Empiricism and Rationalism

January 1976
Source: Noam Chomsky, Language and Responsibility (Pantheon, 1979)
Excerpts from nter!e"s con#ucte# $y %tsou &onat
'(ES)*+N: +n many occasons you ha!e crtc,e# ph-osophc an# scentfc
emprcsm. Can you state your o$/ectons more precse-y0
C1+%S23: *n a sense, emprcsm has #e!e-ope# a kn# of mn#4$o#y #ua-sm, of a
5ute unaccepta$-e type, /ust at the tme "hen, from another pont of !e", t re/ecte#
such #ua-sm6 7thn an emprcst frame"ork, one approaches the stu#y of the $o#y as a
topc n the natura- scences, conc-u#n8 that the $o#y s constructe# of !are# an#
speca-,e# or8ans "hch are extreme-y comp-ex an# 8enetca--y #etermne# n ther $asc
character, an# that these or8ans nteract n a manner "hch s a-so #etermne# $y human
$o-o8y6 +n the other han#, emprcsm nssts that the $ran s a tabula rasa, empty,
unstructure#, unform at -east as far as co8nt!e structure s concerne#6 * #on9t see any
reason to $e-e!e that. * #on9t see any reason to $e-e!e that the -tt-e fn8er s a more
comp-ex or8an than those parts of the human $ran n!o-!e# n the h8her menta-
facu-tes. on the contrary, t s not un-ke-y that these are amon8 the most comp-ex
structures n the un!erse6 )here s no reason to $e-e!e that the h8her menta- facu-tes
are n some manner #ssocate# from ths comp-exty of or8an,aton6
+ne can say that the #ua-sm ntro#uce# $y emprcst #o8ma s metho#o-o8ca- rather
than su$stant!e6 )hat s to say, t s taken for 8rante# that the $o#y must $e stu#e# $y
the or#nary metho#s of scence $ut, n the case of the mn#, certan preconceptons ha!e
$een mpose# "hch ha!e !rtua--y remo!e# ths stu#y from the #oman of scentfc
n5ury6 *n fact, ths #o8matsm seems to $e e!en more strkn8 n the most recent pero#6
1ume, for examp-e, rea--y ## hs $est to sho" that hs e-ementary prncp-es concernn8
the ac5uston of human kno"-e#8e "ere suffcent to co!er an nterestn8 c-ass of cases
an# cha--en8e# hs opponents to pro#uce a -e8tmate :#ea: that cou-# not $e #er!e#
from sense mpresson $y hs prncp-es6 )here s a certan kn# of am$8uty n hs
proce#ure here, snce n part he seems to $e en8a8e# n a kn# of scentfc n5ury, tryn8
to sho" that certan prncp-es he propose# "ere n fact a#e5uate to co!er the cruca-
cases, "h-e at other tmes he re-es on these prncp-es to #emonstrate that some noton s
:--e8tmate,: snce t cannot $e #er!e# $y them 44 an ar8ument that rests on our
acceptn8 hs not !ery p-aus$-e prncp-es concernn8 the nature of the mn#6 1ume
re8ar#e# the prncp-e of n#uct!e reasonn8 as a kn# of :anma- nstnct,: "hch "ou-#
appear to $e an emprca- assumpton6 *n mo#ern !ersons, hs assumptons ha!e often
$een con!erte# nto #o8ma presuppose# "thout serous effort to sho" them to $e !a-#,
or to rep-y to c-assca- crtcsms that "ere rase# a8anst these prncp-es6
)here s no reason to $e-e!e to#ay that 1ume9s prncp-es or anythn8 resem$-n8 them
are a#e5uate to account for our :#eas: or our kno"-e#8e an# $e-efs, nor to thnk that
they ha!e any partcu-ar s8nfcance6 )here s no p-ace for any a priori #octrne
concernn8 the comp-exty of the $ran or ts unformty as far as the h8her menta-
functons are concerne#6 7e must procee# to the n!est8aton of the #!erse co8nt!e
structures #e!e-ope# norma--y $y human $en8s n the course of ther maturaton an#
ther re-aton to the physca- an# soca- en!ronment, seekn8 to #etermne, as $est "e
can, the prncp-es "hch 8o!ern these co8nt!e structures6 +nce a certan un#erstan#n8
of the nature of these systems has $een o$tane#, then "e can reasona$-y stu#y the $ass
on "hch they are ac5ure#6 *n my opnon, the -tt-e that "e kno" a$out these 5uestons
su88ests that the mn#, -ke the $o#y, s n effect a system of or8ans 44 "e cou-# ca-- them
:menta- or8ans: $y ana-o8y 44 that s to say, h8h-y specfc systems or8an,e# accor#n8
to a 8enetc pro8ram that #etermnes ther functon, ther structure, the process of ther
#e!e-opment, n 5ute a #eta-e# manner. the partcu-ar rea-,aton of these fun#amenta-
prncp-es natura--y #epen#s on ther nteracton "th the en!ronment, as n the case of
the !sua- system6666 *f that s correct, the mn# s a comp-ex system of nteractn8
facu-tes, "hch #o not #e!e-op $y means of unform prncp-es of :8enera- nte--8ence:.
