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Water treatment, storage
and blowdown
For steam boilers
1
Contents
Water and its impurities 4
Dissolved solids 5
Suspended solids 5
Dissolved gases 5
Scum forming substances 6
Hardness 7
Alkaline hardness 7
Non-alkaline hardness 7
Total hardness 7
Non-scale forming salts 9
Comparative units 9
Raw water quality 10
pH value 11
pH chart 12
Water treatment 13
Objectives 13
Freedom from scale 13
Freedom from corrosion 13
Safety 14
Feedwater 15
External water treatment 16
Ion exchange 16
Base exchange softening 17
Dealkalization 17
Dealkalizer 18
Demineralisation 19
Summary 19
2
Storage 21
Feedtank 21
Operating temperature 21
Feedtank design 23
Feedtank materials 23
Feedtank capacity 24
Feedtank construction 24
Feedtank piping 24
Conditioning treatment 26
Dissolved gases 27
Total dissolved solids 28
TDS measurement 28
Relative density method 28
Conductivity method 28
Comparison of units used to measure TDS 30
Deciding on the required boilerwater TDS 31
Calculating the blowdown rate 33
Example 33
Boiler water sampling 34
Sample coolers 34
Determining the boiler TDS level using electrical conductivity method 35
Automatic TDS control 36
Controlling the blowdown rate 38
Flowrate control 38
Pressure drop control 38
TDS blowdown control valves 39
Closed loop electronic control systems 40
Conductivity measurement in the boiler 42
Conversion of a conductivity measurement into a resistance 43
Cell constant 43
Example 43
Measuring the resistance 43
3
Heat recovery from boiler blowdown 44
Energy in blowdown 44
Flash steam 44
How to recover and use flash steam 47
Equipment required 48
A flash vessel 48
A steam trap to drain the vessel 48
A vacuum breaker 48
A distributor 48
Further heat recovery from heat exchangers 49
Residual blowdown cooling 49
Design considerations 50
Preferred type of heat exchanger 51
Bottom blowdown 52
Suspended solids 52
Bottom blowdown valve 53
Timer controlled automatic blowdown 54
Blowdown vessels 55
Construction standard 55
Design pressure 55
Design temperature 55
Size 55
Operation 55
Vent 55
Tapping for a pressure gauge 56
Cooling system 56
Multi-boiler installations 57
Number of boilers blowing down at any one time 57
Piping 57
Valving 57
Regulation and guidance notes 58
4
Evaporation and
transportation from
surface water bodies,
land surface and
vegetation
Well
Percolation
Fresh ground water
Interface
Streams flow
to oceans
Consumptive
use Evaporation
from oceans
Precipitation
Atmospheric moisture
Saline ground water
Before boiler blowdown can be discussed and understood, it is
necessary to establish a definition of water along with its impurities
and associated terms such as hardness, pH etc.
Water is the most important raw material on earth. Not only does it
maintain life, it is also used for transportation, it serves as a
solvent and it stores energy.
Pure water (H
2
0) is tasteless, odourless and colourless in its pure
state; however, pure water is very uncommon. All natural waters
contain various types and amounts of impurities.
Good drinking water does not necessarily make good boiler
feedwater. Whilst minerals in drinking water are readily absorbed
by the human body, boilers are less able to cope with them.
These minerals will cause damage in a steam boiler if left
unchecked.
Of the world's water stock, 97 % is found in the oceans, and a
significant part of that is bound in the polar glaciers - only 0.65 %
is available for domestic and industrial use.
This small proportion would soon be consumed if it were not for
the water cycle. After evaporation, the water turns into clouds
which are partly condensed during their journey and thus fall to
earth as rain. We might consider rain water as fairly pure but it will
contain impurities such as carbonic acid, nitrogen and, in industrial
areas, sulphur dioxide.
Water and its impurities
Fig. 1 Water cycle
Total surface and ground
water flow to oceans
5
Charged with these ingredients, the water starts its circulation. It
percolates through the upper layers of the earth to the water table
or flows over the surface of the earth dissolving and collecting
additional impurities.
These impurities may form deposits on heat transfer surfaces,
causing metal corrosion, reduction in heat transfer and associated
overheating with loss of mechanical strength.
As shown in Table 1, together with their technical and commonly
used names, chemical symbols and effects - the common
impurities in raw water are:-
Scale forming substances; the principal ones are the carbonates
and sulphates of calcium and magnesium. Not all dissolved solids
will form scale.
Sludge forming substances; usually solid mineral or organic
particles carried in suspension. These substances are not
generally a problem with most waters.
Corrosive impurities; oxygen and carbon dioxide can be readily
dissolved by water.
Dissolved gases
Suspended solids
Dissolved solids
Table 1
Name Symbol Common name Effect
Calcium carbonate CaCO
3
Chalk, Limestone Soft scale
Calcium bicarbonate Ca(HCO
3
)
2
Soft scale + CO
2
Calcium sulphate
Gypsum,
CaSO
4
Plaster of paris
Hard scale
Calcium chloride CaCl
2
Corrosion
Magnesium carbonate MgCO
3
Soft scale
Magnesium sulphate MgSO
4
Magnesite Corrosion
Magnesium bicarbonate Mg(HCO
3
)
2
Epsom salts Scale, corrosion
Sodium chloride NaCl Common salt Electrolysis
Sodium carbonate
Washing soda
Na
2
CO
3
or soda ash
Alkalinity
Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO
3
Baking soda Priming, foaming
Sodium hydroxide
Alkalinity,
NaOH Caustic soda
embrittlement
Sodium sulphate Na
2
SO
4
Glauber salts Alkalinity
Silicon dioxide SiO
2
Silica Hard scale
6
Mineral impurities that foam or scum: usually soda in the form of a
carbonate, chloride or sulphate.
In practice, any scale forming salts within the boiler should be
chemically controlled so that they produce suspended solids or
sludge rather than scale.
The amount of impurities present is extremely small and they
are usually expressed in any water analysis in the form of parts
per million (ppm), by weight or alternatively in milligrams per
litre (mg/l).
Scum forming
substances
7
Hardness
Alkaline hardness
(temporary
hardness)
Non-alkaline
hardness and
carbonates
(permanent
hardness)
Water is referred to as being either 'hard' or 'soft'. Hard water
contains scale forming impurities while soft water contains little or
none of these. The difference can easily be recognised by its
effect on soap. Much more soap is required to make a lather with
hard water than with soft water.
Hardness is caused by the presence of the mineral salts of calcium
and magnesium and it is these minerals that encourage the
formation of scale.
There are two common classifications of hardness:-
Calcium and magnesium bicarbonates are responsible for alkaline
hardness. The salts dissolve in water to form an alkaline solution
and when heat is applied, they decompose releasing carbon
dioxide and soft scale or sludge. The name temporary hardness
is sometimes used because the hardness is removed by boiling.
(See Figures 2 and 3 - the latter representing the situation within
the boiler.)
This is also due to the presence of the salts of calcium and
magnesium but in the form of sulphates and chlorides. These fall
out of solution due to reduced solubility as the temperature rises
and form hard scale which is difficult to remove.
The presence of silica in boiler water can lead to hard scale which
can react with calcium and magnesium salts to form silicates that
will severely retard heat transfer and cause overheating of the
metal.
Total hardness is not to be classified as a type of hardness, but as
the sum of concentrations of calcium and magnesium ions present
when these are both expressed as CaCo
3
. If the water is alkaline,
a proportion of this hardness, equal in magnitude to the total
alkalinity also expressed as CaCo
3
, is considered as alkaline
hardness and the remainder as non-alkaline hardness. (See
Figure 4.)
Total hardness
8
CO
3
Carbon
dioxide
CaCO
3
Calcium
carbonate
H
2
CO
3
Carbonic
acid
H
2
O
Water
Ca(HCO
3
)
2
Calcium
bicarbonate
H
2
CO
3
Carbonic
acid
Carbon dioxide combines with water to form carbonic acid.
Limestone (calcium carbonate) is dissolved by carbonic acid to form calcium bicarbonate
Ca(HCO
3
)
2
Calcium
bicarbonate
CaCO
3
Calcium
carbonate
CO
2
Carbon
dioxide
H
2
O
Water
Mg(HCO
3
)
2
Magnesium
bicarbonate
MgCO
3
Magnesium
carbonate
CO
2
Carbon
dioxide
H
2
O
Water
Carbon dioxide combines with the steam to dissolve in the condensate
to form carbonic acid.
Similarly, magnesite (magnesium carbonate) is dissolved by carbonic acid
to form magnesium bicarbonate
SCALE + CARBONIC ACID
SCALE + CARBONIC ACID
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
HEAT
HEAT
9
2NaHCO
3
Sodium
bicarbonate
Na
2
CO
3
Sodium
carbonate
CO
2
Carbon
dioxide
H
2
O
Water
Non-hardness salts, such as sodium salts are also present, and
are far more soluble than the salts of calcium or magnesium and
will not generally form scale on the surfaces of a boiler, as shown
below in Figure 5.
