INTRODUCTION

Administration and management are twin concepts. Management is the act of handling or
controlling something successfully. It is a process; it involves planning, organizing, coordinating
and controlling. It is the job of getting things done through the efforts of other people. It is a
sequence of coordinated events.
Administration in the other hand is the eecution of public affairs as distinguished from
policy!ma"ing. It is solely concerned with the implementation of policies and mobilizing the
efforts of people towards the achievement of a common goal. It is an art and science of carefully
and systematically arranging the resources available to an organization for the attainment of their
basic goals. It equally means process of wor"ing with and through others to efficiently
accomplish organizational goals. #he fundamental purpose of administration in any organization
is that of coordinating the efforts of people towards the achievement of its goals.
As an introduction, I have concisely defined administration and management. $ow I want
to eamine, as a part of the course% principles of administration and management, the various
techniques of decision ma"ing, their characteristic features, their strength and their wea"nesses.
&efore I proceed to the proposed wor" of this paper, it is of importance that clarify concepts that
are going to be used in this wor", thereby before the major wor", I propose to ma"e a conceptual
clarification of the terms am going to use.
CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATION
TECHNIQUES: this refers to the procedure, s"ill, or art used in a specific tas". It is a
s"ill with which someone is able to something practically in a pragmatic way. #he manner of
treating a technical detail; it is a method of accomplishing a desired aim. GROUP: this refers to
a number of people that are connected in a way, sharing something in common such as interest,
belief, or political aim. It also refers to a number of people that are together as a unity; a number
of individuals assembled together or having some unifying relationship. 'obbins ()**+, defined
a group as two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to
achieve particular objectives. DECISION: this is a choice or judgment made after a thought
about what is the best thing to be done. It is a choice after considering it in comparison with
other choices. DECISION MAKING: this is a process of deciding about important issues in a
group of people or in an association. It is a process of ma"ing choices and reaching conclusion.
-roup decision ma"ing is a type of participatory process in which multiple individuals acting
collectively, analyze problems or situations, consider and evaluate alternative courses of action,
and select from among the alternatives a solution or solutions. .ecision ma"ing is an essential
part of planning; they are used in management functions.
As I have clarified conceptually the meaning of different terms in what my concern is in
this wor", I propose to proceed to the major concern of this paper which is to eamine the
various techniques of decision ma"ing in a group, their characteristic features, their strengths and
their wea"nesses, but before this, let me epose the problems of decision ma"ing.
PROBLEMS OF DECISION MAKING
Ma"ing decisions within a group can often be challenging. /hen things go well, they can
go very well. 0owever, when things go wrong, you can end up mired in conflict. 1ome people
may fight for recognition and position; others may be over!critical or disruptive, while others
may sit quietly and not contribute anything to the overall effort. &ecause of this, groups often
spin out of control and ma"e worse decisions than individuals wor"ing on their own.
'esearch on group decision ma"ing has identified several problems that often lead to
ineffective decisions. In some in! stances, for eample, group communication may be limited
because members who are shy, lac" communication s"ills, or are dominated by other group
members may not communicate their ideas (2ohnson 3 2ohnson, )*+4, p. *),. #hese limitations
can lead to the inefficient or incomplete use of information that could be relevant to the group5s
decision.
&ecause of the problems inherent in decision ma"ing, there are techniques of decision
ma"ing evolved in order to and in an attempt to ma"e an effective decision. I am now going to
discuss the most important techniques of decision ma"ing.
TECHNIQUES OF DECISION MAKING
.ecision ma"ing in groups are made by committees, teams or groups and not by an
individual. It is solely one of the major things that "eep a group alive, moving and progressing so
it requires much care, it is delicate and must be ta"en care of so that a group can continue in a
mutual understanding and "eep on progressing without confusions, quarrels or disputes.
All groups find that much of their responsibilities center around eploring various options
related to issues for the organization and ma"ing decisions that provide direction for the group;
-enerating ideas, understanding each option and the impact it would have on the decision,
ma"ing choices and setting priorities.