t s consttute# of :menta- or8ans: /ust as speca-,e# an# #fferentate# as those of the
$o#y6
'(ES)*+N: *t s for that reason, #ou$t-ess, that you nsst on the autonomy of 8rammar,
on the fact that 8rammatca- structures #o not #epen# on other co8nt!e systems6 ;oes t
seem mposs$-e to you to thnk of -an8ua8e an# the structure of kno"-e#8e n terms of
the same mo#e-0
C1+%S23: * ha!e nothn8 a8anst comparsons, $ut * "on#er "hether "e are -ke-y to
-earn !ery much $y procee#n8 n ths #recton6 Note that one ne!er ten#s to"ar# that
kn# of proposa- n physo-o8y. no one su88ests that "e stu#y the structure of the eye an#
the heart, an# then search for ana-o8es $et"een them6 +ne #oes not expect to fn#
meann8fu- ana-o8es6 *f the mn# conssts of a system of :menta- or8ans,: n nteracton,
certan-y, $ut fun#amenta--y #fferent n ther structure, "e nee# not expect to fn#
frutfu- ana-o8es amon8 them6
)o make myse-f c-ear, * am not a$out to propose a-- ths as a ne" #o8ma, to rep-ace
emprcst #octrne6 +n the contrary, /ust as n stu#yn8 the $o#y, "e must smp-y retan
an open mn# on ths su$/ect6 7e kno" a -tt-e a$out a num$er of co8nt!e systems,
-an8ua8e $en8 the most nterestn8 case at the moment6 )hat sma-- #e8ree of ns8ht
seems to me to su88est the prece#n8 conc-usons6 )he mportant thn8, of course, s to
#etermne the #eeper prncp-es an# the #eta-e# structure of !arous co8nt!e systems,
ther mo#es of nteracton, an# the 8enera- con#tons "hch each system satsfes6 *f one
fn#s that these systems are ac5ure# n a unform manner "th !ery -tt-e specfc
structure, !ery "e--6 <ut for the present at -east t seems to me that 5ute #fferent
conc-usons are n#cate#6 )hat s "hat * mean "hen * say that one nee# not expect to fn#
ana-o8es6
'(ES)*+N: Nor phenomena of nter#epen#ence6 1o"e!er, certan psycho-o8sts assert
that percepton exerts an nf-uence on the potenta- structure of sentences6 =n essenta-
aspect of your crt5ue of emprcsm s the ratona-st hypothess: the structure of the
$ran s #etermne# a priori $y the 8enetc co#e, the $ran s pro8ramme# to ana-y,e
experence an# to construct kno"-e#8e out of that experence6 )hat may seem
shockn8 666
C1+%S23: * #on9t see anythn8 shockn8 n that proposton6 *n physo-o8y, no one has
e!er accepte# anythn8 ana-o8ous to emprcst #o8ma "th re8ar# to the mn#6 No one
fn#s t out-an#sh to ask the 5ueston: 7hat 8enetc nformaton accounts for the 8ro"th
of arms nstea# of "n8s0 7hy shou-# t $e shockn8 to rase sm-ar 5uestons "th
re8ar# to the $ran an# menta- facu-tes0 7e are $ack to the metho#o-o8ca- #ua-sm of
the emprcsts6
'(ES)*+N: )hat poston #oes not sut contemporary :human scences6:
C1+%S23: Especa--y not $eha!orst psycho-o8y, or perhaps e!en Pa8et, thou8h hs
poston seems to me o$scure n cruca- respects6 Pa8et cons#ers hmse-f to $e an ant4
emprcst. $ut some of hs "rtn8s su88est to me that he s mstaken n ths conc-uson6
Pa8et #e!e-ops a certan :construct!e nteractonsm:: ne" kno"-e#8e s constructe#
throu8h nteracton "th the en!ronment6 <ut the fun#amenta- 5ueston s e!a#e#: 1o"
s ths kno"-e#8e constructe#, an# "hy /ust ths kn# of kno"-e#8e an# not some other0
Pa8et #oes not 8!e any nte--8$-e ans"er, as far as * can make out6 )he on-y ans"er
that * can ma8ne s to suppose an nnate 8enetc structure "hch #etermnes the process
of maturaton6 *nsofar as he cons#ers t "ron8 to 8!e such an ans"er, he fa--s $ack nto
somethn8 -ke the emprcsm that he "ants to re/ect6 7hat he postu-ates s no"here near
suffcent, t seems to me, to account for the specfc course of co8nt!e #e!e-opment6
)hat s not to #eny the !ery 8reat mportance of the research that has $een con#ucte# $y
Pa8et an# hs 8roup at >ene!a. t has opene# up entre-y ne" perspect!es n the stu#y of
human kno"-e#8e6 *t s prmar-y the nterpretaton of ther resu-ts "hch seems
extreme-y #ou$tfu- to me, n partcu-ar ther atttu#e to"ar# "hat Pa8et ca--s :nn?sme,:
"hch seems to me a-to8ether "ron86
*n ph-osophy, the same pro$-ems appear n some of the "ork of 'une, for examp-e6 =t
tmes, he asserts that theores are #e!e-ope# $y n#ucton, "hch he #entfes "th
con#tonn86 =t other tmes he says the opposte: theores are not #etermne# so-e-y $y
con#tonn8 or n#ucton, $ut n!o-!e a$stract hypotheses u-tmate-y or8natn8 from
some nnate capacty6 *n recent years he has osc--ate# $et"een these t"o postons6
'(ES)*+N: )he ten#ency of thou8ht "hch has fou8ht har#est a8anst the n#epen#ence
of 8rammar as a :menta- or8an: s "thout #ou$t functona-sm6 *t ten#s to exp-an the