Non-scale
forming salts
Total
hardness
Non-alkaline
hardness
(Permanent)
Alkaline
hardness
(Temporary)
Fig. 4
Na
2
CO
3
Sodium
carbonate
H
2
O
Water
2NaOH
Sodium
hydroxide
CO
2
Carbon
dioxide
Adding the Total hardness + Non hardness salts, gives us
Total
hardness
Non-hardness
salts
Total
dissolved
solids (TDS)
Fig. 5
When salts dissolve in water they form electrically charged particles
called ions.
The metallic parts (calcium, sodium, magnesium etc.) can be
identified as cations because they are attracted to the cathode
and carry positive electrical charges.
Comparative units
HEAT
HEAT
10
Anions are non-metallic and carry negative charges - bicarbonates,
carbonate, chloride, sulphate etc.; these are attracted to the anode.
Each impurity is generally expressed as a chemically equivalent
amount of calcium carbonate since its molecular weight is 100.
Water quality can vary tremendously from one region to another
depending on the sources of water, local minerals etc. Table 2
gives some typical figures for areas in a relatively small country
like the UK.
Raw water quality
and regional
variations
Table 2
In Scotland and Northern Ireland
various levels of hardness occur.
Manchester
Birmingham
Bristol
Leeds
Lincoln
Norwich
London
Brighton
Soft to moderately soft
Slightly hard to
moderately hard
Hard to very hard
Southampton
Newcastle
Upon Tyne
Fig. 6
Swansea
Cardiff
All impurities expressed in mg/l as calcium carbonate equivalents
Alkaline
Non-
Non-
Total
Area hardness
alkaline Total
hardness
dissolved
(Temporary)
hardness hardness
salts
solids
(Permanent) (TDS)
Leeds 12 10 22 24 46
York 156 92 248 62 310
Birmingham 28 72 100 130 230
London 180 192 372 50 422
11
Another term we must consider is the pH value; this is not an
impurity or constituent but merely a numerical value representing
the potential hydrogen content of water - which is a measure of
the acidic or alkaline nature of the water. Water, H
2
O, has two
types of ions - hydrogen ions (H
+
) and hydroxyl ions (OH
-
).
pH value
Table 3
If the hydrogen ions are predominant, the solution will be acidic
with a pH value between 0 and 6. If the hydroxyl ions are
predominant, the solution will be alkaline with a pH value
between 8 and 14. If there are an equal number of both hydroxyl
and hydrogen ions, then the solution will be neutral with a pH
value of 7.
Acids and alkalis have the effect of increasing the conductivity of
water above that of a neutral sample. For example, a sample of
water with a pH value of 12 will have a higher conductivity than a
sample that has a pH value of 7.
pH
Hydrogen ion Hydroxyl ion
value
concentration concentration Nature
H
+
OH
-
0 10
0
10
-14
Acid
7 10
-7
10
-7
Neutral
14 10
-14
10
0
Alkaline
12
Figure 7 shows the pH chart, which illustrates the pH values
already mentioned both numerically and in relation to everyday
substances.
pH: a scale of acidity and alkalinity:
pH<7 = acidic, pH7 = neutral, pH>7 = alkaline.
pH chart
Fig. 7 pH chart
8.4 Sodium bi. carb. solution (0.42 % NaHCO
3
)
12.0 Potassium hydroxide solution (0.056 % KOH)
13.0 Potassium hydroxide solution (0.56 % KOH)
13.0 Sodium hydroxide solution (0.4 % NaOH)
Lemon juice 2.3
Wine 2.8 to 3.8
Beer 4.0 to 5.0
Milk 6.3 to 6.6
Water, chemically pure 7.0
Sea water 8.3
Lime-water, saturated 12.3
0.3 Sulphuric acid (4.9 % H
2
SO
4
)
2.0 Hydrochloric acid (0.036 % HCI)
2.9 Acetic acid (0.6 % CH
3
COOH)
3.4 Acetic acid (0.06 % CH
3
COOH)
5.2 Boric acid (0.2 % H
3
BO
3
)
9.2 Borax solution (1.9 % Na
2
B
4
0
7
)
10.6 Ammonia solution (0.017 % NH
3
)
11.1 Ammonia solution (0.17 % NH
3
)
11.6 Ammonia solution (1.7% NH
3
)
14.0 Sodium hydroxide solution (4 % NaOH)
14.0 Potassium hydroxide solution (5.6 % KOH)
Vinegar 3.1
Fruit juice 3.5 to 4.0
Marshy water 4.0
0.1 Hydrochloric acid (3.6 % HCI)
1.1 Hydrochloric acid (0.36 % HCI)
1.2 Sulphuric acid (0.49 % H
2
SO
4
)
2.4 Acetic acid (6 % CH
3
COOH)
2.1 Sulphuric acid (0.049 % H
2
SO
4
)
0
1
2
3
4
6
5
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
pH value
13
Freedom from scale
Good quality steam
The operating aims for steam boiler plant are as follows:
Long working life.
Maximum efficiency.
Safe operation.
Minimum maintenance.
The quality of treatment given to the water used to produce the
steam in the boiler, will help to determine whether these aims are
met. There is a need to operate under the following criteria:-
If hardness is present in the feedwater and not controlled
chemically, then scaling of the heat transfer surfaces will occur
reducing heat transfer and efficiency - thus necessitating frequent
cleaning of the boiler. In extreme cases, local hot spots can occur
leading to mechanical damage or even tube failure.
If the water contains dissolved gases, particularly oxygen,
corrosion of the boiler surfaces, piping and other equipment is
likely to occur. If the pH value of the water is to low, the resulting
acidic solution will attack metal surfaces. If it is too alkaline this
can give rise to other problems such as foaming which will be
explained later.
Caustic embrittlement or caustic cracking, which causes fine
cracks in metal, must also be prevented in order to avoid metal
failure. Cracking and embrittlement are caused by too high a
concentration of sodium hydroxide. Modern welded boilers are
less susceptible than older riveted boilers except in the area of
tube ends.
If the impurities in the boiler feedwater are not dealt with properly,
carryover of boiler water into the steam system can occur.
Carryover can be caused by two factors.
1. Priming is the ejection of boiler water into the steam take off
and generally results from one of the following.
Operating the boiler with too high a water level.
Operating the boiler below its design pressure. This increases
the volume and the velocity of the steam at the release surface.
Excessive steam demand.
2. Foaming is due to the chemical condition of the water. The
steam bubbles remain small, do not burst and get carried
over into the system.
Carryover of solids into the steam system can cause deposits to
accumulate. This can result in blocked valves and steam traps.
Water treatment
Objectives
Freedom from
corrosion and
chemical attack
14
The dangers of overheating due to scale, and of corrosion due to
dissolved gases, are easy to understand. In extreme cases,
foaming, scale and sludge formation can lead to the boiler water
level controls sensing unreal levels - thereby creating a danger to
personnel and process alike.
As a boiler generates steam, any impurities which are in the
boiler feedwater and which do not boil off with the steam will
concentrate in the boiler. Depending on the nature of the impurities
and the conditions inside the boiler, such impurities may either:
form scale on the hot surfaces of the boiler; precipitate as finely
divided solid particles (forming a suspension or a sludge); stay
dissolved in the boiler water as dissolved solids.
Boiler feedwater treatment, which is discussed later in the technical
reference guide, is necessary in order to minimise corrosion, to
avoid scale and to minimise foaming and the carry over of boiler
water into the steam system.
It is generally agreed that where possible, the principal feedwater
treatment should be external to the boiler.
Safety
15
As steam is generated, the water within the boiler is evaporated
and this must be replaced by pumping in boiler feedwater.
As the steam passes around the steam system to the various
pieces of steam using plant, it changes state back to hot water -
condensate.
Unless some contamination is likely due to the process, this
condensate is high quality hot water which is ideal for boiler
feedwater. It makes, therefore, economic sense to return as much
condensate as possible for reuse. It is almost impossible to return
all the condensate. Additionally, some steam is used directly in
the process for applications such as humidification and usually
there will be water losses from the boiler (e.g. blowdown). Make-up
water will therefore have to be introduced to the system to maintain
the correct working levels. The make-up water is water that has
been chemically treated. (Figure 8)
Feedwater
Water
treatment
plant
Feedwater
Raw water
Blowdown
Condensate return
Make-up water
(Treated water)
Feedtank
Steam
The chemical treatment that needs to be applied to the feedwater,
depends on many factors such as:-
The impurities inherent in the make-up water and its hardness.
The volume of condensate returned for reuse and its quality
in terms of pH value, TDS content and hardness.
The design of the boiler and its operating conditions.
Deciding on the type of chemical regime and water treatment
system is a matter for the water treatment specialist who should
always be consulted.
Boiler
Feedpump
Fig. 8 Feedwater system
16
External water treatment
These can be listed as:-
1. Lime and lime / Soda softening.
2. Ion exchange: a - Base exchange.
b - Dealkalization.
c - Demineralisation.
3. Reverse osmosis.
Under (1), with lime softening, hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide)
reacts with calcium and magnesium bicarbonates to form a
removable sludge. This reduces the alkaline (temporary)
hardness. Lime / Soda (Soda ash) softening reduces non-alkaline
(permanent) hardness by chemical reaction.
