Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
2
3
.
This classifier (figure 8) calculates the angle () between the target spectrum (t) and the
reference spectrum (r) where each pixel will be assigned to the class feature of the
lowest spectral angle. The spectral angle can have values between 0 and /2 (Provoost
et al 2005).
Five different landuse types, i.e. water, forest, settlements, irrigated agriculture and
winter agriculture, were selected as training data from both images for landuse
mapping. Throughout the landuse classification the maximum angle 0.30 radians was
chosen, as this was the acceptable angle between training spectrum vector and pixel
spectrum vector. This angle of 0.30 radians produces a better landuse classification than
other radiance values.
4.3.2 Training Data Collection
Training data collection and development are the main task for any kind of supervised
classification. The purpose of training data is to permit reconstruction, in as much detail
as possible, of ground conditions at the place and time that imagery was acquired
19
(Campbell 1996). To perform a supervised image classification, more than 1700 pixels
were extracted for each landuse category (table 2).
Table 2. Number of pixels in each landuse category
Number of Pixels Landuse category
1989 2001
Water
2132 3710
Forest
2984 2060
Settlement
5781 1707
Winter Agriculture 2036 1040
Irrigated Agriculture
9679 8543
The statistical parameters of this training data, including mean and standard deviations
are included in the appendix.
4.4 Image Normalization for Tasseled Cap Transformation (TCT)
Mainly change detection is depend on some natural factors like solar angle, atmospheric
condition (clouds, moisture, particles) with man-made sensor calibration, sensor
physical characteristics and so on. When comparing two image scenes, steps must be
taken to reduce exogenous errors such as atmospheric differences, sensor calibrations,
and illumination angle differences that might cause inaccurate detection of spectral
change (Collins and Woodcock 1994). Therefore, before perform any kind of change
detection calculation, the data has to be normalized. Image regression method has been
used to normalize ETM of 2001 data in this study. Image regression model explains
best fit between two multi-date satellite data of the same study area. It assumes that a
pixel at time-2 (ETM-2001) is linearly related to the same pixel at time-1 (TM-1989).
Here all channels of ETM-2001 were used as independent variable while TM-1989 was
20
input as dependent variable in the regression model (appendix I). The image regression
was achieved using selection of Pseudo Invariant Features (PIFs) like un-changed
water, pond, and settlements within 12 years. The regression calculation is as following-
Y= bX+ c
[Where, X represents the each band of ETM in 2001]
Normalized Blue= Blue2001*0.78-0.70
Normalized Green= Green2001*0.13+23.18
Normalized RED= RED2001*1.93+37.46
Normalized NIR= NIR2001*0.68+5.90
Normalized MIR= MIR2001*1.04+16.83
Normalized MIR2= MIR22001*1.39+20.50
4.5 Tasseled Cap Transformation (TCT)
The name "tasseled cap" comes from the fact that when the greenness and brightness of
a typical scene are plotted perpendicular to one another on a graph, the resulting plot
usually looks like a cap (Jensen 1996). This is one of the popular techniques for spectral
enhancement of satellite data. The Tasseled Cap Transformations for Landsat images
were derived by looking at a small number of images and determining a new
orthonormal basis for the bands that highlights differences in vegetation and soil (Horne
2003). This spectral transformation was developed by Kauth and Thomas in 1976. They
noted that the digital number (DN) scattergrams of Landsat MSS agricultural scenes
exhibit certain consistent properties (Schowengerdt 2007). Four types of new axes are
derived after TCT operation. TCT 1 (Figure 9) interprets the greenness which conveys
vegetation, TCT 2 (figure 9) refers to soil brightness which is used to identify bare and
degraded soils. TCT 3 depicts yellowness and TCT 4 atmospheric haze which is
associated with atmospheric effects, haze, noise etc. Mainly, TCT 1 and TCT 2 cover
about 95% to 98% of agricultural and soil information.