form of -an8ua8e $y attr$utn8 a #etermnn8 ro-e to ts functon6 )hs functon s
presume# to $e communcaton: e!erythn8 n -an8ua8e must contr$ute to
communcaton, to a $etter communcaton, an# n!erse-y, nothn8 s -n8ustc "hch
#oes not contr$ute to communcaton6 *sn9t that a far-y accurate portrat0
C1+%S23: @unctona-sm ho-#s that the use of -an8ua8e nf-uences ts form6 )hs
m8ht $e un#erstoo# as a !arant of emprcst #octrne a$out -an8ua8e -earnn8, one that
makes !ery -tt-e sense, as far as * can see6 <ut "e m8ht un#erstan# the fun#amenta-
#eas 5ute #fferent-y6 @or examp-e, >eor8e %--er an# * su88este# a$out ffteen years
a8o that there may $e a :functona- exp-anaton: for the or8an,aton of -an8ua8e "th
8rammatca- transformatons, "hch "ou-# $e a "e--4#es8ne# system correspon#n8 to a
certan or8an,aton of short4 an# -on84term memory, for examp-e6
*f one cou-# #emonstrate that, t "ou-# $e nterestn86 <ut "hat #oes that mean,
$asca--y0 7hat "ou-# the ana-o8ous o$ser!aton mean for some physca- or8an, say the
heart0 )o $e sure, the heart has a functon: to pump $-oo#6 +ne may sens$-y say that the
structure of the heart s #etermne# $y that functon6 <ut suppose "e ask the onto8enetc
5ueston: 1o" #oes our heart $ecome "hat t s0 1o" #oes t 8ro" n the n#!#ua- from
the em$ryo to ts fna- form n the mature or8ansm0 )he ans"er s not functona-: the
heart #oes not #e!e-op n the n#!#ua- $ecause t "ou-# $e usefu- to carry out a certan
functon, $ut rather $ecause the 8enetc pro8ram #etermnes that t "-- #e!e-op as t #oes6
E!ery or8an has certan functons, $ut these functons #o not #etermne the onto8enetc
#e!e-opment of the or8ansm6 No$o#y "ou-# su88est that a 8roup of ce--s #ec#es that
perhaps t "ou-# $e a 8oo# #ea to $ecome a heart $ecause such an or8an s necessary to
pump $-oo#6 *f ths 8roup of ce--s $ecomes a heart, t s #ue to the nformaton present n
the 8enetc co#e, "hch #etermnes the structure of the or8ansm6
)here s a p-ace for functona- exp-anaton, $ut t s on the -e!e- of e!o-uton6 *t s
poss$-e that a heart #e!e-ops n the course of e!o-uton n or#er to satsfy a certan
functon6 +f course, *9m smp-fyn8 enormous-y6 <ut ths s a pont that s usefu- to keep
n mn#: functona- exp-anaton #oes not re-ate to the "ay or8ans #e!e-op n the
n#!#ua-6
Aet9s 8o $ack to -n8ustcs: here compara$-e remarks can $e ma#e6 )o my kno"-e#8e, no
functona- prncp-e "th !ery 8reat p-aus$-ty has yet $een propose#6 <ut suppose that
someone proposes a prncp-e "hch says: )he form of -an8ua8e s such4an#4such
$ecause ha!n8 that form permts a functon to $e fu-f--e# 44 a proposa- of ths sort "ou-#
$e approprate at the -e!e- of e!o-uton (of the speces, or of -an8ua8e), not at the -e!e- of
ac5uston of -an8ua8e $y an n#!#ua-, one "ou-# suppose6
'(ES)*+N: =s a conse5uence, nsofar as your -n8ustcs s a theory of -an8ua8e an# of
the ac5uston of -an8ua8e $y an n#!#ua-, functona-sm cannot $e retane# as a
fun#amenta- prncp-e6 *n!erse-y, one m8ht note that the -e8tmacy of the #epen#ency
re-aton $et"een functon an# structure s not e!en a pro$-em for functona-st -n8usts,
$ecause ther am s not to exp-an the ac5uston of -an8ua8e $ut to #escr$e a -n8ustc
corpus6
C1+%S23: * #ou$t that functona-st -n8usts "ou-# accept that character,aton6 *f
they mean that onto8enetc #e!e-opment s #recte# $y functona- cons#eratons, that
seems /ust as p-aus$-e to me as su88estn8 that the #e!e-opment of the heart n the
n#!#ua- s 8u#e# $y the ut-ty of ha!n8 an or8an that pumps $-oo#, an# a$out as "e--
supporte# $y the factua- e!#ence6 +r, they m8ht say that 5uestons touchn8 on the $ass
of -an8ua8e ac5uston #o not concern them6 )he cruca- pont, ho"e!er, seems to me to
$e that there s no rea- #e$ate a$out the !a-#ty of functona-sm at the 8enera--y !a8ue
-e!e- on "hch "e #scuss the hypothetca- e!o-uton of the speces, or n the stu#y of
-an8ua8e chan8e. an# there s no sens$-e "ay to n!oke functona- notons as
exp-anatory concepts at the synchronc or onto8enetc -e!e-, so far as * can see6 *t a-so
seems to me mportant to a!o# a certan !u-8ar,aton "th respect to the use of
-an8ua8e6 )here s no reason to $e-e!e 666 that -an8ua8e :essenta--y: ser!es nstrumenta-
en#s, or that the :essenta- purpose: of -an8ua8e s :communcaton,: as s often sa#, at
-east f "e mean $y :communcaton: somethn8 -ke transmttn8 nformaton or
n#ucn8 $e-ef6 Someone "ho c-ams that ths s the essenta- purpose of -an8ua8e must
exp-an /ust "hat he means $y t, an# "hy he $e-e!es ths functon, an# no other, to $e so