Reverse osmosis (3) is a process whereby pure water is forced
through a semi-permeable membrane leaving a concentrated
solution of impurities which is rejected to waste.
But by far the most widely used methods are those shown under
Group 2 - Ion exchange - and we will, therefore, concentrate on
these in a little more detail.
An ion exchanger is an insoluble material normally made in the
form of resin beads of 0.5 / 1.0 mm diameter. The resin beads are
usually employed in the form of a packed bed contained in a
glass reinforced plastic pressure vessel. The resin beads are
porous and hydrophilic - that is, they absorb water. Within the
bead structure are fixed ionic groups with which are associated
mobile exchangeable ions of opposite charge. These mobile ions
can be replaced by similarly charged ions from the salts dissolved
in the water surrounding the beads.
Ion exchange
SAC
(Na+)
Raw water
TDS = 200 ppm
Brine regeneration
Ca(HCO
3
)
2
Calcium bicarbonate
MgCI
2
Magnesium chloride
Na
2
SO
4
Sodium sulphate
SAC - Strong acid cation resin
Na+ - Sodium form
Fig. 9 Base exchange softener
2NaHCO
3
Sodium bicarbonate
2NaCI Sodium chloride
Na
2
SO
4
Sodium sulphate
Softened water TDS = 200 ppm
17
Base exchange
softening
This is the simplest form of ion exchange and also the most
widely used. The resin bed is initially activated or charged by
passing a 7 - 12 % solution of brine (sodium chloride or common
salt) through it, which leaves the resin rich in sodium ions.
Thereafter, the water which is to be softened is pumped through
the resin bed and ion exchange occurs. Calcium and magnesium
ions displace sodium ions from the resin, leaving the flowing
water rich in sodium salts. Remember sodium salts stay in solution
at very high concentrations and temperatures and do not form
harmful scale in the boiler.
From Figure 9 it can be seen that the total hardness ions are
exchanged for sodium. With sodium base exchange softening
there is no reduction in the total dissolved solids level (TDS in
parts per million or ppm) and no change in the pH. What we have
done is to exchange one group of potentially harmful scale forming
salts for less harmful non-scale forming salts. As there is no
change in the TDS level, resin bed exhaustion cannot be detected
by a rise in conductivity (TDS and conductivity are related).
Regeneration is therefore activated on a time or total flow basis.
Softeners are relatively cheap to operate and can produce treated
water reliably for many years. They can be used successfully
even in high alkaline (temporary) hardness areas provided that
there is a high percentage of condensate return - >50 %. Where
there is little or no condensate return, a more sophisticated type
of ion exchange is preferable.
Sometimes a lime/soda softening treatment is employed as a
pre-treatment before base exchange. This reduces the load
on the resins.
The disadvantage of base exchange softening is that there is no
reduction in the TDS and alkalinity. This may be overcome by the
prior removal of the alkalinity and this is usually achieved through
the use of a dealkalizer.
There are several types of dealkalizer but the most common
variety is shown in Figure 10. It is really a set of three units, a
dealkalizer, followed by a degasser and then a base exchange
softener.
A dealkalization plant will remove temporary hardness as shown
in Figure 11. This system would generally be employed when a
very high percentage of make-up water is to be used.
Dealkalization
18
1 2 3 4 5
Ca(HCO
3
)
2
2H
2
CO
3
H
2
O H
2
O H
2
O
MgCI
2
MgCI
2
MgCI
2
MgCI
2
2NaCI
Na
2
SO
4
Na
2
SO
4
Na
2
SO
4
Na
2
SO
4
Na
2
SO
4
pH 7.6 pH 4.5-5.0 pH 4.5-5.0 pH 7.5-8.5
The system shown above, is sometimes called 'split-stream'
softening. A dealkalizer would seldom be used in isolation (i.e.
without a base exchange softener) as the solution produced is
acid in nature and would cause corrosion and any permanent
hardness would pass straight into the boiler.
Dealkalizer
Brine regeneration Acid regeneration
Add NaOH to raise pH 7.5 - 8.5
3
1
Softened water
co
2
2
5
4
SAC Strong acid cation
resin
Na+ Sodium form
SAC
(Na+)
WAC
(H+)
Fig.10
Raise pH
150 ppm Alkaline
hardness*
Total
50 ppm Non - Alk.
hardness
hardness**
salts
100 ppm Non-hardness salts
300 ppm TDS
}
Raw water
Dealkalizer
Base
exchange
softener
Softened water
150 ppm TDS
Non-hardness
50 ppm Non-alkaline hardness
100 ppm Non-hardness salts
150 ppm TDS
Degasser
* Temporary hardness
** Permanent hardness
Fig.11
CO
2
WAC Weak acid cation
resin
H+ Hydrogen form
19
1 2 3 4
Ca(HCO
3
)
2
2H
2
CO
3
H
2
O H
2
O
MgCI
2
2NCI 2HCI H
2
O
Na
2
SO
4
H
2
SO
4
H
2
SO
4
H
2
O
Na
2
SIO
3
H
2
SIO
3
H
2
SIO
3
H
2
O
pH 7.6 pH 2.0-2.5 pH 2.0-2.5 pH 8.5-9.0
SAC Strong acid
cation resin
H+ Hydrogen form
Alkali regeneration Acid regeneration
Raw water
TDS 300 ppm
SAC
(H+)
HBA
(OH-)
Anion
resin
Treated water with almost all
salts removed TDS < 5 ppm
4 2
Cation
resin
1
3
co
2
Fig.12
Demineralization
Summary
This process will remove virtually all the salts. It involves passing
the raw water through both cation and anion exchange resins
(Figure 12). Sometimes the resins may be contained in one vessel
and this is termed 'Mixed Bed' demineralization.
The process removes virtually all the minerals and produces very
high quality water containing almost no dissolved solids. It is
used for very high pressure boilers such as those in power stations.
If the raw water has a high amount of suspended solids this will
quickly foul the ion exchange material, drastically increasing
operating costs. In these cases, some pre-treatment of the raw
water such as clarification or filtration may be necessary.
A summary of the treated water quality that might be obtained
from the various processes, based on a typical hard raw water
supply is shown in Table 4.
HBA Hydroxyl
based anion
resin
OH- Hydroxyl
form
20
Table 4
Looking at Table 4, it is tempting to think that a demineralization
plant should always be used. However, each system has a capital
cost and a running cost, as Table 5 illustrates.
Table 5
Hardness ppm Non-hardness
Process
Alkaline Non-alkaline salts ppm
TDS ppm
Raw Water 200 50 60 310
Lime 30 50 58 138
Lime / Soda 30 0 108 138
Lime / Base exchange 5 0 133 138
Base exchange 5 0 255 260
Dealkalization 5 50 60 115
Dealk. + Base exchange 5 0 110 115
Demineralization 1 0 2 3
Reverse osmosis 20 5 6 31
Comparative cost scale
Type of system
Capital cost Running cost
Base exchange 1 1
Dealkalization + Base exchange 3 3
Demineralization 15 12
21
Storage
Feedtank
Operating
temperature
The importance of the boiler feedtank, where make-up water is
stored and in which condensate is returned, is often
underestimated. Most items of plant in the boilerhouse are
duplicated, but it is rare to have two feedtanks and this crucial
item is often the last to be considered in the design process.
A feedtank is widely recognised as being the meeting place for
cold make-up water and condensate return. It is best if both of these
flow, together with the blowdown flash steam, through sparge
pipes installed well below the water surface. The sparge pipes
must be made from stainless steel and be adequately supported if
they are to last any length of time.
It is important that the feedtank is kept at a reasonably high
temperature in order to achieve the following:-
To prevent corrosion of the boiler and steam plant caused by
dissolved oxygen and other gases.These gases are readily
absorbed by cold water but expelled upon heating (see Figure 13.),
typically to around 85C. By heating the feedwater the amount of
scavenging chemicals subsequently required can be reduced by
up to 75 %. This improves the boiler efficiency by reducing the TDS
level and hence the blowdown requirements.
To avoid damage to the boiler itself. The boiler undergoes
thermal shock when cold water is introduced to the hot surfaces of
the boiler wall and its tubes.
To maintain the designed output. By feeding the boiler with cold
water, the output will be reduced. Boiler ratings are declared 'from
and at 100C.' If feedwater is substantially cooler, then the boiler
output will be significantly reduced.
Fig.13
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
O
x
y
g
e
n

c
o
n
t
e
n
t

p
p
m
Water temperature C
22
To avoid damage to ancillary products. If water near to boiling
point enters a pump it is liable to flash at the eye of the pump. This
may seriously damage the pump by cavitation. In this phenomenon,
bubbles of steam formed when the pressure drops, collapse when
the pressure rises again. The water flowing into the bubbles moves
at very high velocity and can quickly erode the pump impeller. Here
is a situation where flashing must be prevented, and this is best
done by maintaining an adequate head at the pump - keep the net
positive suction head (NPSH) above the vapour pressure
corresponding to the water temperature.