21
Greenness of ETM+ Greenness of TM
Brightness of ETM+ Brightness of TM
Figure 9. Brightness and greenness image derived from TCT operation
The TCT is a guided and scaled principal component analysis, which transforms the 6
Landsat TM bands into 3 bands of known characteristics; soil brightness, vegetation
greenness and soil/vegetation wetness (Lea et al 2003). The Tasseled Cap
Transformation (TCT) is a special case of the equation shown below:
22
TC = W
TC
. DN+B.
Where,
TC= Tasseled cap transformation and axis name
W
TC
= Specific transformation matrix (coefficients)
DN= Digital Number and, B= Bias
The tasseled cap transformation is a useful tool for compressing spectral data into a few
bands associated with physical scene characteristics (Crist and Cicone 1984). This TCT
matrix is fixed for a given sensor and independent of a scene. Thus, this matrix
transformation can vary from sensor to sensor along with the axis name. The Tasseled
Cap coefficients of TM (Landsat 5) and ETM
+
(Landsat 7) which were used in the study
are shown in table 3:
Table 3. TCT coefficients of TM and ETM
+
sensor.
In the chart below of 2-D spectral space (brightness on X axis and greenness on Y axis),
high brightness values represented bare soil (red circle, figure 10) while high greenness
revealed agriculture or other vegetation. This 2-D spectral plot has been used to select
the threshold values used to differentiate degraded soil from other classes in the
23
brightness TCT image of TM and ETM
+
. Certain ranges of these values were assigned
to degraded soils.
Figure 10. 2-D spectral plot of the Greenness and Brightness image of TM and ETM TCT
output.
After visual checking in the 2-D scattergrams, maximum threshold values from 141 to
317 and 180 to 312 of TM and ETM
+
, respectively were selected to extract dry soil
information in the study (figure 11). In order to extract pure degraded soils, the 2-D
scattergrams and image thresholding were used for pixel by pixel validation.
Figure 11. Threshold of TM and ETM for degraded soils
24
4.6 Accuracy Assessment
To evaluate the accuracy of the classified images, an accuracy assessment or confusion/
contingency matrix was implemented. Test data was input as reference data and the
classified map was input as classified data in the accuracy assessment table. The error
matrix compares the relationship between known reference data (ground truth) and the
corresponding results of an automated classification (Lillesand and Kiefer 2000). The
overall accuracy, producer and consumer accuracy are discussed in section 5.2.
4.7 Change Detection
Change detection is the process of identifying differences in the state of an object or
phenomenon by observing it at different times (Singh 1989). Many change detection
techniques have been developed (Moran et al 2004); write function memory insertion,
multi-date image composite, image algebra, post classification comparison, image
regression, image differencing, image rationing, principle component analysis, change
vector analysis. The accuracy of change detection analysis outputs depend on the
following conditions:
Low RMS error of geometric registration of two-date images,
High quality of ground truth data and field investigation information,
The selection of change detection methods or algorithms,
Proper knowledge of the study area,
Proper multi-date image classification scheme,
Analyst effort and experience.
In this study, the post classification comparison method was implemented. To use this
method, rectified and classified remotely sensed image is necessary. The accuracy of
this change detection method depends on the accuracy of the two-date image
classifications. The change detection statistics shows the change of each class feature by
25
pixels, percentages or areas. The main disadvantage of this method is that the accuracy
is dependent on the individual image classification of each state image and its very time
consuming. The change detection results are discussed in the analysis chapter.
26
Chapter 5
Analysis and Results
5.1 Spectral Angle Mapper (SAM)
Figure 12 shows significant landuse changes over 12 years. In this study, winter
agriculture and forest have decreased while irrigated agriculture and settlement
increased significantly from 1989 into 2001. Increasing population and their food
demands are the main causes for this current landuse pattern in the study areas. Indeed,
the green revolution
1
after 1960 in Bangladesh is one of the main reasons for the change
from winter agriculture into irrigated agriculture. The green revolution leads to the
proper utilization of chemical fertilizer, hybrid seeds and modern irrigation system for
agricultural purpose. So far, irrigated agriculture has higher yield than any other
farming system in Bangladesh. In addition, figure 12 also shows an increase of water
bodies from 1989 to 2001 due to excavation of new canals, ponds and lakes for drinking
water as well as agricultural purposes.
