Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL)

The sum of voltage drops at a current loop is zero.

Vk = 0
Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)
This is Kirchhoff's first law.
The sum of all currents that enter an electrical circuit junction is 0. When
the currents enter the junction have positive sign and the current that leave
the junction have negative sign:

Another way to look at this law is that the sum of currents that enter a
junction is equal to the sum of currents that leave the junction:
KCL example
I1 and I2 enter the junction
I3 leave the junction
I1=2A, I2=3A, I3=-1A, I4= ?
Solution:
Ik = I1+I2+I3+I4 = 0
I4 = -I1 - I2 - I3 = -2A - 3A - (-1A) = -4A
Since I4 is negative, it leaves the junction.
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)
This is Kirchhoff's second law.
The sum of all voltages or potential differences in an electrical circuit loop
is 0.

KVL example
VS = 12V, VR1 = -4V, VR2 = -3V
VR3 = ?
Solution:
Vk = VS + VR1 + VR2 + VR3 = 0
VR3 = -VS - VR1 - VR2 = -12V+4V+3V = -5V
The voltage sign (+/-) is the direction of the potential difference.

Ohm's Law
Ohm's law defines a linear relationship between the voltage and the
current in an electrical circuit.
Ohm's law definition
The resistor's current I in amps (A) is equal to the resistor's voltage VR=V
in volts (V) divided by the resistance R in ohms ():



V is the voltage drop of the resistor, measured in Volts (V). In some cases
Ohm's law uses the letter E to represent voltage. E denotes electromotive
force.
I is the electrical current flowing through the resistor, measured in
Amperes (A)
R is the resistance of the resistor, measured in Ohms ()

Voltage calculation
When we know the current and resistance, we can calculate the voltage.
The voltage V in volts (V) is equal to the to the current I in amps (A) times
the resistance R in ohms ():

V=I\times R

Resistance calculation
When we know the voltage and the current, we can calculate the resistance.
The resistance R in ohms () is equal to the voltage V in volts (V) divided
by the current I in amps (A):

R=\frac{V}{I}

Since the current is set by the values of the voltage and resistance, the
Ohm's law formula can show that:
If we increase the voltage, the current will increase.
If we increase the resistance, the current will reduce.
Example #1
Find the current of an electrical circuit that has resistance of 50 Ohms and
voltage supply of 5 Volts.
Solution:
V = 5V
R = 50
I = V / R = 5V / 50 = 0.1A = 100mA
Electrical Voltage
Electrical voltage is defined as electric potential difference between two
points of an electric field.
Using water pipe analogy, we can visualize the voltage as height difference
that makes the water flow down.
V = 2 - 1
V is the voltage between point 2 and 1 in volts (V).
2 is the electric potential at point #2 in volts (V).
1 is the electric potential at point #1 in volts (V).
Voltage drop
Voltage drop is the drop of electrical potential or potential difference on the
load in an electrical circuit.
Voltage Measurement
Electrical voltage is measured with Voltmeter. The Voltmeter is connected
in parallel to the measured component or circuit.
The voltmeter has very high resistance, so it almost does not affect the
measured circuit.

Resistor:
Resistor reduces the current flow.
Resistor is an electrical component that reduces the electric current.
The resistor's ability to reduce the current is called resistance and is
measured in units of ohms (symbol: ).
If we make an analogy to water flow through pipes, the resistor is a thin
pipe that reduces the water flow.
Material Carbon or metal(This is made by wrapping a carbon track
around a ceramic core)
Capacitor:
Capacitor is used to store electric charge. It acts as short circuit with AC
and open circuit with DC.
Inductor
Inductor is an electrical component that stores energy in magnetic field.
The inductor is made of a coil of conducting wire.
In an electrical circuit schematics, the inductor marked with the letter L.
The inductance is measured in units of Henry [L].
Inductor reduce current in AC circuits and short circuit in DC circuits.
Thermistor:
Thermal resistor - change resistance when temperature changes
Photo resistor/LDR:
Photo-resistor - change resistance with light intensity change

Voltmeter Measures voltage. Has very high resistance. Connected in parallel.

Ammeter Measures electric current. Has near zero resistance. Connected serially.

Ohmmeter Measures resistance

Wattmeter Measures electric power


Electrical & Electronic Circuit Laws
Electrical and electronic circuit laws, define the operation of the circuits.
Coulomb's law
DC circuit laws
Kirchhoff's laws (KVL / KCL)
Ohm's law
Voltage divider rule

Coulomb's law calculates the electric force F in newtons (N) between two
electric charges q1 and q2 in coulombs (C)
with a distance of r in meters (m):

Resistor color code
The resistance of the resistor and its tolerance are marked on the resistor
with color code bands that denotes the resistance value.
There are 3 types of color codes:
4 bands: digit, digit , multiplier, tolerance.
5 bands: digit, digit, digit , multiplier, tolerance.
6 bands: digit, digit, digit , multiplier, tolerance, temperature coefficient.
Units prefix table
Prefix Symbol factor Example
pico p 10-12 1pF = 10-12F
nano n 10-9 1nF = 10-9F
micro 10-6 1A = 10-6A
milli m 10-3 1mA = 10-3A
kilo k 10 3 1k = 1000
mega M 10 6 1MHz = 106Hz
giga G 10 9 1GHz = 109Hz

Diode Symbols
Diode schematic symbols of electronic circuit - Diode, LED, Zener diode, Schottky diode,
photodiode, ...