Recirculating pump
Feed to
boiler
Vent
head
Live steam
injection
Manhole
Vacuum breaker
Boiler blowdown
heat recovery
Water
level
control
Cold
make-up
Flash
condensing
deaerator head
Condensate
return
Air
and
gases
Vacuum
breaker
Air vent
Level probe protection tube
Injector
Fig. 14 Modern semi deaerator
Lifting
eyes
Temp.
gauge
Drain
Temperature
control
Overflow
23
Feedtank materials
Feedtank design
Many aspects of the feedtank (Figure 14) influence the way in
which the whole boiler house operates. By giving careful thought
to the design of the feedtank and associated systems, substantial
savings can be made in energy and water treatment chemicals
together with increased security of operation.
Whilst cylindrical feedtanks, both vertical and horizontal, are not
uncommon, particularly in smaller sizes, the rectangular shape is
most regularly used. It normally offers the optimum volume of
water storage for the floor area that it occupies.
Cast iron. Usually cast iron tanks are assembled from rectangular
sections. Problems often arise from leaks at the section joints and
they are prone to corrosion.
Carbon steel. Probably the most commonly used material for the
construction of feedtanks. Uncoated, it is a relatively low cost
material but is susceptible to corrosion. This weakness can be
improved by applying suitable coatings to the surface, but the cost
of this can be more than the cost of the tank. The coating also
needs regular maintenance.
Plastic. This material is not usually suitable for feedtanks due to
the high costs of materials able to withstand the relatively high
temperatures involved. It is, however, suitable for use as the cold
make-up water tank.
Austenitic stainless steel. Whilst having a high initial cost, the
enhanced life of a feedtank made from this material should justify
the extra cost. Grade 304L is generally accepted as being the
most appropriate option. The only technical drawback to this
material is that it can be subject to stress corrosion cracking by
chlorides in high concentration at temperatures above 60C. If
there is any possibility of this condition occurring it should be
discussed with a water treatment engineer.
On larger boiler plants, pressurised deaerators are sometimes
installed and live steam is used to bring the feedwater up to 100C
or more to drive off the oxygen. Freed oxygen and other gases are
then vented safely to atmosphere.
Pressurised deaerators have to be treated as pressure vessels
and with the necessary controls and safety devices they become
expensive. It is, however, possible to compromise by using a unit
specially designed to drive off oxygen at atmospheric pressure.
This may not be as effective as a pressure deaerator, but it can
prove more cost effective in many applications.
Figure 15 overleaf shows the feedtank in relation to the other
elements within the boiler system.
24
Direct steam users
and unreturned condensate
Boiler
Steam
Feedtank
Make-up
feedwater
Condensate
Load
Boiler
feedpump
Boiler blowdown
Feedtank capacity
Feedtank
construction
The feedtank provides a reserve of water to cover the interruption
of supply to the feedpumps. Traditional practice is to have a
feedtank with sufficient capacity to allow one hour of steaming at
maximum boiler evaporation. For larger plants this may be
impractical and an alternative might be to have a smaller feedtank
with additional cold treated water storage. It should also have
sufficient capacity ullage above the normal working level to
accommodate any surges in the rate of condensate return. These
commonly occur at start-up when condensate which has lain in
the plant and pipework overnight, is suddenly returned and may
be lost to drain through the overflow.
Stiffening. The tank should be fully welded and it is very important
that adequate stiffening is used to strengthen the tank sides and
top and that adequate support is provided for the base. Failure to
do this will result in excessive flexing and eventual failure through
work hardening.
Piping connections. All flanged piping connections should
stand-off 150 mm to facilitate insulation. All screwed connections
should stand-off by 20 mm.
Lifting lugs. It is essential that lifting lugs are fitted to allow safe
and easy installation.
Condensate return. Returning condensate is one of the biggest
potential energy savings that can be made in the boilerhouse.
Condensate has a high heat content and approximately 1 % less
fuel is required for every 6C temperature rise in the feedtank.
Feedtank piping
Fig. 15 Steam / condensate / feedwater loop
25
Figure 16(a) shows the formation of steam at 10 bar g when the
boiler is supplied with cold feedwater at 10C. The portion at the
bottom of the diagram represents the relatively small enthalpy
available in the feedwater. A further 740 kJ/kg of heat energy has
to be added in the boiler before saturation temperature at 10 bar g
is reached.
Figure 16(b) again shows the formation of steam at 10 bar g but
this time the boiler is fed with feedwater heated to 70C by returning
more condensate.
The increased enthalpy contained in the feedwater means that
the boiler now only has to add 489 kJ/kg of heat energy to bring it
up to saturation temperature at 10 bar g. This represents a saving
of 9.2 % in the cost of fuel alone.
The returned condensate is virtually pure water and this saves
not only on water costs but also on water treatment chemicals and
reduces the losses associated with blowdown.
If pressurised condensate is being returned then flash steam will
be released in the feedtank. This flash steam needs to be
condensed to ensure that both the heat and water content are
recovered. The traditional method of doing this has been to
introduce it into the feedtank through sparge pipes, but a more
modern and convenient method is to use a flash condensing
deaerator head where cold make-up, condensate return and flash
steam are mixed (see Figure 14).
(a) Formation of 1 kg of steam at 10 bar g
- Feedwater 10C
2 000 kJ
42 kJ
2 000 kJ
(b) Formation of 1 kg of steam at 10 bar g
- Feedwater 70C. Requires 9.2 % less fuel
Fig. 16 Enthalpy profiles
Enthalpy
of
evaporation
Enthalpy of
saturated
steam
2 782 kJ
Enthalpy
of
evaporation
Enthalpy
of
saturated
water
Enthalpy
of
saturated
water
489 kJ
293 kJ
740 kJ
0C
184C
70C
10C
0C
26
Conditioning treatment
This additional treatment supplements the external treatment and
is generally carried out by dosing chemicals into the feedwater
pipeline prior to its entry into the boiler. Its purpose is to enhance
the treatment of the raw water after it has been processed as far
as possible by the main water treatment plant. In short, it backs up
the work already done since, inevitably, there will be some slippage
of impurities through the main treatment system.
The objectives are:-
To prevent scale formation from the small amounts of hardness
that may have slipped through.
To deal with any other specific impurities present.
To maintain the correct chemical balance in the boiler water - it
needs to be alkaline and not acidic, to prevent corrosion.
To condition any suspended matter.
To provide anti-foaming protection.
To remove traces of dissolved gases.
'Internal treatment' may also be used to provide protection for the
condensate system with filming amines etc.
A wide variety of chemicals are used to achieve the above,
examples include phosphates, tannins,lignins, starches and more
modern synthetic polymers. Further detail on this complicated
subject is available from water treatment handbooks and water
treatment specialists; this is very much a matter for expert advice
and professional analysis. There are however, one or two areas
in the above which do call for some further comment.
The main boiler water treatment program is aimed at changing
scale forming salts into soft / mobile sludges. The sludge
conditioners used in the chemical dosing prevent these solids
from depositing on metal surfaces i.e. to keep them in suspension.
Under high pressures and temperatures, silica can present a real
problem causing hot spots on boiler metal. Special synthetic
polymers can prevent the problem.
As already mentioned, alkalinity levels in the boiler are particularly
important and these are controlled by the addition of sodium
hydroxide. Maintaining a pH level between 9 and 11 will avoid
corrosion problems by providing stable conditions for the formation
of a film of magnetite (Fe
3
O
4
) in a thin, dense layer on the metal
surfaces, protecting them from corrosive attack.
27
It must be realised that many of the chemicals added during the
conditioning treatment will increase the TDS level in the boiler
water.
The subject of dissolved gases, is an important one and deserves
further explanation.
These are primarily oxygen and carbon dioxide and the presence
of these dissolved gases in the boiler plant and system will cause
corrosion. It is, therefore, necessary to remove and/or neutralise
them if damage is to be prevented.
Dissolved carbon dioxide in the form of carbonic acid, is often
present in feedwater and this causes the pH level to fall. Proper
pH control will correct this but carbon dioxide is also released in
boilers due to heating and other chemical reactions and this may
need to be dealt with by use of a condensate corrosion inhibitor to
prevent corrosive attack to the condensate system.
The most harmful of the dissolved gases however is oxygen,
which can cause pitting of metal. Very small amounts of oxygen
can cause severe damage. It can be removed both mechanically
and chemically. The amount of dissolved oxygen present is
dependent on the temperature of the feedwater, the lower the
feedwater temperature the larger the volume of dissolved oxygen
present. So oxygen in feedwater can be removed by heating and
maintaining it at a high temperature. This can be done in a
number of ways involving the use of vacuum, atmospheric or
pressurised deaerators.
Any remaining oxygen is then dealt with by the addition of a
chemical oxygen scavenger such as catalysed sodium sulphite
2Na
2
SO
3
+ O
2
2Na
2
SO
4
. The addition of this chemical will
contribute to the TDS of the boiler water.
Other oxygen scavengers involve organic compounds or
hydrazine. The latter, however, is toxic and is not generally used
in low and medium pressure plants.