Landuse Variation from 1989 to 2001
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
Winter Irrigated Settlement Forest Water
Land type
Hectare
1989
2001
Figure 12. Landuse variation from 1989 to 2001
1
The Green revolution has emerged in 1960s in order to feed the enormous Bangladeshi population using
high yield variety (HYV) seeds, irrigation, and chemical fertilizer.
27
Figure 13 and 15 show landuse pattern of 1989 where winter agriculture, forest (as
green and yellow color) are predominant features, whereas irrigated agriculture and
settlement are the predominant landuse features in the 2001 image (figure 14, 16).
Figure 13. The result of the landuse map, based on supervised image classification of 1989
data.
28
Figure 14. Landuse map covering the Tanor and Godagai thana. The map is based on supervised
image classification of 2001 image.
29
Major Landuse in 1989
Water
Winter
Irrigated
Settlement
Forest
Figure 15. Major landuse in 1989 (extracted from TM image)
Major Landuse in 2001
Water
Winter
Irrigated
Settlement
Forest
Figure16. Major landuse in 2001 (extracted from ETM image)
The main driving forces of landuse changes in the study areas are mainly increased
population and extensive agricultural practices. Figure 17 shows temporal change of
each landuse class over the study areas where irrigated agriculture (yellow color) and
settlements (cyan color) has upward tendency while forest and winter agriculture has
downward tendency.
30
Changing Pattern of each Landuse of the study areas
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
Years
Hectare
Water
Winter
Irrigated
Settlement
Forest
Figure17. Changing pattern of each landuse of the study areas.
5.2 Accuracy Assessment of SAM classification
Accuracy assessment was performed for both classifications using test data sets and the
classified image. The calculated accuracy is shown in tables 4 and 5. The achieved
classification accuracies like producer accuracy, user accuracy as well as overall
accuracy were acceptable in this study.
Table 4. Accuracy assessment of classified map of 1989
Class Producer accuracy
(using test data)
User accuracy
(using test data)
Water 100% 91%
Forest 81% 88%
Settlement 91% 88%
Winter Agri 99% 98%
Irrigated Agri 98% 94%
Overall Accuracy = (1389/1474) 94.23%
Kappa Coefficient = 0.92
31
Table 5. Accuracy assessment of classified map of 2001
Class Prod. accuracy
User accuracy
Water 100% 100%
Forest 70%, 92%
Settlement 93% 80%
Winter Agri 100% 95%
Irrigated Agri 94% 97%
Overall Accuracy = (1113/1175) 94.72%
Kappa Coefficient = 0.93
After accuracy assessment it was obvious that the lower producer/user accuracy was
found in the forest class of 1989 and 2001 image. The spectral pixels of forest were
mixed with the irrigated agriculture spectral pixels to be possible cause to achieve lower
accuracy in the class. Poor spectral separability was found in the irrigated agriculture-
forest, settlement-forest, and winter agriculture-forest due to mixed pixels (appendix A
and B). The whole report of classification accuracy is given in appendix E and F.
5.3 Change Detection of Image Classification
Post classification comparison was used to produce a detailed tabulation of changes
between the two classified images. The 1989 classified map was input as initial state
and the 2001 classified map was input as final state. The result shows the changes of
landuse from the initial state into the final state.
According to the change detection report (table 6) from 1989 to 2001, irrigated
agriculture increased about 156 Km
2
while winter agriculture is decreased about - 49
Km
2
over the areas. During this period, forest has decreased whereas settlements
increased by 13 Km
2
. The main causes of this change are mainly irrigated agriculture
32
and increasing population. Water bodies have increased by 4 Km
2
over the period. The
increase and decrease of each landuse category are shown in table 6 also.