In order to retain the unity and mutual understanding of a group in decision ma"ing, the
tas" of ma"ing decisions for a group is always entrusted to a committee or team in order to ma"e
sure that the views of every member of the group is considered in ma"ing decisions for the
welfare of the group; decision ma"ing in group organizations is not left to an individual.
In order to ma"e a right and proper decision in group organizations, thereby avoiding
regrets in the long run, there are techniques employed in decision ma"ing, to ensure that choices
are rightly made and also to guarantee that things are "ept in their place in order. #he techniques
of decision ma"ing in group organizations includes% Brainstorming Nomina! gro"#ing D$!#%i
t$&%ni'"$ Cons$ns"s ma##ing an( Dia!$&ti&a! in'"ir)*
.ecision ma"ing techniques are tools used in analyzing and prioritizing issues for
assessment in order to ma"e right choices for a group. #hese techniques describes tools that can
be helpful in ensuring that issues are given due consideration in a participatory decision!ma"ing
process. #here are many methods or procedures that can be used by groups. 6ach is designed to
improve the decision!ma"ing process in some way. 2ust as I proposed when I was introducing
this paper, I now proceed to eamining them in details one after the other, eposing their
characteristic features, their strengths and their wea"nesses.
BRAINSTORMING
#his is a group problem!solving technique that involves the spontaneous contribution of
ideas from all members of the group. It is the mulling over of ideas by two or more individuals in
an attempt to devise or find a solution to a problem. It refers to the sure way of ma"ing a group
of people to have thoughts, in order to solve a problem or create an idea. #his is the act of
ma"ing different individuals crac" their brains and bring out ideas for a specific purpose, towards
the achievement of a goal that is common to them as a group, organization, or an association.
#his is an act of generating spontaneous ideas, usually for problem!solving in an intensive group
discussion.
#his technique involves group members verbally suggesting ideas or alternative courses
of action. &rainstorming is a useful means by which alternatives are generated, but it does not
have much to offer in the evaluation of alternatives or the selection of a proposed course of
action.
CHARACTERISTICS OF BRAINSTORMING
It involves all the group members.
It involves verbal suggestion of ideas.
AD+ANTAGES OF BRAINSTORMING
It brings out the creativity in group members.
It also fosters the unity of a group.
It can also help to bring out the assertiveness in group members.
DISAD+ANTAGES OF BRAINSTORMING TECHNIQUE OF DECISION MAKING
7ne of the difficulties with brainstorming is that despite the prohibitions with regards to
judging ideas before all group members have given their own opinions, some individuals
are timid in proposing ideas because they fear the harsh judgment or ridicule of other
group members.
NOMINAL GROUPING
#he nominal group technique is a structured decision ma"ing process in which group
members are required to compose a comprehensive list of their ideas or proposed alternatives in
writing. In this technique, ideas of group members are usually recorded separately, and verbal
echanges are limited and allowed only on requests for clarification; no evaluation or criticism of
listed ideas is permitted.
#he nominal group technique is used to engage in consensus planning in order to
prioritize issues and ma"e decisions. In this technique, after proposal the group engages in a
discussion of alternatives, ran"ing or rating in order of preference. It generates a greater number
of decision alternatives that are of relatively high quality. It is a good tool to use when dealing
with controversial or emotional issues, especially when a group is stuc".
#his technique is very effective in generating a large quantity of creative new ideas. It is
designed to allow every member of the group to epress their ideas and minimizes the influence
of other participants. $ominal -roup #echnique is a weighted ran"ing method that enables a
group to generate and prioritize a large number of issues within a structure that gives everyone
an equal voice. #he tool is called nominal because there is limited interaction between members
of the group during the process.
CHARACTERISTICS OF NOMINAL GROUPING
-roup members present their ideas in a list.
Ideas of each group member are recorded separately.
8erbal echanges are limited.
9riticisms and prejudices are not allowed.
It ma"es us of prioritization according to preference.