Dissolved gases
28
Total dissolved solids
TDS measurement
Relative density
method
Conductivity method
The actual dissolved solids concentration at which foaming may
start will vary from boiler to boiler. Measurement of the dissolved
solids may be done by chemical methods, by accurate density
measurement using a hydrometer or by measuring the electrical
conductivity of the boiler water using a conductivity meter.
The relative density of water is related to its dissolved solids
content. For raw water, feedwater and condensate the relative
density is so near to that of pure water that it cannot be measured
satisfactorily using a hydrometer. For boiler waters, however, a
hydrometer can be used to obtain an approximate measurement
of the dissolved solids since for boiler waters each increase of
0.000 1 relative density at 15.5C is approximately equal to
110 ppm. A very sensitive hydrometer is required which needs
careful handling and use if a satisfactory measurement of TDS is
to be obtained. The procedure is generally as follows:
Filter the cooled boiler water sample to remove any suspended
solids which would give a false reading.
Cool to 15.5C
Add a few drops of a wetting agent to help prevent bubbles
adhering to the hydrometer.
Place the hydrometer in the sample and spin gently to remove
bubbles.
Read off the relative density.
Calculate the TDS in ppm as follows:
TDS = (relative density at 15.5C - 1) x 1.1 x 10
6
or read off the TDS from a table supplied with the hydrometer.
The hydrometer is a delicate instrument which can easily be
damaged, so to avoid obtaining false readings it should be
regularly checked against distilled water.
The hydrometer is not very popular these days as conductivity is
an easier and more accurate quantity to measure.
The easiest and quickest means of obtaining the TDS of a sample
is by using a battery powered temperature compensated,
conductivity meter.
29
The meter shown in Figure 17, is suitable for use up to a temperature
of 45C. Therefore it is suitable for measuring conductivity levels of
a cooled boiler water sample.
Fig. 17 Conductivity meter
30
Comparison of units used to
measure TDS
The following table gives some approximate conversions from
TDS in ppm to other units.
Degrees Baume
~
and degrees Twaddle (also spelt Twaddell) are
alternative hydrometer scales.
Table 6
Total
Relative Degrees Degrees
dissolved
Typical conductivity
density at Baume~ Twaddle
solids
in S/cm at 25C
15.5C Be Tw
ppm Neutralised Un-neutralised
600 857 1 200 1.000 5 0.079 0.109
800 1 143 1 600 1.000 7 0.105 0.145
1 000 1 429 2 000 1.000 9 0.132 0.182
1 200 1 714 2 400 1.001 1 0.158 0.218
1 400 2 000 2 800 1.001 3 0.184 0.255
1 600 2 286 3 200 1.001 5 0.221 0.291
1 800 2 571 3 600 1.001 6 0.237 0.327
2 000 2 857 4 000 1.001 8 0.263 0.364
2 200 3 143 4 400 1.002 0 0.289 0.400
2 400 3 428 4 800 1.002 2 0.316 0.436
2 600 3 714 5 200 1.002 3 0.342 0.473
2 800 4 000 5 600 1.002 5 0.368 0.509
3 000 4 286 6 000 1.002 7 0.394 0.545
3 200 4 571 6 400 1.002 9 0.421 0.582
3 400 4 857 6 800 1.003 1 0.447 0.618
3 600 5 143 7 200 1.003 3 0.473 0.655
3 800 5 428 7 600 1.003 5 0.499 0.691
4 000 5 714 8 000 1.003 7 0.525 0.727
4 200 6 000 8 400 1.003 8 0.552 0.764
4 400 6 285 8 800 1.004 0 0.578 0.800
4 600 6 571 9 200 1.004 2 0.604 0.836
4 800 6 857 9 600 1.004 4 0.630 0.873
5 000 7 143 10 000 1.004 6 0.656 0.909
5 200 7 428 10 400 1.004 8 0.682 0.945
5 400 7 714 10 800 1.005 0 0.708 0.982
5 600 8 000 11 200 1.005 2 0.734 1.018
5 800 8 285 11 600 1.005 3 0.761 1.055
6 000 8 571 12 000 1.005 5 0.787 1.091
31
Deciding on the required
boiler water TDS
Conventional shell boilers are normally operated with the TDS in
the range of 2 000 ppm for very small boilers, up to about 3 500
ppm for larger boilers. Provided the boiler is operating near to its
design pressure, that the steam load conditions are not too severe
and that other boiler water conditions are correctly controlled,
blowing down the boiler to maintain these TDS levels should
help to ensure that reasonably clean and dry steam is delivered to
the plant.
As the boiler generates steam the dissolved solids become more
and more concentrated and the steam bubbles tend to become
more stable, failing to burst as they reach the water surface of the
boiler. There comes a point (depending on boiler pressure, size
and steam load) where a substantial part of the steam space in
the boiler becomes filled with bubbles and foam is carried over
into the steam main.
This is obviously undesirable because not only is the steam
excessively wet as it leaves the boiler, but it contains boiler water
with a high level of dissolved and perhaps suspended solids.
These will contaminate control valves, heat exchangers and steam
traps.
Whilst foaming can be caused by high levels of suspended solids,
high alkalinity or contamination by oils and fats, the most common
cause of carryover (provided these other factors are properly
controlled) is a high dissolved solids level. Careful control of
boiler water TDS level together with attention to these other
factors should ensure that the risks of foaming and carryover are
minimised.
Fig.18 The need to blowdown
Build up of impurities in
the boiler
Pure steam to plant
Feedwater with impurities
Impurities 'blowdown' to waste
Impurities bled for TDS
control and heat recovery
32
The actual dissolved solids concentration at which foaming may
start will vary from one boiler to another.
Table 7 provides some broad guidelines on the maximum
permissible levels of boiler water TDS in certain types of boiler.
Above these levels, problems may occur.
Table 7
Boiler type Maximum TDS (ppm)
Lancashire 10 000
2 pass economic 4 500
Package and 3 pass economic 3 000 - 3 500
Low pressure water tube 2 000 - 3 000
Medium pressure water tube 1 500
Coil boilers and generators 2 000 (in feedwater)
The boiler maker should always be consulted for specific
recommendations.
33
Calculating the blowdown rate
The following information is required:
The required boiler water TDS in parts per million (Table 6).
The feedwater TDS in parts per million. An average value may
be obtained by looking at water treatment records or a sample
of feedwater may be obtained and its conductivity measured.
As with boiler water TDS measurement, conductivity (S/cm)
x 0.7 = TDS in parts per million (at 25C).
Note: the sample of feedwater that is required is from the boiler
feedline or from the feedtank and not a sample of the make-up
feedwater.
The quantity of steam which the boiler generates, usually
measured in kg/h. For selecting a blowdown system, the most
important figure is usually the maximum quantity of steam that
the boiler can generate at full load.
When the above information is available the required blowdown
rate can be calculated as follows:
Blowdown rate =
F x S
(B - F)
Where:
F = Feedwater TDS in parts per million.
B = Required boiler water TDS in parts per million.
S = Steam generation rate in kg/h
The blowdown rate is given in kg/h
A 10 000 kg/h boiler operates at 10 bar g and has a maximum
allowable boiler TDS of 2 500 ppm.
Boiler feedwater TDS = 250 ppm.
Blowdown rate =
250 x 10 000
(2 500 - 250)
= 1 111 kg/h.
Example
34
Boiler water sampling
Cold sample out
Cooling water in
Cooling water out
Sample inlet valve
Hot sample in
If water is simply drawn from the boiler, a proportion will violently
flash to steam as its pressure is reduced. Not only is this potentially
very dangerous, but any subsequent analysis will also be quite
wrong due to the loss of the flash steam. Since for analysis a cold
sample is required, a sample cooler will also save considerable
time and encourage frequent testing. A sample cooler is a small
heat exchanger in which mains cold water is used to cool the
blowdown water.
Fig. 19 Sample cooler
The methods of taking a sample and measuring the TDS of boiler
water are described below.
When taking a sample of boiler water it is important to ensure that
it is representative. It is not recommended that such samples are
taken from level gauge glasses or external control chambers as
this water is relatively pure condensate formed by the continual
condensation of steam in the external glass / chamber. Similarly,
the taking of samples from close to the boiler feedwater connection
is also likely to give false readings.
Nowadays, most boiler makers install a connection for TDS
blowdown - it is generally possible to obtain a representative
sample from this location.
Sample coolers
35
The electrical conductivity of water depends on the type and
amount of dissolved solids it contains. Since acidity and alkalinity
have a large effect on the electrical conductivity, it is necessary to
neutralise the sample of boiler water before measuring its
conductivity. The procedure is as follows:
Add a few drops of phenolphthalein indicator solution to the
cooled sample (< 25C).
If the sample is alkaline, a strong purple colour is obtained.
Add acetic acid (typically 5%) drop by drop to neutralise the
sample, mixing until the colour disappears.
The TDS in ppm is approximately then as follows:-
TDS (ppm) = (conductivity in s/cm) x 0.7
Note: This relationship is only valid for a neutral sample at 25C
Determining the boiler TDS level
using the conductivity method
36
Time in hours
Average TDS
Maximum allowable TDS
B
o
i
l
e
r

w
a
t
e
r

T
D
S
0 12 24
Automatic TDS control
The level of TDS within a boiler can either be controlled manually
or automatically. The latter is more common.