Table 6. Change detection report (Km
2
)
Initial State Image as 1989
1989
2001
Water Winter
Agricultur
e
Irrigated
Agricultur
e
Settlem
ent
Forest Row
Total
Class
Total
Water
27.88 0.91 1.58 3.69 5.31 39.38 39.92
Winter
0.11 24.98 22.14 23.37 25.15 95.76 95.89
Irrigated
2.28 65.55 75.83 81.97 90.04 315.66 316.88
Forest
4.60 10.99 18.01 13.91 37.24 85.75 85.35
Settlemen
t
0.64 42.02 42.90 70.87 50.02 206.45 207.23
Class
Total
35.52
144.44 160.47 193.82 207.77
Class
Changes
7.64
119.46 84.64 122.96 170.53
F
i
n
a
l
I
m
a
g
e
Image
Difference
4.40 -48.54 156.41 13.40 -122.42
5.4 Land Degradation by Tasseled Cap Transformation
In this study, degraded soils were extracted from the soil brightness image of the TCT.
Maximum threshold value range was used to extract soil information (figure 11).
Figures 18, 19 and 20 show the actual land degradation situation of 1989 and 2001. In
1989, the degraded soil areas were 2777 hectares which increased to 5064 hectares in
2001. Degraded soils have increased by about 2287 Km
2
in 2001, which is 6% of the
total land of the study areas. The potential reasons for the land degradation in the study
areas were identified by BARC (1997), which are as followings:
Population and poverty
Improper agricultural practices
Improper irrigation
33
Development of rural road network
Land ownership and tenure
Rural housing
Urbanization
Brick making and kiln
Significant degraded soils were found in the south-western part of the study areas
(figure 20). Comparatively, fewer degraded soils were found in the north and middle-
eastern part of the study areas (figure 19).
Trends of Land Degradation
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
Years
Hectare
Trend line
Figure 18. Trends of land degradation in the study areas
34
Figure 19. Land Degradation in 1989
35
Figure 20. Land Degradation in 2001
36
5.5 Accuracy Assessment of Change Detection
In order to calculate change detection accuracy in this study, the final classified image
of TM and ETM
+
was crossed into a single layer which was produced 25 different
classes. As the accuracy assessment required very intensive visual analysis, we
aggregated the sub-change categories of each land cover type into one change class
(Zhou et al 2008). Therefore, the 25 different classes were aggregated into 6 major sub-
categories i,e. changed water, changed winter agriculture, changed irrigated agriculture,
changed settlement, changed forest, and no-changed class. Above 516 pixels for each
changed class and 635 pixels for no-changed class were selected as test pixel in the
error matrix table. The overall accuracy, kappa, producer and user accuracy are in table
7. The whole calculated error matrix is shown in appendix J.
Table 7. Accuracy assessment of change detection
Class Prod. accuracy
User accuracy
Water 77.15% 99.55%
Winter Agriculture 78.24%, 95.19%
Irrigated Agriculture 85.08% 82.14%
Settlement 76.70% 66.39%
C
h
a
n
g
e
c
l
a
s
s
Forest 88.54% 89.21%
N
o
c
h
a
n
g
e
c
l
a
s
s
No-Changed 88.54% 67.20%
Overall Accuracy = (2671/3310) 80.69%
Kappa Coefficient = 0.77
37
38
Chapter 6
Conclusions and Recommendations
6.1 Key Outcomes of the Research
The main outcomes of the study are as follows-
Water areas (including wetland) have increased in the study areas.
Forests were reduced to settlement and irrigated agriculture.
The winter agriculture has been changed into irrigated agriculture.
Post classification comparison method was used to identify landuse changes
over 12 years in the study.
The extraction of degraded soils using the brightness image from the tasseled
cap transformation (TCT) output gave good result. Degraded soils have
increased by 50% from 1989 to 2001.
The process of land degradation is high in the South-Western part of the study
areas.
