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ECE 3025
J.A. Buck
Lecture 1:
Introduction to Transmission Lines
Basic Transmission Line Parameters
Atransmission line consists of two or more parallel and uniform
conductors, separated from each other by an insulating medium.

Its purpose -- simply stated -- is to transmit power or data from one end
to the other. We choose the line orientation to be along the z axis
As such, the line will possess distributed capacitance and inductance
-- both of which are evaluated on a per unit length basis.

These parameters are C [Farads/m] and L [Henrys/m]
Their use in characterizing a small length of line is shown in the figure.
z
Delay Phenomena on Transmission Lines
Consider what happens when the switch, S
1
, is closed at time t = 0:
The battery voltage moves toward the load resistor (carrying current with it).
At all points to the left of the vertical dashed line, the voltage is V
0,
and current exists;
at all points to the right of the line, voltage and current are still zero. The dashed line can
thus be called the voltage (or current) wavefront. The speed at which it travels is of interest.
Generator end Load end
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Discrete Element Model of a Transmission Line
In the ladder network shown here, voltage progresses through the line from left to
right, as each successive capacitor receives charge. The series inductances and
shunt capacitances thus produce a time delay between the times at which the switch
at the battery is closed, and at which voltage finally appears across the load resistor.
One would suspect that this time delay should increase with increasing
capacitance and inductance values.
When steady state is reached, all capacitors are charged to the battery voltage,
and current, V
0
/R, flows through the resistor.
Line Model with Loss
Losses arise from resistive wires and/or from leaky dielectrics between conductors.
Wire resistance is modeled by the resistance per unit length, R [ohms/m]
Current leakage through the dielectric is quantified by the conductance per unit length, G [S/m]
Together, L, C, G, and R comprise the primary constants of the transmission line.
The circuit model consequently contains two additional parameters to account for these effects.
Analysis of the Circuit Model
We begin by noting that the input voltage and current on the left will be modified on
transmission through the short line segment. The goal is to find what these modifications
are, and how they relate to the line parameters. To do this, standard circuit analysis
techniques are used.
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Kirchoffs Voltage Law
KVL is applied to the loop as shown:
Kirchoffs Voltage Law (continued)
obtain:
where:
With these substitutions,
we find
Kirchoffs Voltage Law (completed)
Then, letting approach zero,
(or a negligible value), we get:
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Kirchoffs Current Law
KCL
KCL is applied to the top node, as shown:
where again:
and
with these substitutions, we find..
Kirchoffs Current Law (completed)
KCL
KCL is applied to the top node, as shown:
Then, letting approach zero
(or a negligible value), we get:
Telegraphists Equations
These equations are what we were looking for: They describe the voltage and
current modifications that occur as a wave transmits through a differential length
of transmission line.
Note that the equations are coupled --
as voltage and current are dependent on each other in some way.
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Combining the Equations
2
We can work with the telegraphists equations to obtain a single equation for
either voltage or current alone: To get the voltage equation:
(1)
(2)
Begin by differentiating
(1) with respect to z:
Then differentiate
(2) with respect to t:
Substitute
this term:
into here..
Wave Equations
The result of the previous exercise is the voltage wave equation:
Performing the previous exercise in reverse (by differentiating (1) with
respect to t and (2) with respect to z, we would instead obtain the
current wave equation:
You can see that the two equations are identical in form.
Lossless Line
With zero conductor resistance and zero dielectric conductance, we have a lossless line.
The wave equations therefore simplify as shown (in this case for voltage)..
to form the voltage wave equation for a lossless line:
It is this equation that we will solve first.
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Solution of the Lossless Line Wave Equation
The equation will have a solution of the form:
where f
1
and f
2
can be any function, provided the arguments of the functions are

of the form where v is a velocity parameter.
Propagating Waveforms
z
Forward Propagation:

Argument

Keeping track of a specific point
on the function, as t increases, z must
increase to keep the function argument
fixed. Therefore, the entire function
moves in the forward z direction at
velocity v.
z
Backward Propagation:

Argument

Keeping track of the same point as before,
as t increases, z must decrease to keep
the function argument fixed.
Therefore, the entire function moves
in the backward z direction at
velocity v.
Finding the Propagation Velocity
The stated solutions to the lossless line wave equation can be substitued into it, in order to
1) verify that they are the solutions, and 2) to determine the wave propagation velocity in
terms of known parameters.
The equation requires that
derivatives are taken with
respect to z and t.
Choosing f
1
, and using the chain rule, we have:
and:
where the primed
notation indicates
the derivative of f
1

with respect to its
argument.
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Finding the Propagation Velocity (continued)
Again, the first derivatives:
Using the same method,
the second derivatives
become:
Finding the Propagation Velocity (completed)
and Now, having
.we substitute these into to find:
For this equation to hold, it must follow that
This inverse dependence of velocity on L and C is expected, considering arguments that we made a
few slides ago, concerning parameters that should affect wave velocities on the pulse forming line.
Telegraphists Equations in the Lossless Line
Now, with R = G = 0, the
Telegraphists Equations
are thus simplified:
and we obtain:
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Substituting the Voltage Waves
Begin with:
and substitute:
Rearranging and using
the same methods as
before to take derivatives,
we find.
Lossless Line Current
We now have:
which is integrated over time to determine finally:
Interpretation of the Current Expression
In the current formula, the forward and backward voltage waves can be identified
as shown, which correspond to forward and backward current waves, respectively.
The parameter, Z
0
, which relates voltage to current, must be some form of impedance.
Indeed it is, and it is called the characteristic impedance of the line.
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Lossless Line Characteristic Impedance
From the expression for the
current, we identify:
where the velocity, was used
Note also from the
expression for current that:
and
The all-important minus sign
for backward voltage and current
Conventions on Voltage Polarity and Current Direction
The forward-propagating voltage wave has positive polarity (positive sign on top), and
the current that it carries is clockwise (defined as positive current)
The backward-propagating voltage wave also has positive polarity, but as it propagates
in the -z direction, the current that it carries is counter-clockwise (defined as negative current)
The significance of the
signs in these equations would
therefore be apparent.
Sinusoidal Steady State
We now specialize the previous results to the case of sinusoidal wave functions:
Define
where the wave frequency in Hertz is:
Then, substitute for the time:
Obtain:
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Real Instantaneous Voltage
We now have:
where the wave phase constant is defined as:
The voltage wave will propagate in the forward or backward z direction, according to
the choice of the sign in the cosine argument. Specifically:
where is the
phase velocity
Relation between Wavelength and Phase Velocity
If the time is fixed at zero, the forward and backward waves exhibit only the spatial dependence:
The wavelength, , is defined as the distance over which the cosine argument increases
(or decreases) by radians, or:
Therefore:
Complex Representation of Sinusoidal Waves
Consider the definition of the complex exponential function, as expressed
through the Euler identity:
Using this, we may write expressions for the cosine and sine:
where c.c. denotes complex conjugate
where
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Applying the Complex Exponential Form to the
Voltage Wave
The original amplitude and the fixed phase are now grouped together
to form the complex amplitude,
We now apply:
to:
and obtain:
Components of the Complex Wave
(real instantaneous form)
(complex amplitude)
(phasor form)
(complex instantaneous form)
Important Results
Phasor voltage wave:
Complex instantaneous voltage wave:
Real instantaneous voltage wave:
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Example: Standing Wave
Using phasors makes the process of combining waves very easy. To see this, consider the
superposition of forward and backward propagating voltage waves. The total voltage can be written:
The goal is to write this as one cosine term, which would take a few lines using trig identities.
Its much easier to use the phasor form, and write the superposition that way:
Standing Wave in Real Instantaneous Form
Now:
This is a standing wave. It doesnt go anywhere, but stays in place
and oscillates in time with an amplitude that depends on z.
We have:
z - dependent amplitude