The benefits of automatic TDS control are:
The labour saving advantages of automation.
The close control of boiler TDS levels.
Potential savings from a blowdown heat recovery system
(where installed).
The calculation of further savings due to a reduction in the
blowdown rate are described below:
Where the present method is solely manual blowdown from the
bottom of the boiler, by looking at past water treatment records it
may be possible to obtain some idea of how much the boiler TDS
varies over a period of weeks. By inspection an average TDS
figure can be established. Where the actual maximum is less than
the maximum allowable figure, the average is as shown. Where
the actual maximum exceeds the maximum allowable, the average
obtained should be scaled down in proportion, since it is desirable
that the maximum allowable TDS figure should never be exceeded.
Figure 20, below, shows that the average TDS with a well operated
manual bottom blowdown is appreciably below the maximum
allowable. For example the maximum allowable TDS may be
3 000 ppm and the average TDS only 2 000 ppm. This means
that the actual blowdown rate is much greater than that required.
Calculation of blowdown rate
Average TDS = 2 000 ppm
Feedwater TDS = 300 ppm
300 x 100 %
Blowdown rate =
(2 000 - 300)
= 17.6 %
Fig. 20 TDS Control by manual bottom blowdown
37
By installing an automatic TDS control system the average boiler
water TDS can be maintained almost equal to the maximum
allowable TDS as shown below.
The blowdown rate is reduced by 6.1 percentage points by raising
the average boiler water TDS.
It is quite simple to work out the amount of fuel wasted through
blowing down a boiler by comparing the amount of heat required
to raise a given mass of feedwater to the boiler saturation
temperature (i.e. the blowdown conditions) with the amount of
heat required to change the feedwater to steam.
For each 1 % of blowdown saved, the percentage of fuel saved is
as follows:
Fig. 21 TDS Control by an automatic system
0 12 24
Time in hours
Maximum allowable TDS
Average TDS
B
o
i
l
e
r

w
a
t
e
r

T
D
S
Table 8
Boiler pressure % Fuel saved for 1 % saving in
bar g blowdown
7 0.19 %
10 0.21 %
17 0.25 %
25 0.28 %
Calculation of blowdown rate
using the same example as before
Average TDS = 2 900 ppm
Feedwater TDS = 300 ppm
300 x 100 %
Blowdown rate =
(2 900 - 300)
= 11.5 %
38
There are a number of different ways of controlling the amount of
water blown down from the boiler, but firstly consideration should
be taken of what is required.
Once the required blowdown flowrate has been calculated, a
means to control that flowrate is required.
Flowrate is known.
Boiler pressure is known.
Under normal circumstances the pressure on the downstream
side of the control valve will be less than 0.5 bar g.
Using these parameters it is possible to calculate the size of
orifice for the job. However, the control device selected must also
cope with another problem.
Flowrate control
Controlling the blowdown rate
Blowdown from boiler
Pressure drop
control
Fig. 22 Orifice plate control
The water being drained from the boiler is at saturation temperature,
and there is a drop in pressure over the orifice almost equal to the
whole boiler pressure; this means that a substantial proportion of
the water will flash to steam and increase its volume by a factor of
over 1 000.
The steam can travel much faster than the water, but the steam
and water do not have time to separate properly causing the
water droplets to travel at high velocity with the steam. This leads
to the erosion of the orifice - often referred to as wire drawing.
Such erosion will soon enlarge the orifice and more water than is
necessary will be blown down and energy wasted.
The problem of flashing is obviously greater at higher pressure
and this is one of the reasons that valves with normal seats are
practically limited to 10 bar g.
39
TDS blowdown
control valves
It should also be remembered that the water drained from the
boiler is dirty and it does not take much dirt to restrict or even
block a small hole. An alternative to this may be to use a larger
orifice and to open it for short periods.
Also, an orifice is not adjustable and therefore can only be correct
for one specific set of circumstances. If the steaming rate were to
be increased, then the orifice would not pass sufficient water, the
boiler TDS level would increase and priming and carryover would
occur. Alternatively, if the steaming rate is reduced, the blowdown
would be too great and energy would be wasted.
A TDS blowdown control valve in its simplest form is a needle
valve. In plan view this gives an annulus with the outer circle
defined by the valve seat, and the inner circle defined by the
needle. If an increase in flowrate is required the needle is adjusted
out of the seat and the clearance between the needle and seat is
increased.
The size of orifice necessary for the blowdown flowrate of 1 111 kg/h
(from example on page 33) is 3.6 mm. Assuming that we will use
a valve with a seat diameter of 10 mm, we can calculate the
diameter of the needle at the point where it is set to give the
required flow of 1 111 kg/h.
D
orifice
= D
1
= 3.6 mm
D
valve seat
= D
2
= 10.0 mm d
2
= (D
2
)
2
- (D
1
)
2

d
needle
= d
2
= ?
Solving the equation shows that the needle diameter at the correct
setting is 9.33 mm and it shows that the clearance between the needle
and seat is approximately 0.3 mm. This is one of the fundamental
weaknesses of continuous blowdown valves, the clearance is so
small that blockage by small particles is difficult to avoid.
Needle
Fig. 23 Needle valve control
Seat
Inside diameter d
2
Clearance
Needle
Seat
Seat
Outside
diameter
D
2
Valve movement to
control flowrate
[ [[ [[ ] ]] ]]
40
In addition the problem of flashing over the valve seat has still to
be addressed. The small clearances mean that a high velocity
steam / water mixture is flowing close to the surfaces of the
needle and the seat. Erosion (wire drawing) is inevitable, resulting
in damage and subsequent failure to shut-off.
The flashing aspect may be overcome by dropping the pressure
within the valve over a number of stages, possibly taking the form
of three or four progressively larger seats in the valve, and even
including helical passageways.
This type of valve is designed for manual control, but frequent
measurement of water quality and adjustment of the valve has
meant that some of these valves now have automatic control via
electric actuators and electronic sensors. The fundamental problem
of small clearances and flashing over the valve seat means that
they are incapable of providing tight shut-off which in turn means
that excessive blowdown will occur at increasingly lower boiler
steaming rates.
Closed loop
electronic control
systems
Fig. 24 Typical automatic TDS control system
Conductivity probe
BC 3200
Blowdown controller
Blowdown control valve
These systems measure the boiler water conductivity, compare it
with a set point, and open a blowdown control valve if the TDS
level is too high.
41
When the boiler pressure is 10 bar g or less, high quality solenoid
valves can be used to control the blowdown.
For boiler pressures above 10 bar g, special valves are required if
erosion of the seat is to be avoided, perforated plug valves are
preferred for this application as the flashing occurs well away
from the valve seat.
Significant benefits are also available if the control system is of
the on/off type. This allows a larger internal orifice to be used and
thus reduces the damaging effect of flashing.
There are a number of different types on the market which will
measure the conductivity either inside the boiler, or in an external
sampling chamber which is purged at regular intervals to obtain a
representative sample of boiler water. The actual selection will be
dependent upon such factors as boiler type, boiler pressure, and
the quantity of water to be blown down.
These systems are designed to measure the boiler water
conductivity using a conductivity probe.
The measured value is compared to a set point programmed in to
the controller by the user. If the measured value is greater than the
set point, the blowdown control valve is opened until the set point
is achieved.
As mentioned earlier, an increase in water temperature results in
an increase of electrical conductivity. Clearly if a boiler is operating
over a wide temperature / pressure range, such as when boilers
are on night set back, or even a boiler with a wide burner control
band, then compensation is required since conductivity is the
controlling factor.
42
Conductivity measurement in
the boiler
It is necessary to measure the conductivity of the boiler water
inside the boiler or in the blowdown line. It is obvious that the
conditions are very different compared with the sample obtained
via the sample cooler which we cool and subsequently neutralised
(pH = 7). The main effects being the high temperature difference
and high pH.
An increase in temperature results in an increase in electrical
conductivity. For boiler water the conductivity increases at the
rate of approximately 2 % of the value at 25C for every 1C
increase in temperature. This can be written as:
s
T
= s
25
[1 + a (T - 25)]
Where:-
s
T
= Conductivity at temperature T, S/cm
s
25
= Conductivity at 25C, S/cm
a = Temperature coefficient, per C ( 0.02C or 2 %C)
T = Temperature, C
A boiler water sample has an un-neutralised conductivity of
5 000 S/cm at 25C. What is the conductivity of the boiler
water at 10 bar g, saturated temperature?
Saturation temperature = 184C
s
T
= 5 000 (1 + 0.02 (184 - 25))
= 20 900 S/cm
This means that the effects of the temperature have to be allowed
for in the blowdown controller, either by automatic temperature
compensation, or by assuming that the boiler pressure (and hence
temperature) is constant. The small variations in boiler pressure
during load variations have only a relatively small effect, but if
accurate TDS readings are required on boilers which are operated
at widely varying pressures then automatic temperature
compensation will be required.