6.2 Research Issues and Recommendations
Landsat TM and ETM
+
were used to detect changes of landuse and identify land
degradation in the study. To improve landuse classification and detection of land
degradation, use of a soil erosion model, and a digital elevation model (DEM) along
with high resolution satellite data is suggested. Spatial correlation between landuse
pattern, ground water level, population density and soil moisture could be used to
identify and quantify land degradation. The application of image fusion method needs
to be tested and verified. Ground truthing, which has not been done in the study, is
recommended in future research as well. From our analysis it could be observed that a
large amount of soil was degraded.
39
Deforestation is one of the main reasons for soil degradation; thus, proper management
of forest resources and soils would be an effective way to prevent land degradation.
Promoting extensive forestation activity in Bangladesh would be an effective
management strategy. Forestation activities should be applied in the study areas by
government and non-governmental (NGO) policy. In addition, wetlands have an
important role in the environment. Their natural ability to improve ground water storage
increases the production of green vegetation. Therefore, more wetland areas adjacent to
lakes, ponds and canals could serve as protection against land degradation in the study
areas. Top soil erosion is a main problem in the land degradation process. Proper crop
rotation and management of overgrazing can reduce erosion of top soil.
To maximize productivity of irrigated agriculture, local farmers are using chemical
fertilizers, pesticides, and deep tubewells (for sub-surface water pumping) in the study
areas. These types of activities are also causes for land degradation in the study areas.
The use of bio-fertilizer is recommended.
Land degradation is a common problem in the study areas. Irrational landuse and
inappropriate land management are direct causes of this situation. To prevent land use
changes that lead to land degradation, the following actions can be utilized by
government as well as NGOs in the study areas:
Refined landuse policy,
Planned land and settlement,
Planed land and agriculture policy,
Planed land and forest,
Planed wetland,
Planed land and industry.
40
6.3 Conclusions
Remote sensing technology is a powerful tool for measuring, mapping, monitoring and
modeling of natural resources. In this study, changes landuse and land degradation were
determined and assessed using Landsat satellite imagery. The results of the study
indicate that landuse changes led to the degradation of large areas of soil from 1989 to
2001. These changes were brought about by over-population and socio-economic
activities. As a conclusion, it should be stated-
IF Population increases THEN
Settlement will be increased
Irrigated agriculture will be increased
AND
Forest will be reduced
Winter agriculture will be reduced
ANDIF all Process continue for a long period of time THEN
Landuse will be changed
Land degradation will be increased
41
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Appendix A
Pair Separation ; TM of 1989
Input File: tm_89
ROI Name: (Jeffries-Matusita, Transformed Divergence)
Pair Separation (least to most);
Irrigated Agriculture [Red] 9679 points and Forest [Yellow] 2984 points - 1.98474678
Winter Agriculture [Green] 2036 points and Settlement [Cyan] 578 points - 2.00000000
Winter Agriculture [Green] 2036 points and Forest [Yellow] 2984 points - 2.00000000
Water [Blue] 2132 points and Irrigated Agriculture [Red] 9679 points - 2.00000000