It is mostly used for controversial issues.
AD+ANTAGES OF NOMINAL GROUPING
#he nominal group technique is more structured than the ordinary group discussion
approach.
#hrough a nominal group technique, everyone in the group is given an opportunity to
contribute to the discussion and decision, thereby avoiding a situation where one person
dominates the group process.
#he nominal group technique can be used with small (:;* people, groups as well as with
larger groups (for eample, )<;:< people,.
&y using the nominal group technique, you can get a sense of priority concerns that are
represented among the group=s members.
DISAD+ANTAGES OF NOMINAL GROUPING
#he synergism that is eperienced in more open!ended group discussions may not
develop as easily in the nominal group approach.
#he nominal group technique may feel somewhat mechanical to some participants. #his
situation can be circumvented to some etent by ensuring that the facilitator shows
fleibility in process and implementation.
Although the nominal group technique can be used with a range of group sizes, it is hard
to implement the technique effectively with large audiences unless you plan very
carefully beforehand.
DELPHI TECHNIQUE
#his is a process of forecast in reaching a consensus by the anonymous solicitation and
comparison of the views of eperts. #his is a technique in group decision ma"ing and problem!
solving in which eperts of particular fields are allowed to ma"e suggestions and their
suggestions are put into consideration in an attempt to ma"e a decision or to solve a problem.
#he .elphi technique is well suited as a method for reaching an agreement by the use of
questionnaires administered with multiple feedbac"s in order to collect data from a panel of
selected subjects, usually eperts.
#he .elphi technique has been described as >a method for structuring a group communic
ation process so that the process is effective in allowing a group of individuals, as a whole, to dea
l with a comple problem=.
#he .elphi technique is usually used where individual members are in different physical
locations. #he technique was developed at the 'and 9orporation. #he individuals in the .elphi
?group? are usually selected because of the specific "nowledge or epertise of the problem they
possess.
)
#his technique usually requires each group member to bring a private and independent
opinion about the problem they are aiming at solving. #his technique has stages after which
group members reach a consensus decision of the best action or the best choice to ma"e.
#he .elphi technique is accepted method and is widely used to gather data from
respondents within the domain of epertise. It is conventional means of pooling opinions
obtained from a group interaction. #his technique is designed for group communication process,
aiming at achieving a convergence of opinion on a specific group issue. It helps in developing a
full range of alternatives, eploring underlying assumptions, as well as related judgments on a
topic spanning a wide range of disciplines.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DELPHI TECHNIQUE
.elphi, in contrast to other data gathering and analysis techniques, employs multiple
iterations designed to develop a consensus of opinion concerning a specific topic.
It ma"es use of administered questionnaires for data collection.
.elphi technique has the ability to provide anonymity to respondents, a controlled
feedbac" process, and the suitability of a variety of statistical analysis techniques to
interpret the data; 1tatistical derivation of a group response.
#here is a method of controlled feedbac" which is designed to control noise.
It has the ability to use statistical analysis techniques in a practice which further reduces
the potential of group pressure for conformity.
It ma"es use of eperts and is often used for major decisions that need input from a large
number of people.
AD+ANTAGES OF DELPHI TECHNIQUE
@rejudices are curbed and controlled.
It retains anonymity for the participants in order to avoid criticisms.
1Tim Barnetts Group Decision Making. www.referenceforbusiness.com/management. 1/19/!11
It is technical in its approach of collecting ideas.
DISAD+ANTAGES OF DELPHI TECHNIQUE
.ue to the feedbac" process that is inherent in the .elphi technique, potential eists for
low response rates and striving to maintain robust feedbac" can be a challenge.
#he .elphi technique can also be time!consuming and laborious. Anli"e other data
collection techniques such as the telephone survey and the face!to!face administration,
which can be simultaneously conducted by a group of people and can be completed in a
short period of time if the sample size is small, the .elphi technique is iterative and
sequential.

It has the tendency of ignoring facts, thereby misconceptions is li"ely to continue.