43
Conversion of a conductivity
measurement into a resistance
Cell constant
Example
Measuring the
resistance
In order to measure the conductivity of a liquid a probe is used
which has a 'cell constant'. The value of the cell constant depends
on the physical layout of the probe and the electrical path through
the liquid.
Conductivity and resistance are related by the cell constant as
follows:
R =
K
s
Where:
R = Resistance in ohm
K = Cell constant (units are cm
-1
)
s = Conductivity in S/cm
The further the probe tip is from any part of the boiler, the higher
the cell constant. Any differences in cell constant are taken into
consideration when 'calibrating' the controller.
In the previous example the boiler water conductivity was
20 900 S/cm. For a cell constant of 0.3, what is the resistance
measured by the controller?
Resistance R =
0.3
20 900 x 10
-6
= 14.4 ohm
Whilst the boiler water conductivity is converted to a resistance
through the probe, it cannot be measured using a simple dc
resistance meter. If a dc voltage is applied to the probe, tiny
hydrogen or oxygen bubbles are formed on the surface due to
electrolysis of the water. This effect, called electrolytic polarisation,
causes a much higher resistance to be measured.
It is therefore necessary to use an ac voltage to measure the
probe resistance and this is the method always to be preferred in
blowdown controllers. A relatively high frequency (e.g. 1 000 Hz)
is necessary to avoid polarisation at the high conductivities of
boiler water.
44
Note: 1 kJ/s = 1 kW
Using the data from the blowdown calculation example on page 33,
the amount of energy sent to blowdown can be calculated.
Boiler pressure 10 bar g.
Boiler rating 10 000 kg/h.
Maximum allowable boiler TDS = 2 500 ppm
Feedwater TDS = 250 ppm
Calculated blowdown rate = 1 111 kg/h
To obtain an answer in kW, consider:
The blowdown rate in kg/s =
1 111 kg/h
= 0.31 kg/s
3 600 s/h
The amount of energy in each kg from h
f
* at 10 bar g = 782 kJ/kg
Energy blown down = 0.31 kg/s x 782 kJ/kg = 241 kW
*h
f
is the specific enthalpy of water at the saturation temperature -
obtained from steam tables.
To put this amount of energy into context, in north west europe the
average domestic central heating system is rated at approximately
13 kW, so the energy blown down is sufficient to heat 19 houses,
in this example.
For clarity the above calculation ignores the fact that feedwater
will actually be supplied at a temperature of more than 0C.
Assuming that feedwater is at 10C, the energy blown down
relative to the feedwater is actually 225 kW.
The blowdown water released from the boiler is water at the
saturation temperature appropriate to the boiler pressure. In the
case of the example boiler at 10 bar g, this temperature is 184C.
Clearly we cannot have water at 184C under atmospheric
conditions as there is an excess of enthalpy or energy in the
blowdown water. This excess energy has to go somewhere since
one of the most fundamental laws of nature is that energy cannot
be created or destroyed, only changed in form.
Assuming the blowdown water is released to a flash steam system
operating at 0.5 bar g, using steam tables we can quantify this
energy excess:
Specific enthalpy of water at 10 bar g = 782 kJ/kg (h
f
at 10bar g)
Specific enthalpy of water at 0.5 bar g = 468 kJ/kg (h
f
at 0.5bar g)
Excess energy = 314 kJ/kg
Heat recovery from boiler
blowdown (TDS control only)
Energy in blowdown
Flash steam
45
Should the blowdown water be released directly to atmosphere
the secondary condition becomes 0 bar g. The excess energy
value increases, and so does the percentage of flash steam.
Since this energy cannot exist in the water, it must go somewhere
else. It becomes a part of the enthalpy of evaporation at the new
pressure, i.e. a percentage of the water is flashed to steam.
The quantity of flash steam is readily determined by calculation or
it can simply be read from tables or charts.
The specific enthalpy of evaporation at 0.5 bar g (h
fg
) from the
steam tables is 2 226 kJ/kg.
(h
f high pressure
- h
f low pressure
)
% Flash steam =
h
fg low pressure
x 100 %
782 - 468
=
2 226
x 100 % = 14.1%
B
o
i
l
e
r

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

b
a
r

g
Fig. 25 Flash steam graph
Flash steam
pressure
kg flash per kg blowdown
46
In other words, 14.1 % of the water blown down from the boiler will
change to steam as its pressure drops from 10 to 0.5 bar g.
There are two options now:
Vent this flash steam to atmosphere via the blowdown
vessel with the associated waste of energy and potentially
good quality water from the condensed steam.
Control the flashing, utilise the energy, and recover water from
condensing the flash steam.
It is useful to quantify how much energy is in the flash steam. This
can be done using steam tables.
Amount of flash steam = 1 111 kg/h x 14.1%
= 157 kg/h (0.043 5 kg/s)
Energy in steam = 2 694 kJ/kg (h
g
at 0.5 bar g)
Total energy in flash steam = 0.043 5 kg/s x 2 694 kJ/kg
= 117 kW
Compare this to the 241 kW of energy blown down.
If we can recover the flash steam it represents almost 49 % of the
energy blown down.
For clarity, the above calculation ignores the fact that feedwater
will actually be supplied at a temperature of more than 0C;
assuming that feedwater is at 10C, the energy recovered is 115 kW.
47
The way to recover the flash steam is by means of a flash vessel.
In essence, a flash vessel provides a volume where the velocity is
low allowing the hot water and flash steam to separate and
thereafter to be piped into different parts of the plant.
The design of the flash vessel is important not only from a
steam / water separation point of view, but structurally it should
be designed and built to a recognised pressure vessel standard
such as BS 5500 (Unfired fusion-welded pressure vessels).
This is not only common sense, but the boiler inspector may well
insist upon it if the plant is to be insured.
The best place for the flash steam is the boiler feedtank, it will
inevitably be close by and good use can be made of both the heat
and the water.
Engineers however, should always consider their feedtank
temperature. Clearly if the heat recovery system will result in the
feedtank temperature being too high, then a heat recovery system
where the flash steam is discharged into the feedtank is not
practical. Other solutions are possible.
Figure 26 shows a simple installation which makes recovery of
the 117 kW extremely cost effective.
TDS Blowdown
Flash vessel
Make-up water
Drain
Vacuum breaker
Distributor
Boiler feedtank
How to recover and use
flash steam
Condensate
return
Fig. 26 Simple flash recovery system for TDS Blowdown water
Feedwater to boiler
Steam trap
48
A flash vessel Manufacturers will have sizing charts for vessels, but in any case
the steam velocity in the top section of the vessel should not
exceed 3 m/s.
Equipment required
A steam trap to
drain the vessel
A vacuum breaker
A distributor
Fig. 27
A float trap is ideal for this application as it releases the residual
blowdown water as soon as it reaches the trap.
Remember that the flash vessel is working at low pressure so
there is little or no energy to lift the condensate and water should
drain by gravity after the trap.
Also because of the low pressure, the trap will be fairly large. This
has the advantage that it is unlikely to be blocked by the blowdown
effluent. Sometimes, strainers are preferred before the steam trap,
for this application the strainer cap should be fitted with a blowdown
valve to simplify maintenance.
There will be occasions when the boiler does not need to
blowdown. At these times any steam in the flash vessel and
associated pipework will condense and a vacuum will be formed.
If this vacuum is not released then water will be drawn up from the
boiler feedtank into the pipework. When the boiler blows down
again this water will be forced along the pipe at high velocity and
waterhammer will occur.
There is also the possibility of syphonage; when a vacuum is
formed in the pipework / flash vessel it could be of sufficient
magnitude to suck water from the feedtank and pass it to drain via
the float trap.
To give proper distribution of the steam in the water.
49
Boiler feedtank
Flash vessel
Incoming cold
water make-up
Steam trap
Heat exchanger
Drain
About 49 % of the energy in boiler blowdown can be recovered
through the use of a flash vessel and associated equipment;
however, there is further scope for heat recovery from the residual
blowdown.
For example, if the flash vessel operates at a pressure of 0.5 bar g,
this means that the residual blowdown passes through the flash
vessel float trap at 112C. Further useful energy can be recovered
from the residual blowdown before passing it to drain. The
accepted method is to pass it through a heat exchanger, thus
heating make-up water passing to the feedtank. This approach
typically cools the residual blowdown to about 20C.
Considering the previous example, the total blowdown was
1 111 kg/h with 157 kg/h flashing to steam. Therefore 954 kg/h of
residual blowdown will pass through the heat exchanger. The
enthalpy of saturated water (h
f
) at 0.5 bar g is 468 kJ/kg while that
of water at 20C is 84 kJ/kg. Therefore 384 kJ/kg of energy is
available to heat up the make-up water.
The diagram below shows a typical arrangement.
Further heat recovery
from heat exchangers
Residual blowdown
cooling
Fig. 28 Full heat recovery system
Blowdown
Distributor
Flash steam
Residual
blowdown
Blowdown
to drain
Heated make-up water
50
The problem with the arrangement shown in Figure 28 is that the
simultaneous flow of incoming make-up water and residual
blowdown from the flash vessel cannot be guaranteed.