Winter Agriculture [Green] 2036 points and Irrigated Agriculture [Red] 9679 points -
2.00000000
Irrigated Agriculture [Red] 9679 points and Settlement [Cyan] 578 points - 2.00000000
45
Water [Blue] 2132 points and Settlement [Cyan] 578 points - 2.00000000
Water [Blue] 2132 points and Winter Agriculture [Green] 2036 points - 2.00000000
Settlement [Cyan] 578 points and Forest [Yellow] 2984 points - 2.00000000
Water [Blue] 2132 points and Forest [Yellow] 2984 points - 2.00000000
Appendix B
Pair Separation ; ETM of 2001
Input File: etm_01
ROI Name: (Jeffries-Matusita, Transformed Divergence)
Pair Separation (least to most);
Irrigated [Red] 8543 points and Forest [Yellow] 327 points - 1.98649053
Winter [Green] 104 points and Forest [Yellow] 327 points - 1.98801401
Set [Cyan] 1707 points and Forest [Yellow] 327 points - 1.99999979
Irrigated [Red] 8543 points and Set [Cyan] 1707 points - 2.00000000
Water [Blue] 3710 points and Irrigated [Red] 8543 points - 2.00000000
Water [Blue] 3710 points and Set [Cyan] 1707 points - 2.00000000
Winter [Green] 104 points and Set [Cyan] 1707 points - 2.00000000
Winter [Green] 104 points and Irrigated [Red] 8543 points - 2.00000000
Water [Blue] 3710 points and Winter [Green] 104 points - 2.00000000
Water [Blue] 3710 points and Forest [Yellow] 327 points - 2.00000000
Appendix C
Training site signature composition of TM-1989 data
Filename: G:\Thesis\Image\All_Masked\Study_final\TM\tm_89
ROI: Water [Blue] 2132 points
Basic Stats Min Max Mean Stdev
Band 1 1 6 2.817542 1.031194
Band 2 22 29 24.720450 0.956439
Band 3 5 8 6.943246 0.899484
Band 4 15 22 19.317542 2.343759
Band 5 27 52 47.026266 1.815845
Band 6 30 50 44.202627 1.854955
Band 7 75 104 95.337711 2.588721
46
Appendix D
Training site signature composition of ETM data
Filename: G:\Thesis\Image\All_Masked\Study_final\ETM+\etm_01
ROI: Water [Blue] 3710 points
Basic Stats Min Max Mean Stdev
Band 1 1 24 12.194340 1.787504
Band 2 1 25 14.914286 1.557104
Band 3 32 34 33.000539 0.789524
Band 4 64 80 72.563342 1.963582
Band 5 75 77 75.592183 0.605086
Band 6 84 97 90.124528 1.744418
Appendix E
Detailed accuracy assessments report of ETM, 2001
Confusion Matrix: G:\Thesis\Image\All_Masked\Study_final\ETM+\SAM_New
Overall Accuracy = (1113/1175) 94.7234%
Kappa Coefficient = 0.9308
Ground Truth (Pixels)
Class Test-Water Test-Winter Test-Irrigate Test-Settle Test-Forest
Unclassified 0 0 0 0 0
Water [Blue] 400 0 0 0 0
Winter [Green 0 194 8 2 0
Irrigated [Re 0 0 280 2 6
Set [Cyan] 17 0 0 7 154 30
Forest [Yello 0 0 1 6 85
Total 400 194 296 164 121
Ground Truth (Pixels)
Class Total
Unclassified 0
Water [Blue] 400
47
Winter [Green 204
Irrigated [Re 288
Set [Cyan] 17 191
Forest [Yello 92
Total 1175
Ground Truth (Percent)
Class Test-Water Test-Winte r Test-Irrigate Test-Settle Test-Forest
Unclassified 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Water [Blue] 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Winter [Green 0.00 100.00 2.70 1.22 0.00
Irrigated [Re 0.00 0.00 94.59 1.22 4.96
Set [Cyan] 17 0.00 0.00 2.36 93.90 24.79
Forest [Yello 0.00 0.00 0.34 3.66 70.25
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Ground Truth (Percent)
Class Total
Unclassified 0.00
Water [Blue] 34.04
Winter [Green 17.36
Irrigated [Re 24.51
Set [Cyan] 17 16.26
Forest [Yello 7.83
Total 100.00
Class Commission Omission Commission Omission
(Percent) (Percent) (Pixels) (Pixels)
Water [Blue] 0.00 0.00 0/400 0/400
Winter [Green 4.90 0.00 10/204 0/194
Irrigated [Re 2.78 5.41 8/288 16/296
Set [Cyan] 17 19.37 6.10 37/191 10/164
Forest [Yello 7.61 29.75 7/92 36/121
Class Prod. Acc. User Acc. Prod. Acc. User Acc.