un5ue-y s8nfcant6
Aan8ua8e s use# n many #fferent "ays6 Aan8ua8e can $e use# to transmt nformaton,
$ut t a-so ser!es many other purposes: to esta$-sh re-atons amon8 peop-e, to express or
c-arfy thou8ht, for p-ay, for creat!e menta- act!ty, to 8an un#erstan#n8, an# so on6 *n
my opnon, there s no reason to accor# pr!-e8e# status to one or the other of these
mo#es6 @orce# to choose, * "ou-# ha!e to say somethn8 5ute c-assca- an# rather empty:
-an8ua8e ser!es essenta--y for the expresson of thou8ht6
* kno" of no reason to suppose that nstrumenta- en#s, or transmsson of nformaton
a$out one9s $e-efs, or other actons that m8ht reasona$-y $e ca--e# :communcaton:
(un-ess, of course, the term s use# 5ute !acuous-y), ha!e some un5ue s8nfcance
compare# "th other characterstc uses of -an8ua8e6 *n fact, "hat s meant $y the
asserton that such4an#4such s the 8oa- of -an8ua8e, or ts essenta- purpose, s far from
c-ear6 666 ths p-ura-ty of mo#es s characterstc of the most $ana- an# norma- use of
-an8ua8e6
*t s har# to kno" /ust "hat peop-e mean "hen they say that -an8ua8e s :essenta--y: an
nstrument of communcaton6 *f you press them a $t an# ask them to $e more precse,
you "-- often fn#, for examp-e, that un#er :communcaton: they nc-u#e
communcaton "th onese-f6 +nce you a#mt that, the noton of communcaton -oses a--
content. the expresson of thou8ht $ecomes a kn# of communcaton6 )hese proposa-s
seem to $e ether fa-se, or 5ute empty, #epen#n8 on the nterpretaton that s 8!en, e!en
"th the $est of "--6 *t s a-- so !a8ue that #scusson remans mystfyn86 * ha!e no #ea
"hy such proposa-s are so often ma#e, fre5uent-y "th such fer!or, or "hat on earth they
are suppose# to s8nfy6
)he rea- 5ueston s: 1o" #oes ths or8ansm functon, an# "hat s ts menta- an#
physca- structure0
'(ES)*+N: Emprcsm (an#, n partcu-ar, functona-sm) has en/oye# an enormous
success6 *n spte of a-- the #emonstratons that ha!e $een ma#e of ts errors, to#ay t st--
remans the #omnant ph-osophy6 )o "hat #o you attr$ute that success, that po"er to
sur!!e0 )o a con/uncton of #eo-o8y an# po-tcs0
C1+%S23: +n that pont "e must $e carefu-, $ecause here "e enter nto specu-aton6
7hen certan #eas are #omnant, t s !ery reasona$-e to ask "hy6 )he reason cou-# $e
that they are p-aus$-y re8ar#e# as true, they ha!e $een !erfe#, etc6 <ut n the case
"here they are "thout emprca- foun#atons, an# ha!e -tt-e nta- p-aus$-ty, the
5ueston arses more sharp-y: the ans"er may actua--y -e n the #oman of #eo-o8y6 +f
course the ar8ument here must $e n#rect, $ecause "e #on9t ha!e any #rect means of
#etermnn8 the #eo-o8ca- $ass for the acceptance 8ane# $y a certan #octrne6
Perhaps the nstrumenta-st concepton of -an8ua8e s re-ate# to the 8enera- $e-ef that
human acton an# ts creatons, a-on8 "th the nte--ectua- structure of human $en8s, are
#es8ne# for the satsfacton of certan physca- nee#s (foo#, "e--4$en8, securty, etc6)6
7hy try to re#uce nte--ectua- an# artstc ache!ement to e-ementary nee#s0 *s the
attracton of the se!era- !arants of emprcst #octrne $ase# on expermenta-
!erfcaton0 1ar#-y6 )here s no such !erfcaton6 ;oes t #er!e from ther exp-anatory
po"er0 No, $ecause they can exp-an !ery -tt-e6 *s t #ue to some ana-o8y to other
systems a$out "hch "e kno" more0 No6 666 the systems kno"n to $o-o8y are tota--y
#fferent6 =nma- nte--8ence seems to $e 5ute #fferent6 So too the physca- structures
of the human or8ansm6 )he ratona- hypotheses "hch "e can propose to exp-an the
#omnance of emprcst #octrnes #o not app-y6
*t shou-# $e note# that emprcst #octrne has not mere-y $een :accepte#: for a -on8
pero#, t "as har#-y e!en 5uestone#, $ut rather smp-y assume#, tact-y, as the
frame"ork "thn "hch thnkn8 an# research must procee#6 Perhaps, then, some
soco-o8ca- factor m8ht exp-an n a natura- "ay "hy ths pont of !e" has $een so
"#e-y a#opte#6 7e can ask ourse-!es, "ho accepts an# #ssemnates these #octrnes0
Essenta--y, the nte--8entsa, nc-u#n8 scentsts an# non4scentsts6 7hat s the soca-
ro-e of the nte--8entsa0 666 t has $een 5ute characterstca--y manpu-aton an# soca-
contro- n a-- ts !are# forms6 @or examp-e, n those systems ca--e# :soca-st,: the
technca- nte--8entsa $e-on8 to the e-te that #es8ns an# propa8ates the #eo-o8ca-
system an# or8an,es an# contro-s the socety, a fact that has -on8 $een note# $y the non4
<o-she!k -eft6 7a-ter 2en#a--, for examp-e, has ponte# out that Aenn, n such
pamph-ets as What Is To Be Done?, conce!e# of the pro-etarat as a tabula rasa upon