A preferred arrangement is shown below in Figure 29, where the
treated water storage tank is used as a heat sink. A thermostat is
used to control a small circulating pump such that when the
residual blowdown is at a high temperature, water is pumped
through the heat exchanger raising the average tank temperature
and saving energy.
It has already been seen that it is possible to recover an additional
384 kJ/kg of energy and considering the residual blowdown
flowrate of 954 kg/h, the energy flowrate can be expressed in kW:
954 kg/h
Energy flowrate = x 384 kJ/kg = 102 kW
3 600 s/h
In addition to this recovery, is the 117 kW that is recovered from
the flash steam recovery. When both recoveries are taken into
account, 91 % of the total energy blowdown has been recovered;
this equates to 219 kW from a total of 241 kW.
Design
considerations
Fig. 29 Preferred arrangement
Cold break tank
Boiler feedtank
Heat exchanger
Flash
vessel
TDS Blowdown
Cold water
make-up
On / off control
Modulating control
Circulating pump
Blowdown
to drain
51
Plate heat exchangers are preferred for this application as they
are very compact and easily maintained.
Experience shows that the higher velocities and turbulence in
plate heat exchangers helps to keep them clean and hence
dismantling is rarely required. However, should cleaning be
required, it is relatively straightforward to open the exchanger and
clean the plates.
The cleaning of a shell and tube heat exchanger will involve a
complete strip down and often the tubes themselves cannot be
removed for cleaning.
Preferred type of
heat exchanger
52
Suspended solids can be kept in suspension as long as the boiler
water is agitated, but as soon as the agitation stops, they will fall
to the bottom of the boiler, as mentioned earlier in the guide. If
they are not removed, they will accumulate and, given time, will
inhibit heat transfer from the boiler fire tube which will overheat
and may even fail. All authorities on the subject recommend that
the best method of removing this sludge is by short, sharp blasts
using a relatively large valve at the bottom of the boiler. The
objective is to allow the sludge time to redistribute itself so that it
can be removed on the next blowdown.
For this reason one, three second blowdown every hour is much
more effective than twelve, three second blowdowns in one hour
and then nothing for the rest of the day.
Bottom blowdown
Suspended solids
Fig. 30 Key operated bottom blowdown valve
53
Bottom blowdown valve
In the UK, this type of valve is covered in the Factories Act (1961),
Section 34 - prohibits entry into one of a range of boilers unless:
(a) All inlets through which steam or hot water might enter the
boiler from any other part of the range are disconnected
from that part; or
(b) All valves or taps controlling entry of steam or water are
closed and securely locked, and where there is a common
blowdown pipe or vessel, the blowdown valve is so
constructed that it can only be opened by a key which
cannot be removed until the blowdown valve is closed;
and this is the only key in use for that set of blowdown
valves.
As can be imagined, a large valve opened quickly with the boiler
pressure behind it results in a very high release of energy and
substantial reaction forces.
54
Timer controlled automatic
bottom blowdown
It is now possible to automate the bottom blowdown valve using a
proprietary timer linked to a pneumatically operated ball valve
(Figure 31).
The timer should be capable of opening the valve at a specific
time and hold it open for a number of seconds.
The use of automatic bottom blowdown ensures that this important
action is carried out regularly and releases the boiler operative for
other duties.
Fig. 31 Automatic bottom blowdown valve
With multi-boiler installations, it is necessary to interlock the bottom
blowdowns such that not more than one can be open at any one
time - as this would overload the blowdown vessel etc. This is
done most simply by staggering the setting times of the individual
blowdown timers.
Solenoid valve
Automatic bottom
blowdown valve
To blowdown
vessel
Timer
Boiler
Pneumatic actuator
55
Blowdown vessels
Construction
standard
Design temperature
and pressure
Size
Operation
Vent
BS 5500, Cat 3, including data dossier. As this is a pressure
vessel specification, the vessel also needs provision for inspection
including an access door and a drain.
The blowdown vessel design pressure should be at least 25 % of
the boiler maximum working pressure and the design temperature
should be at least the saturation temperature for the vessel design
pressure.
Depends upon the boiler pressure and blowdown line size, but
the vent should be large enough so that pressure within the
vessel does not exceed 0.35 bar g, and the overflowing water
temperature does not exceed 43C.
The vessel should operate with a quantity of standing water, and
the water quantity should be at least twice the blown down quantity
of water. Approximately half of the tanks volume should be
occupied by standing water and the remainder as air space.
The vent should ensure that flash steam is vented safely and
there is no significant carryover of water at the exit to the vent
pipe. The vent should be as straight as possible and ideally
terminated with a vent head.
Blowdown vessels are a preferred alternative to pits. The following
information is extracted from HSE Guidance Note PM60 and
provides information which may be useful in places other than the
UK.
Fig. 32 Bottom blowdown system
Boiler
Blowdown line
Vent head
Blowdown
vessel
Blowdown
water to drain
56
The vessel must have a tapping for a pressure gauge, although
no mention is made about having to fit a gauge. This is essential
in a functional test, also, the vessel is manufactured to a pressure
vessel specification and it must be inspected regularly, and the
Inspector may wish to do a pressure test and will need somewhere
to fit his gauge.
A cooling device should be fitted to the vessel if it is liable to
contain hot water of such a temperature that blowdown causes
the outlet temperature to exceed the permissible limit. The most
cost effective choice for this application is a self acting control
valve. If the temperature exceeds the set temperature, the valve
will open and allow cold mains water into the vessel.
Traditionally, blowdown vessels have had tangential inlets.
However, this has meant that the vessels have been structurally
weak at the point where the inlet enters it.
A preferred alternative is to bring the blowdown line in radially,
thus giving a structurally superior vessel, and then fitting a diffuser
inside the vessel. This arrangement also reduces the erosion
which could occur inside a vessel with a tangential inlet.
Tapping for a
pressure gauge
Cooling system
57
Multi-boiler installations
Number of
boilers blowing
down at any one
time
The piping arrangement for multi-boiler installations is also covered
in the Guidance Note (PM 60), the following points are made:
Only one boiler should be blown down at any one time. In fact
sizing of the blowdown vessel will be based on the highest
pressure boiler with the biggest blowdown line size. Reference is
also made to the Factories Act (1961) which says the same thing.
Blowdown vessel
Drain valve
Stop
valves
Check
valves
TDS controls
Boilers
Fig. 33 Total blowdown arrangement as PM 60 requirements
Figure 33 shows the recommended layout for multiple boiler
installations where the bottom and TDS blowdown lines are taken
back separately to the blowdown vessel. Manifolding should be
at the vessel and not at the boiler. Separate connections are
required on the vessel for bottom blowdown and TDS blowdown
return lines.
A third connection is also needed on the vessel to comply with
Guidance Note (PM 5) regarding water level control in boilers.
This requires a connection for the blowdown from control chambers
and level gauge glasses.
Where blowdown lines connect into an inlet manifold on the
vessel, each of them must be fitted with either a screw down
non-return valve or alternatively, a non-return valve and an
isolating valve. This is to prevent the possibility of steam and
pressurised hot water being blown from one working boiler into
another (in which personnel may be working) during maintenance.
The preference is for two separate valves. The check valve will
have to work regularly and hence wear on the seat is inevitable.
By installing a separate stop valve a new seat is available when
shut-off is required.
Valving
Piping

58
Regulations and guidance notes
The amount of energy in boiler blowdown is phenominal,
presenting a potential for injury to personnel. Naturally, common
sense must be exercised but there are also a number of statutes
and regulations in operation. Guidance notes are also available
from authoritative bodies. Compliance may or may not be
mandatory, but an incident on the plant or injury to personnel will
certainly attract interest from factory inspectors and prosecution
may follow.
The following are applicable in the UK, and have local equivalents
in many other parts of the world:
Factories Act (1961).
Health and Safety at Work Act (1974).
Public Health Act (1936).
Health and Safety Guidance Notes PM 60 and PM 5.
Pressure Systems and Transportable Gas Containers
Regulations (1989)
Countries other than the UK should confirm the local equivalents
of the above, but in any case should stress the importance of:
Common sense
Good engineering practice
Safety aspects in a proper installation.
In all cases, adequate isolation for maintenance and the prevention
of reverse flow are paramount.
The installation of TDS control equipment on multi-boiler plants
should include a non return valve to prevent pressure / flow from
one boiler being imposed on another.
This is particularly important when a boiler is shut-down, as the
TDS control valve may not be designed to seal against pressure
on the downstream side and in any case the good plant engineer
will always consider what would happen if the control valve was
passing. In a worst case scenario the omission of the non return
valve may endanger personnel working in or on a shut-down
boiler.
59
60
CM Issue 2 TR-GCM-01
Spirax-Sarco Limited, Charlton House,
Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, GL53 8ER UK.
Tel: +44 (0)1242 521361 Fax: +44 (0)1242 573342
E-mail: enq@spiraxuk.attmail.com
Internet: www.spirax-sarco.com
Copyright 1999 Spirax Sarco is a registered trademark of Spirax-Sarco Limited