(Percent) (Percent) (Pixels) (Pixels)
Water [Blue] 100.00 100.00 400/400 400/400
Winter [Green 100.00 95.10 194/194 194/204
48
Irrigated [Re 94.59 97.22 280/296 280/288
Set [Cyan] 17 93.90 80.63 154/164 154/191
Forest [Yello 70.25 92.39 85/121 85/92
Appendix F
Detailed accuracy assessments report of TM, 1989
Confusion Matrix: G:\Thesis\Image\All_Masked\Study_final\TM\SAM_TM
Overall Accuracy = (1389/1474) 94.2334%
Kappa Coefficient = 0.9240
Ground Truth (Pixels)
Class Test-Water Test-Winter Test-Irrigate Test-Settle Test-Forest
Unclassified 0 0 0 0 0
Water [Blue] 505 0 0 0 0
Winter Agricu 0 147 0 1 1
Irrigated Agr 0 0 170 4 5
Settlement [C 0 1 0 347 44
Forest [Yello 0 0 2 27 220
Total 505 148 172 379 270
Ground Truth (Pixels)
Class Total
Unclassified 0
Water [Blue] 505
Winter Agricu 149
Irrigated Agr 179
Settlement [C 392
Forest [Yello 249
Total 1474
Ground Truth (Percent)
Class Test-Water Test-Winter Test-Irrigate Test-Settle Test-Forest
49
Unclassified 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Water [Blue] 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Winter Agricu 0.00 99.32 0.00 0.26 0.37
Irrigated Agr 0.00 0.00 98.84 1.06 1.85
Settlement [C 0.00 0.68 0.00 91.56 16.30
Forest [Yello 0.00 0.00 1.16 7.12 81.48
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Ground Truth (Percent)
Class Total
Unclassified 0.00
Water [Blue] 34.26
Winter Agricu 10.11
Irrigated Agr 12.14
Settlement [C 26.59
Forest [Yello 16.89
Total 100.00
Class Commission Omission Commission Omission
(Percent) (Percent) (Pixels) (Pixels)
Water [Blue] 0.00 0.00 0/505 0/505
Winter Agricu 1.34 0.68 2/149 1/148
Irrigated Agr 5.03 1.16 9/179 2/172
Settlement [C 11.48 8.44 45/392 32/379
Forest [Yello 11.65 18.52 29/249 50/270
Class Prod. Acc. User Acc. Prod. Acc. User Acc.
(Percent) (Percent) (Pixels) (Pixels)
Water [Blue] 100.00 100.00 505/505 505/505
Winter Agricu 99.32 98.66 147/148 147/149
Irrigated Agr 98.84 94.97 170/172 170/179
Settlement [C 91.56 88.52 347/379 347/392
Forest [Yello 81.48 88.35 220/270 220/249
50
Appendix G
Change detection report from 1989 to 2001
Appendix H
TCT basic statistics of ETM and TM data
ETM Data Min Max Mean Stdev
Band 1 0.000000 312.570679 77.846225 78.777735
Band 2 -114.223999 32.888000 -29.530885 31.269670
Band 3 -127.077301 0.000000 -24.656711 25.561440
Band 4 -36.266594 0.000000 -9.274698 9.471597
Band 5 -60.996700 67.695892 1.953724 8.152022
Band 6 -44.664707 37.268898 -5.469848 8.285749
TM Data Min Max Mean Stdev
Band 1 0.000000 318.829437 57.459002 58.665302
51
Band 2 -76.331940 197.056625 8.041407 12.060491
Band 3 -175.968689 90.832397 4.343508 10.257398
Appendix I
Image normalization in TM data
Blue-2001 vs. Blue-1989
52
Green-2001 vs. Green-1989
53
RED-2001 vs.RED-89
54
NIR-2001 vs. NIR-1989
55
MIR-2001 vs. MIR-1989
56
MIR2-2001 vs. MIR2-1989
57
Appendix J
Error matrix of the Change detection
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