogen is H2+O2H2O. It makes water, but in a
vapor form.
Test for water- Put anhydrous copper Sulphate (white) with
water Anhydrous copper Sulphate.Water (Blue)
Test for pure water- if it is pure water then it will boil at 100
degrees Celsius.

Periodic Table-
A period is a row of elements and a group is a column to elements.
Position of metals and non-
metals:
Metals are all conductors. Metals form metal-oxides, which are
alkaline. Nonmetals don't conduct. They form nonmetal-oxides,
which are acidic.
Elements in the same group have the same number of electrons on
their outer shell. This means they will behave in a similar way; they
will react and bond similarly.
Nobel gasses are inert, this means they do not react. The reason for
this is because they are stable: meaning they have a full outer shell,
so they do not need to loose or gain electrons.

Organics-

Crude oils-
Crude oil contains different molecules made only of hydrogen and
carbon.
Crude oil is heated until it boils. As a gas it floats upwards. As the
gas goes higher up and further from the heat source the
temperature decreases. When a compound reaches it condensing
point it will condense into a liquid and be collected. This is known as
fractional distillation, and groups with similar condensing
temperatures are known as fractions; each fraction is a different
substance.
Names and uses of
main fractions
obtained from crude
oil.










Fractions with low
boiling points are less viscous. And fractions with high boiling
points are more viscous.
Hydrocarbons (from crude oil) + oxygen > carbon dioxide + water.
Unless there is not enough oxygen around. Then fuels will combust
incompletely: Hydrocarbons + oxygen > carbon monoxide +
carbon + water. Carbon monoxide combines with hemoglobin in red
blood cells, meaning they can't carry oxygen around the body.
In car engines there is a high enough temperature to cause a
reaction between oxygen and nitrogen in the air.
NO and SO2 are given off into the atmosphere by some industrial
processes. When they are in the atmosphere they react with
rainwater to create H+ ions. When the rain falls the acid can corrode
rocks and buildings. Acid can also alter the PH in soil or rivers,
which can affect an ecosystem.
Long chain hydrocarbons are less flammable and more viscous.
Short chain hydrocarbons burn well and flow well. Long chains of
hydrocarbons are broken down into smaller chains of hydrocarbons
by cracking.
Long chain hydrocarbons are passed over a hot catalyst (silica or
alumina at 600-700 degrees) this causes them to break down into
smaller molecules. As some atoms are lost from molecules, they
become unsaturated and can therefore from a double bond. This is
how you get alkenes from the process as well as shorter chain
alkanes.

Polymers-
Monomers are alkenes with a double bond. If this bond is broken
there can be other things bonded, if a carbon from another
monomer is bonded in then you can create a chain; do this many
times can you have a polymer.
Repeat units of addition polymers-

A monomer that is repeated in a polymer looks much like the repeat
unit; apart from, instead of having an empty bond either end, it has
a double bond in the middle.
Polyethene: plastic carrier bags; plastic bottles
Polypropene: crates; ropes
Polychlroethene: piping, cable insulation.
Polymers are saturated so they don't react. This means they don't
decompose easily.
Two monomers join together when they loose a small molecule
made up of atoms from both monomers. Commonly, an H atom from
one and an OH molecule from the other form water (hence
condensation reaction) and the two monomers become joined, also
making water. E.g.

Two monomers come together by loosing a molecule. Atoms from
each monomer join together to make the molecule: commonly an H
atom from one and an OH molecule from another form water. The
two monomers then join together, making a polymer.

Alkanes, Alkenes and ethanol-
A homologous series is a series of organic compounds with a similar
general formula, and similar chemical properties. Saturated are
alkanes (single bond) and unsaturated are alkenes (double bond).

Alkanes-
Alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2.

Complete combustion of alkanes gives carbon dioxide and water.
Incomplete combustion gives carbon monoxide and water.
In UV light bromine and methane will form bromomethane:
CH4 + Br2 CH3Br + HBr
What has happened in this reaction is a bromine has taken the place
of a hydrogen (substitution.)

Alkenes-
Alkenes have the general formula CnH2n
Displayed formulae-












An alkene will make its double bond into a single bond, to bond to
two bromines. Bromine is added to the molecule. The product made
is colourless. When alkenes are put in bromine water it turns from
brown to colourless (a good way of testing for alkenes.)

Ethanol-
The manufacture of ethanol happens by passing ethene and steam
over a phosphoric acid catalyst at a temperature of about 300C and
a pressure of about 6070 atm (atmospheric pressure).
Ethanol can be made by the anaerobic respiration of
microorganisms. Glucose > ethanol + carbon dioxide. This happens
at 30 degrees. This is called fermentation.
Fermentation (Factors).
1. Cane sugar widely available/ cheap/ renewable
2. Slow process
3. Impurities in the product
4. Done in batches

Hydrating (ethene and steam) (Factors).
1. Crude oil (cracked to make ethene) expensive/ non-renewable
2. Fast process
3. Pure product
4. Continuous reaction


Rates of reactions-
Surface area

1. Put a set mass of magnesium in hydrochloric acid
2. Time the reaction
3. Change the from of magnesium keeping the mass the same (powder,
wire, strips)
4. The more surface area (the smaller the pieces of magnesium) the
faster the reaction
Particle theory- Particles collide more frequently if there is more surface
area, as there is more contact between the reactants. Faster rate of
reaction.

Concentration

1. Put a set mass of marble chips into dilute hydrochloric acid
2. Time the reaction
3. Change the ratio of water to hydrochloric acid
4. The more concentrated the hydrochloric acid (the lower the ratio of
water) the faster the reaction
Particle theory- There is more chance of particles colliding at a
higher concentration/pressure, so they react more often. Faster rate of
reaction.

Temperature

1. Put a set mass of magnesium powder into a set mass of hydrochloric
acid
2. Time the reaction
3. Carry out this reaction at different temperatures
4. The higher the temperature the faster the rate of reaction
Particle theory- Particles move about more and will collide more
frequently the higher the temperature they react more often. Increases the
rate of reaction.

Catalyst

1. If you have hydrogen peroxide it will not decompose
2. If you put it with manganese dioxide it will decompose into water
and oxygen
3. The manganese dioxide will be unaltered by the reaction
4. The more of the catalyst the faster the reaction
Particle theory- Provides an alternative pathway for the reaction to start,
which requires a lower activation energy.
Activation energy is the amount of energy needed to make a
reaction happen. Catalyst speed this up by lowering the amount of
activation energy, by finding an alternate route, which is quicker.