Symbol Name Description

Diode
Diode allows current flow in one
direction only (left to right).

Zener Diode
Allows current flow in one direction,
but also can flow in the reverse
direction when above breakdown
voltage

Schottky Diode
Schottky diode is a diode with low
voltage drop

Varactor / Varicap Diode Variable capacitance diode

Tunnel Diode

Light Emitting Diode (LED)
LED emits light when current flows
through

Photodiode
Photodiode allows current flow when
exposed to light

Passive components
Passive components do not need additional power source to operate and
can not have gain.
Passive components include: wires, switches, resistors, capacitors,
inductors, lamps, ...
Active components
Active components need additional power source to operate and can have
gain.Active components include: transistors, relays, power sources,
amplifiers, ...
Digital electronics:
Flip flop:
- Flip-flops, also called bistable gates
- it is the basic element of storage and store the binary bit(0 or 1)
- By sending a signal to the flip-flop, the state can be changed

Types:
S-R (set/reset)
T (toggle)
D (delay).
J-K (possibly named for Jack Kilby) and

SR Flip Flop:

Truth Table

OPERATION
S.N. Condition Operation
1 S = R = 0 : No change
If S = R = 0 then output of NAND gates 3 and 4 are forced to become 1.
Hence R' and S' both will be equal to 1. Since S' and R' are the input of
the basic S-R latch using NAND gates, there will be no change in the
state of outputs.
2 S = 0, R = 1, E = 1
Since S = 0, output of NAND-3 i.e. R' = 1 and E = 1 the output of NAND-
4 i.e. S' = 0.
Hence Q
n+1
= 0 and Q
n+1
bar = 1. This is reset condition.
3 S = 1, R = 0, E = 1
Output of NAND-3 i.e. R' = 0 and output of NAND-4 i.e. S' = 1.
Hence output of S-R NAND latch is Q
n+1
= 1 and Q
n+1
bar = 0. This is
the reset condition.
4 S = 1, R = 1, E = 1
As S = 1, R = 1 and E = 1, the output of NAND gates 3 and 4 both are 0
i.e. S' = R' = 0.
Hence the Race condition will occur in the basic NAND latch.

4. s=1,r=1 means output q& q = 1. So this is indeterminate, bcz Flip
flop outputs is compulsory complement

D flip flop:




Truth table

Operation
S.N. Condition Operation
1 E = 0 Latch is disabled. Hence is no change in output.
2 E = 1 and D = 0
If E = 1 and D = 0 then S = 0 and R = 1. Hence irrespective of the present
state, the next state is Q
n+1
= 0 and Q
n+1
bar = 1. This is the reset condition.
3 E = 1 and D = 1
if E = 1 and D = 1, then S = 1 and R = 0. This will set the latch and Q
n+1
= 1
and Q
n+1
bar = 0 irrespective of the present state.

T-flip flop:


S.N. Condition Operation
1 T = 0, J = K = 0 The output Q and Q bar won't change
2 T = 1 ,J = K = 1 output will toggle corresponding to every leading edge of clock signal.

JK flip flop

Truth table:

S.N. Condition Operation
1 J = K = 0 (No change)
When clock = 0, the slave becomes active and master is inactive. But
since the S and R inputs have not changed, the slave outputs will also
remain unchanged. Therefore outputs will not change if J = K =0.
2 J = 0 and K = 1 (Reset)
Clock = 1: Master active, slave inactive. Therefore outputs of the
master become Q
1
= 0 and Q
1
bar = 1. That means S = 0 and R =1.
Clock = 0: Slave active, master inactive Therefore outputs of the slave
become Q = 0 and Q bar = 1.
Again clock = 1: Master active, slave inactive. Therefore even with the
changed outputs Q = 0 and Q bar = 1 fed back to master, its outputs
will Q1 = 0 and Q1 bar = 1. That means S = 0 and R = 1.
Hence with clock = 0 and slave becoming active the outputs of slave
will remain Q = 0 and Q bar = 1. Thus we get a stable output from the
Master slave.
3 J = 1 and K = 0 (Set)
Clock = 1: Master active, slave inactive. Therefore outputs of the
master become Q
1
= 1 and Q
1
bar = 0. That means S = 1 and R =0.
Clock = 0: Slave active, master inactive Therefore outputs of the slave
become Q = 1 and Q bar = 0.
Again clock = 1: then it can be shown that the outputs of the slave are
stabilized to Q = 1 and Q bar = 0.
4 J = K = 1 (Toggle)
Clock = 1: Master active, slave inactive. Outputs of master will toggle.
So S and R also will be inverted.
Clock = 0: Slave active, master inactive. Outputs of slave will toggle.
These changed output are returned back to the master inputs. But
since clock = 0, the master is still inactive. So it does not respond to
these changed outputs. This avoids the multiple toggling which leads to
the race around condition. The master slave flip flop will avoid the race
around condition.