CONSENSUS MAPPING
#his is a technique of decision ma"ing where there is a general and wide spread
agreement among all the members of a group with regards to a particular issue. #his technique of
decision ma"ing is democratic in nature. In this technique of decision ma"ing, @articipants ma"e
decisions by agreement rather than by majority vote.
Acting according to consensus guidelines enables a group to ta"e advantage of all group
members5 ideas; by combining their thoughts, people can often create a higher! quality decision
than a vote decision or a decision by a single individual.
:
/hen this technique is used with a co!
operative state of mind, it allows groups to come together and ta"e inspired and creative
decisions. It supports individuals to pool their power and wor" together as equals to produce
results far better than they could produce alone.
B
#he consensus technique of decision ma"ing is an effort in which affected parties see" to
reach agreement on a course of action in order to address an issue that is bordering them. In a
consensus process, the members wor" together to provide and sort a mutually acceptable
"ractica# $ssessment% &esearc' ( )*a#uation% +o# 1% ,o 1!% -su ( .an/for/% De#p'i Tec'ni0ue
1 www.agree.org
2www.consensusbook.com. Tim -artnett3s 4onsensus56rientate/ Decision5Making.
solution. 6ach process of the consensus mapping is unique because the group members design
their agreement to fit their circumstances and situations.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONSENSUS MAPPING
C It encourages inclusive participation and empowers the group.
C .ecisions are made by agreement and not by majority vote.
C It requires a commitment to wor" together and increases cooperation.
C It creates shared understanding through discussion that bridges differences.
C It equalizes the distribution of power in a group.
C It creates better decisions that are more representative of the larger community.
C It brings ownership and commitment.
D
AD+ANTAGES OF CONSENSUS MAPPING
It allows all group members to epress their person views.
Euality ideas are always obtained.
It fosters unity and equality in the group.
It is carried out with a cooperative state of mind.
DISAD+ANTAGES OF CONSENSUS MAPPING
#here is li"ely to be confusion because of the individual differences of group members.
-roup hierarchy may be ignored because of the democratic nature of this technique.
DIALETICAL INQUIR,
.ialetical inquiry is a group decision!ma"ing technique that focuses on ensuring full
consideration of alternatives. 6ssentially, it involves dividing the group into opposing sides,
which debate the advantages and disadvantages of proposed solutions or decisions. #his
technique is designed to ma"e sure that the group considers all possible ramifications of its
decision.
D $rietta% D. 7.% ( 8a##ace% 7. 9!!!:.Consensus building fieldbook. Minneapo#is% M,; <ni*ersit=
of Minnesota )>tension an/ -ubert -. -ump're= ?nstitute of "ub#ic $ffairs.
PAIR-.ISE COMPARISON
#he pair!wise comparison technique is used when there are multiple options to prioritize.
It helps to narrow options according to a set of agreed!upon criteria. It is equally used to
prioritize or ran" needs or possible solutions to address needs.
#his technique is a simple and effective tool for facilitating group decisions that are based
on the information collected through a needs assessment. #his technique is a worthwhile tool for
prioritizing needs, determining the relationships among multiple causal factors, or
recommending potential improvement activities. /henever there are multiple options or
alternatives to consider, pair!wise comparison can be used to advance group discussions toward a
decision.
BIBLIOGRAPH,
1. /it"in, &elle 'uth, and 2ames /. Altschuld. )**D. @lanning and 9onducting $eeds
Assessments% A @ractical -uide. #housand 7a"s, 9A% 1age @ublications.
. Arietta, .. F., 3 /allace, F. (G<<<,.Consensus building fieldbook. Minneapolis, M$%
Aniversity of Minnesota 6tension and 0ubert 0. 0umphrey Institute of @ublic Affairs.
1. @ractical Assessment, 'esearch 3 6valuation, 8ol )G, $o )<, 0su 3 1andford, .elphi
#echnique
2. #im 0artnett5s 9onsensus!7rientated .ecision!Ma"ing.