"hch the :ra#ca-: nte--8entsa must mprnt a soca-st conscousness6 )he metaphor s
a 8oo# one6 @or the <o-she!ks, the ra#ca- nte--8entsa must $rn8 a soca-st
conscousness to the masses from the outs#e. as Party mem$ers, the nte--8entsa must
or8an,e an# contro- socety n or#er to $rn8 :soca-st structures: nto exstence6
)hs set of $e-efs correspon#s !ery "e-- to the #eman#s of the technocratc nte--8entsa:
t offers them a !ery mportant soca- ro-e6 =n# n or#er to /ustfy such practces, t s !ery
usefu- to $e-e!e that human $en8s are empty or8ansms, ma--ea$-e, contro--a$-e, easy to
8o!ern, an# so on, "th no essenta- nee# to stru88-e to fn# ther o"n "ay an# to
#etermne ther o"n fate6 @or that emprcsm s 5ute suta$-e6 So from ths pont of !e",
t s perhaps no surprse that #ena- of any :essenta- human nature: has $een so
promnent n much of -eft4"n8 #octrne6
=na-o8ous-y, the mo#ern nte--8entsa n the capta-st socetes 44 that of the (nte#
States, for examp-e 44 ha!e a certan access to prest8e an# po"er $y ser!n8 the state6 So,
much the same s true for the -$era- nte--8entsa n the 7est6 Ser!ce to the state
nc-u#es soca- manpu-aton, preser!aton of capta-st #eo-o8y an# capta-st
nsttutons, "thn the frame"ork of state capta-sm6 *n ths case as "e--, the concept of
an empty or8ansm s usefu-6 *t s p-aus$-e that statst #eo-o8ues an# a#mnstrators are
attracte# $y ths #octrne $ecause t s so con!enent for them, n e-mnatn8 any mora-
$arrer to manpu-aton an# contro-6
)hese remarks app-y on-y for the -ast century, more or -ess6 <efore that the stuaton s
rather #fferent6 7thout #ou$t, at an ear-er pero#, emprcsm "as assocate# "th
pro8ress!e soca- #octrne, n partcu-ar, "th c-assca- -$era-sm. a-thou8h, as "e "ere
#scussn8, that "as not a-"ays the case6 +ne may reca-- the #eas of the youn8 %arx,
"ho "as far from emprcst #octrne n sprt6 7hy ths -nk $et"een pro8ress!e soca-
thou8ht an# emprcst #octrne0 Perhaps $ecause emprcsm seeme# to ha!e 44 an# n a
certan "ay ## ha!e 44 pro8ress!e soca- mp-catons n contrast to reactonary an#
#etermnst #octrnes, accor#n8 to "hch the exstn8 soca- structures, s-a!ery,
autocracy, the feu#a- herarchy, the ro-e of "omen, "ere foun#e# on unchan8n8 human
nature6 =8anst that #octrne, the #ea that human nature s a hstorca- pro#uct ha# a
pro8ress!e content, as t a-so ##, one m8ht ar8ue, throu8hout the ear-y pero# of
capta-st n#ustra-,aton6
)he #etermnst #octrnes n 5ueston mantane# that certan peop-e "ere $orn to $e
s-a!es, $y ther !ery nature6 +r cons#er the oppresson of "oman, "hch "as a-so
foun#e# on such concepts6 +r "a8e -a$or: "--n8ness to rent onese-f throu8h the market
s cons#ere# one of the fun#amenta- an# mmuta$-e human propertes, n a !erson of the
:human essence: characterstc of the era of capta-sm6
*n the face of such #octrnes as these, t s natura- for a#!ocates of soca- chan8e to a#opt
the extreme poston that :human nature: s a myth, nothn8 $ut a pro#uct of hstory6 <ut
that poston s ncorrect6 1uman nature exsts, mmuta$-e except for $o-o8ca- chan8es
n the speces6
'(ES)*+N: <ut that s not the same #efnton of human nature, t s no -on8er a matter
of #efnn8 a psycho-o8y of n#!#ua- character6
C1+%S23: Certan-y, "e can #stn8ush $et"een theores that ass8n a #etermnate
soca- status to partcu-ar n#!#ua-s or 8roups $y !rtue of ther a--e8e# ntrnsc nature
(e686, some are $orn to $e s-a!es), an# theores that ho-# that there are certan $o-o8ca-
constants characterstc of the speces, "hch may, of course, assume !ery #fferent forms
as the soca- an# matera- en!ronment !ares6 )here s much to $e sa# a$out a-- of these
matters6 *t seems to me that one m8ht su88est, n a !ery specu-at!e manner, that such
factors as the ones * ha!e mentone# entere# nto the success of emprcsm amon8 the
nte--8entsa6 * ha!e #scusse# ths 5ueston a $t n Reflections on Language, stressn8
the cruca- an# sometmes o!er-ooke# pont that specu-aton a$out these matters of
#eo-o8y s 5ute n#epen#ent of the !a-#ty of the specfc #octrnes n 5ueston. t s
"hen #octrnes of -tt-e mert 8an "#e an# un5uestone# cre#ence that such specu-atons
as these $ecome partcu-ar-y approprate6
*n Reflections, * a-so mentone# that e!en at the ear-est sta8es t s not so o$!ous that
emprcsm "as smp-y a :pro8ress!e: #octrne n terms of ts soca- mpact, as s !ery
"#e-y assume#6 )here has $een some nterestn8 "ork n the past fe" years, for
examp-e, on the ph-osophca- or8ns of racsm, partcu-ar-y $y 1arry <racken, "hch