SR and JK Flip flop difference indeterminate.
D & T flip flops are Negative edge Triggered flip flop.
JK flip flop is Positive edge Triggered flip flop.
Flip flop Clock pulse positive edge is 0 to 1
Flip flop Clock pulse Negative edge is 1 to 0

Shift register
The binary data in a register can be moved within the register from one
flip-flop to another. The registers that allow such data transfers are called
as shift registers. There are four mode of opearation of a shift register.
Serial Input Serial Output
Serial Input Parallel Output
Parallel Input Serial Output
Parallel Input Parallel Output
Counter
Counter is a sequential circuit. A digital circuit which is used for a counting
pulses is known counter. Counter is the widest application of flip-flops. It
is a group of flip-flops with a clock signal applied. Counters are of two
types.
Asynchronous or ripple counters
Synchronous counters.
Application of the counters
Frequency counters
Digital clock
Time measurement
A to D converter
Frequency divider circuits
Digital triangular wave generator

Signal
Signal can be defined as a physical quantity, which contains some information. It is a function of one or more than
one independent variables. Signal are of two types.
Analog Signal
Digital Signal
Analog Signal
An analog signal is defined as the signal having continuous values. Analog signal can have infinite number of
different values. In real world sceanario, most of the things observed in nature are analog. Examples of the analog
signals are following.
Temperature
Pressure
Distance
Sound
Voltage
Current
Power
Graphical representation of Analog Signal
(Temperature)

The circuits that process the analog signals are called as analog circuits or system. Examples of the analog system
are following.
Filter
Amplifiers
Television receiver
motor speed controller
DISADVANTAGE OF THE ANALOG SYSTEMS
Less accuracy
Less versatslity
More noise effect
More distortion
More effect of weather
Digital Signal
A digital signal is defined as the signal which has only a finite number of distinct values. Digital signal are not
continuous signal. In the digital electronic calculator, the input is given with the help of switches. This input is
converted into electrical signal which having two discrete values or levels. One of these may be called low level and
another is called high level. The signal will always be one of the two levels. This type of signal is called digital signal.
Examples of the digital signal are following.
Binary Signal
Octal Signal
Hexadecimal Signal
Graphical representation of the Digital Signal (Binary)

The circuit that process that digital signal are called digital system or digital circuit. Examples of the digital system are
following.
Registers
Flip-flop
Counters
Microprocessors

Logic Gates
Logic gates are the basic building blocks of any digital system. It is an electronic circuit having one or more than one
input and only one output. The relationship between the input and the output is based on a certain logic. Based on
this logic gates are named as AND gate, OR gate, NOT gate etc.
Combinational Circuits
Combinational circuit is circuit in which we combine the different gates in the circuit for example encoder, decoder,
multiplexer and demultiplexer. Some of the characteristics of combinational circuits are following.
The output of combinational circuit at any instant of time, depends only on the levels present at input terminals.
The combinational circuit do not use any memory. The previous state of input does not have any effect on the present
state of the circuit.
A combinational circuit can have a n number of inputs and m number of outputs.
BLOCK DIAGRAM

Decoder
A decoder is a combinational circuit. It has n input and to a maximum m = 2n outputs. Decoder is identical to a
demultiplexer without any data input. It performs operation which are exactly opposite to those of an encoder.
BLOCK DIAGRAM

Examples of Decoders are following.
Code converters
BCD to seven segment decoders
Nixie tube decoders
Relay actuator
Encoder
Encoder is a combinational circuit which is designed to perform the inverse operation of the decoder. An encoder has
n number of input lines and m number of output lines. An encoder produces an m bit binary code corresponding to
the digital input number. The encoder accepts an n input digital word and converts it into an m bit another digital
word.
BLOCK DIAGRAM

Examples of Encoders are following.
Priority encoders
Decimal to BCD encoder
Octal to binary encoder
Hexadecimal to binary encoder
Sequential Circuits
The combinational circuit do not use any memory. Hence the previous state of input does not have any effect on the
present state of the circuit. But sequential circuit has memory so output can vary based on input. This type of circuits
use previous input , output ,clock and a memory element.
BLOCK DIAGRAM