su88ests a much more comp-ex hstory6 *t seems that racst #octrne #e!e-ope# n part as
a concomtant of the co-ona- system, for far-y o$!ous reasons6 =n# t s a fact that some
-ea#n8 emprcst ph-osophers (Aocke, for examp-e) "ere connecte# to the co-ona-
system n ther professona- -!es, an# that racst atttu#es "ere common-y a#!ance#
#urn8 ths pero# $y ma/or ph-osophers, amon8 others6 *t s perhaps not unreasona$-e to
specu-ate that the success of emprcst $e-efs, n some crc-es at -east, m8ht $e
assocate# "th the fact that they offer a certan poss$-ty for formu-atn8 racst #octrne
n a "ay that s #ffcu-t to reconc-e "th tra#tona- #ua-st concepts concernn8 :the
human essence6: <racken has su88este#, p-aus$-y t seems to me, that racst #octrne
rases conceptua- #ffcu-tes "thn the frame"ork of #ua-st $e-efs, that s, f they are
taken serous-y6 Cartesan #ua-sm rases "hat he has ca--e# :a mo#est conceptua- $arrer:
to racst #octrne6 )he reason for that s smp-e6 Cartesan #octrne character,es humans
as thnkn8 $en8s: they are metaphysca--y #stnct from non4humans, possessn8 a
thnkn8 su$stance (res co8tans) "hch s untary an# n!arant 44 t #oes not ha!e co-or,
for examp-e6 )here are no :$-ack mn#s: or :"hte mn#s6: 3ou9re ether a machne, or
e-se you9re a human $en8, /ust -ke any other human $en8 n essenta- consttuton6 )he
#fferences are superfca-, ns8nfcant: they ha!e no effect on the n!arant human
essence6
* thnk t s not an exa88eraton to see n Cartesan #octrne a conceptua- $arrer 44 a
mo#est one, as <racken carefu--y exp-ans 44 a8anst racsm6 +n the other han#, the
emprcst frame"ork #oes not offer an ana-o8ous character,aton of the human essence6
= person s a co--ecton of acc#enta- propertes, an# co-or s one of them6 *t s thus
some"hat easer to formu-ate racst $e-efs n ths frame"ork, a-thou8h t s not
ne!ta$-e6
* #on9t "ant to exa88erate the mportance of these specu-atons6 <ut t s "orth
n!est8atn8 the 5ueston "hether co-ona- #eo-o8y ## n fact exp-ot the poss$-tes
ma#e a!a-a$-e $y emprcst #octrne to formu-ate more eas-y the kn# of racst $e-efs
that "ere emp-oye# to /ustfy con5uest an# oppresson6 *t s unfortunate that the carefu--y
5ua-fe# specu-atons that ha!e $een propose# for n!est8aton ha!e e!oke# a rather
hysterca- response, an# some outr8ht fa-sfcaton, on the part of a num$er of
ph-osophers 44 "ho are, as <racken has o$ser!e#, 5ute "--n8 to cons#er, an# e!en
a#!ance, !ery exp-ct proposa-s concernn8 a poss$-e re-aton $et"een ratona-sm an#
!arous oppress!e #octrnes, racsm amon8 them, thus n#catn8 that t s not the nature
of the n5ury $ut rather ts o$/ect that they cons#er nto-era$-e6
* must emphas,e a8an that these specu-atons, or any others concernn8 the #eo-o8ca-
or soca- factors that contr$ute to the success of any #octrne, must $e reco8n,e# for
"hat they are: specu-atons "hch are at $est su88est!e6 =8an, 5uestons of ths kn#
arse especa--y "hen a #octrne en/oys a 8reat #ea- of attracton an# success amon8 the
nte--8entsa n spte of -tt-e factua- support or exp-anatory !a-ue6 )hs s the case "th
emprcsm, n my opnon6
'(ES)*+N: Emprcsm thus fn#s support $oth from the r8ht an# the -eft 666 )hat
exp-ans "hy 8enerat!e 8rammar s often attacke# $y the pro8ress!e6 nte--8entsa,
precse-y $ecause of your reference to the hypothess of :nnate #eas,: as t s ca--e#, that
s, the 8enetc -mtatons mpose# on -an8ua8e6 )hs hypothess s accuse# of #ea-sm6
C1+%S23: )hat s true, as you say6 <ut the character,aton s 5ute rratona-6 =
consstent matera-st "ou-# cons#er t as se-f4e!#ent that the mn# has !ery mportant
nnate structures, physca--y rea-,e# n some manner6 7hy shou-# t $e other"se0 =s *
ha!e a-rea#y mentone#, f "e assume that human $en8s $e-on8 to the $o-o8ca- "or-#,
then "e must expect them to resem$-e the rest of the $o-o8ca- "or-#6 )her physca-
consttuton, ther or8ans, an# the prncp-es of maturaton are 8enetca--y #etermne#6
)here s no reason for supposn8 the menta- "or-# to $e an excepton6 )he hypothess
"hch natura--y comes to mn# s that these menta- systems, unusua- n the $o-o8ca-
"or-# $ecause of ther extraor#nary comp-exty, exh$t the 8enera- characterstcs of
kno"n $o-o8ca- systems6 * "ou-# emphas,e once a8an that e!en 5ua-tat!e
cons#eratons of the most e!#ent kn# su88est ths conc-uson: t s #ffcu-t to see any
other exp-anaton for the fact that extreme-y comp-cate# an# ntrcate structures are
ac5ure#, n a -ke manner amon8 a-- n#!#ua-s, on the $ass of !ery -mte# an# often
mperfect #ata6
'(ES)*+N: Certan psycho-o8sts st-- are tryn8 to make apes ta-k. as a resu-t, they
#eny the 5ua-tat!e #fference $et"een human $en8s an# anma-s, a #fference "hch
you ha!e a#opte# from Cartesansm an# restate# n the -8ht of mo#ern $o-o8y6 ;o
those "ho are oppose# to :nn?sm: take the same poston as these psycho-o8sts0
C1+%S23: * #on9t "ant to speak for others6 Aet9s cons#er ths 5ueston of human
un5ueness6 *ma8ne a %artan scentst "ho stu#es human $en8s from the outs#e,
"thout any pre/u#ce6 Suppose that he has a 8reat #ea- of tme at hs #sposa-, say,
thousan#s of years6 1e notces mme#ate-y that there exsts on earth a un5ue or8ansm,
"hose con#tons of -fe chan8e cons#era$-y "thout correspon#n8 chan8es n hs
consttuton. that s, mo#ern man6 =pes an# monkeys -!e as they -!e# m--ons of years
a8o, "h-e human -fe chan8es ra#ca--y an# !ery rap#-y6 *t s extreme-y !are#, yet there
s no correspon#n8 #!ersty "thn the human speces6 )ake a ch-# from a Stone =8e
cu-ture an# rase hm n Ne" 3ork: he "-- $ecome a Ne" 3orker6 &ase an =mercan
$a$y n Ne" >unea, an# he "-- $ecome a Papuan :nat!e6: )he 8enetc #fferences one
fn#s are superfca- an# tr!a-, $ut human $en8s ha!e the extraor#nary characterstc of
$en8 a$-e to -!e n !ery #fferent "ays6 1uman $en8s ha!e hstory, cu-tura- e!o-uton,
an# cu-tura- #fferentaton6 =ny o$/ect!e scentst must $e struck $y the 5ua-tat!e
#fferences $et"een human $en8s an# other or8ansms, as much as $y the #fference
$et"een nsects an# !erte$rates6 *f not, he s smp-y rratona-6
)ake an e!en more e-ementary crteron: pro-feraton6 *n that re8ar# human $en8s are a
speces "th remarka$-e $o-o8ca- success6 Perhaps not f you compare them to nsects 44
or chckens ($ut here the pro-feraton n fact resu-ts from human nter!enton) 44 $ut
compare# to h8her or8ansms, monkeys or chmpan,ees, for examp-e, they are much
more numerous6 )hus, n the most e-ementary respects, human $en8s are 5ute #fferent6
No scentst cou-# fa- to see that6
E!en the most superfca- o$ser!aton suffces to sho" that there are 5ua-tat!e
#fferences $et"een humans an# other comp-ex or8ansms "hch must $e exp-ane#6 *f
our hypothetca- %artan o$ser!er searches a $t further, he "-- fn# that human $en8s
are un5ue n many respects, one of these $en8 ther a$-ty to ac5ure a rch an# !are#
-n8ustc system, "hch can $e use# free-y an# n the most su$t-e an# comp-cate# "ays,
mere-y $y mmerson n a -n8ustc communty n "hch the system s use#6 *t seems to
me that a ratona- o$ser!er "ou-# conc-u#e that specfc 5ua-tes of :nte--8ence,: proper
to ths speces, must $e assume#6 *f he s of an n5urn8 mn# an# enterprsn8, he "--
seek to #etermne the 8enetca--y fxe# menta- structures "hch un#er-e the un5ue
ache!ements of ths speces6
'(ES)*+N: * $e-e!e the re/ecton of :nnate #eas: a-so sprn8s from ther assocaton
"th the Cartesan noton of soul (Bme) 666
C1+%S23: )hat may "e-- $e true6 <ut cons#er ths ancent pro$-em of the human sou-
n ts hstorca- context6 @or ;escartes, for examp-e, the exstence of the sou- s assume#
n 5ute a ratona- "ay as a scentfc prncp-e6 *n some respects hs ar8ument for the
exstence of the sou- s not !ery #fferent from Ne"ton9s ar8ument for 8ra!ty, as a force
of nature6 ;escartes "as "ron8, no #ou$t, $ut hs proce#ure n tse-f "as not at a--
unreasona$-e6
)o see ths, t s suffcent to pursue the ana-o8y to Ne"ton, thou8h * #on9t "ant to
exa88erate ts mportance6 Ne"ton sho"e# that Cartesan mechancs cou-# not account
for the mo!ement of hea!en-y $o#es6 )o exp-an ths mo!ement he postu-ate# a ne"
force: 8ra!ty, attracton at a #stance. that s, a force "hch $y the crtera of hs tme "as
cons#ere# to $e occu-t, mystca-, $ecause acton at a #stance !o-ate# $asc assumptons
of mechancs6 Ne"ton sho"e# that n ths "ay one cou-# account for the facts, thou8h he
too "as 5ute uncomforta$-e "th the :occu-t force: he "as postu-atn86 )hs postu-ate
$ecame the common sense of fo--o"n8 8eneratons, "th Aap-ace an# others6 =n
nconce!a$-e #ea for pre4Ne"tonan physcs su$se5uent-y $ecame part of scence
$ecause of ts remarka$-e exp-anatory po"er6
@or hs part, ;escartes $e-e!e# 44 "ron8-y 44 that :push4pu--: mechancs cou-# exp-an
a-- phenomena of the natura- "or-#, except such thn8s as conscousness an# human
creat!ty6 )hus to exp-an "hat "as $eyon# the scope of hs mechancs, he postu-ate#
another su$stance. -tt-e e-se "as open to hm, 8!en the metaphyscs of su$stance an#
acc#ent to "hch he "as commtte#6 +ne can no" ma8ne a-- sorts of other thn8s,
"hch are not part of hs mechancs6 <ut -et us suppose that ;escartes or the Cartesans
cou-# ha!e 8one further an# n!ente# a mathematcs of the mn#, a successfu-
exp-anatory theory6 )hen ther $e-ef "ou-# ha!e $ecome part of the scence of
su$se5uent 8eneratons, -ke the physcs of Ne"ton6
)o repeat, the exstence of the sou-, ;escartes9s secon# su$stance, s a scentfc
proposton: t s fa-se, $ut t s not rratona-6 1a# he e-a$orate# hs theory of the sou- to
an exp-anatory theory, he m8ht ha!e create# a ne" scence to supp-ement hs specu-at!e
physo-o8y6 1e "as comp-ete-y r8ht to propose ne" prncp-es an# to seek out ther
conse5uences6 +ne m8ht say that ;escartes9s $e-ef that the sou- s a smp-e su$stance
"hch cannot $e ana-y,e# create# an o$stac-e to the #e!e-opment of an exp-anatory
theory of the mn#, a theory "hch n prncp-e m8ht $e assm-ate# to a suta$-y
exten#e# physcs 44 $ut that s an a-to8ether #fferent 5ueston6 = con!ncn8 re/ecton of
hs #ua-sm re5ures a #emonstraton that hs postu-ate s use-ess, or unnecessary $ecause
"e can exp-an the propertes of the human mn# n other "ays6 Aet us then -ook for such
an exp-anaton 666 *t m8ht turn out that "e are -e# to ne" prncp-es "hen "e n5ure nto
the nature of the mn#6 *t s conce!a$-e, thou8h not #emonstrate#, that prncp-es entre-y
#fferent from those of contemporary physcs enter nto the exp-anaton of menta-
phenomena6 *n a-- these matters one must 8uar# a8anst #o8matsm6
'(ES)*+N: )o make precse "hat you are opposn8 to emprcsm, * thnk t s
mportant to remem$er that for you the menta- or8an s that "hch correspon#s to the
8rammar an# not to the -an8ua8e6 )he structura-sts thnk that one memor,es exten#e#
sentences, that s to say, the -an8ua8e (#e Saussure9s langue), an# that ths represents the
8rammar6 <ut for you, "hat s constructe# n memory as 8rammar s 5ute another thn86
*t s necessary to nsst on ths #fference $ecause so often the set of ru-es "hch makes
the sentences of a -an8ua8e poss$-e s confuse# "th the -an8ua8e as a set of memor,e#
se5uences6
@or #e Saussure, on the contrary, t "as the -an8ua8e 44 langue 44 "hch "as #eposte# n
memory6 1e cou-# not #stn8ush the memory "hch "e can ha!e of ths or that
exten#e# sentence from the :memory: 44 of the 8rammatca- form6 )he stuaton s 5ute
#fferent here6 )he t"o kn#s of memory are #fferent6 )he constructon of the 8rammar
s #ue to the -an8ua8e facu-ty6 <ut #on9t you thnk that another confuson can arse
$ecause of the am$8uty of the En8-sh "or# -an8ua8e ($oth langue an# language)0
)herefore, one cou-# un#erstan# that t s the -an8ua8e as langue "hch s nnate 666
C1+%S23: 666 7hch "ou-# $e a$sur#, of course. f @rench "ere nnate, * "ou-# speak
t 666
*t s the mechansm of -an8ua8e ac5uston that s nnate6 *n a 8!en -n8ustc
communty, ch-#ren "th !ery #fferent experence arr!e at compara$-e 8rammars,
n#ee# a-most #entca- ones, so far as "e kno"6 )hat s "hat re5ures exp-anaton6 E!en
"thn a !ery narro" communty 44 take the e-te n Pars 44 the experences are !are#6
Each ch-# has a #fferent experence, each ch-# s confronte# $y #fferent #ata 44 $ut n
the en# the system s essenta--y the same6 =s a conse5uence "e ha!e to suppose that a--
ch-#ren share the same nterna- constrants "hch character,e narro"-y the 8rammar
they are 8on8 to construct6
'(ES)*+N: )hs hypothess a-so exp-ans "hy, "hen the moment of maturaton s
passe# 44 a#o-escence 44 t s no -on8er poss$-e to -earn a -an8ua8e. the "o-f4ch-#ren
ne!er -earn to speak, an# "e speak a fore8n -an8ua8e "hch "e ha!e -earne# -ate n -fe
"th an accent6 7thout these $o-o8ca- constrants, fore8n accent "ou-# $e
nexp-ca$-e6
C1+%S23: 3es, there seems to $e a crtca- a8e for -earnn8 a -an8ua8e, as s true 5ute
8enera--y for the #e!e-opment of the human $o#y6 Patterns of 8ro"th are #etermne#
8enetca--y, for examp-e, sexua- maturaton, to take a case that occurs -on8 after $rth6 *t
"ou-# e!#ent-y $e a$sur# to mantan that on-y "hat one sees at $rth s #etermne#
8enetca--y6
E!en #eath, to a certan #e8ree, s 8enetca--y #etermne#6 )o say that the 8enetca--y
#etermne# propertes of an or8ansm cannot manfest themse-!es $efore the approprate
con#tons exst, an# that n 8enera- the 8enetc pro8ram s spe--e# out n a "ay that s
part-y pre#etermne# an# part-y nf-uence# $y en!ronmenta- factors, s a !rtua- trusm6
*n the stu#y of physca- #e!e-opment t s a commonp-ace, an# once a8an, f the
metho#o-o8ca- #ua-sm of emprcst #o8ma s a$an#one#, there s no reason to $e
surprse# $y the #sco!ery of sm-ar phenomena n the stu#y of h8her menta- functons6