MlNlNG ENGlNEERlNG HANDBOOK

uxixi = asD2 - y(Xi,Xj) (5.6.19) ing with exogenic drift. A method of universal kriging that uses
the geologists' interpretation of grade-zone trends as the exogenic
= asD2 - AV.(y(B,Xi)) (5.6.20) drift is zoned kriging. Cokriging is the method of kriging that
accounts for the correlation of a primary variable with a second-
W ~ D = as> - AVE(y(B,B)) (5.6.21) ary variable, for exarnple, gold with silver or molybdenum with
copper, etc. When wkriging is used with qualitative secondary
where is the variance of samples in the deposit, r(Xi,Xj) is variables such as aiteration, rock type, or other geologic features,
the vaiue of the variogram function between samples Xi and Xj, it is known as soft krigng. Disjunctive kriging is a method used
A VE(y(B,Xi)) is the average vaiue of the variogram betwtm the which attempts to estimate not only the local block grade but
block and sample Xi, and A VE(y(B3)) is the average vahe of also the shape of the tomage-grade distribution within the block.
the variogram between ail points within the block.
Lognormal Kriging: Lognormal knging is a method of non-
linear kriging that was developed to improve estimati011 when
5.6.8.6 Volume-variance Effects and Recovery
the underlying data are distributed according to a lognonnai Functlons
probability distribution. The basics of lognormal kriging include:
The volume-variance effect refers to the inverse relationship
('1 the vario@am com~uted using the natural logs of th+ data,
between the distnbution variante and he volume of block. The
(' 1 the Lnging 'ystem t0 a waghted avage 0f volumevariance effst is by fige*s relationship
the natural logs of the data, and (3) the kriged log average is
as follows
then transformed back to normal values usine lomormai trans-
formation similar to that shown earlier in 4.-5.6Tl. The mathe-
matics of lognormal kriging are complex and are discossed in
Rendu (1978) and Journel (1978, 1980).
Complications in the practicai application of lognormai krig-
ing are many, including a strict requirement for a lognormai
distribution and a variogram which is stationary over the field
of estimation. Serious local and global biases may occur if either
of these conditions are not met. In addition, there is a tendency
for lognormai kriging to overestimate the high-grade end of the
population when the coefficient of variation is greater than 2.0.
Lognormal kriging is recommended only for speclai purposes
where the results can be monitored closely and adjusted to pre-
vent biases.
Indicatori'robability Kriging: Indicator knging and pmba-
bility knging are related methods that are used to improve esti-
mation when ore zones are erratic and grade distributiom are
highly variable and complex. Advantages of indicator kxiging
include less smoothing of estimated grades than ordinary knging
and robustness in handling nonstandard grade distributions.
The first step in indicator kriging is to set one or more cutoffs
with which to define indicator variables. Given a cutoff g, the
indicator variable is set to 1 if the grade is above gc or O if the
grade is below gc (the order of the ( 1,O) coding may be reversed);
indicator variables are coded similarly for each desired cutoff.
Variograms are modeled for each indicator variable and an ex-
pected value for each indicator is estimated using ordinary krig-
ing and the appropnate indicator variogram.
The resulting indicator estimates, which may be interpreted
as either the probability that the block wili be above the cntoff
or the percentage of the block that is above cutoff, are used to
estimate the grade of the block as follows
where each Pj is the estimate for the indicator for cutoffj, gj is
the estimated grade for the interval j to j+ 1, and n is the number
of indicator cutoffs. The interval grades gj are usually estimated
as the average of the cutoff grades for the interval, or, if the
interval is large, may be estimated from the kriged grade of those
data in the interval j t o j+ 1. The prior method is more precise
when a large number of indicator cutoffs are defined; the latter
is most often used for a single cutoff.
Other Types of Kriging: Other types of kriging that are
not widely used include universal kriging, cokriging, disjunctive
kriging, and soft kriging. Universal kriging is a method to incor-
porate trends into the kriging equations. If the trends are defined
according to a secondary variable, it is known as universal krig-
where oS,, is the variante of blocks in the deposit, SZsD is the
variance of samples in the deposit, and P,, is the variance of
samples in the block. The variance of samples in the block may
be estimated from the variogram as follows
where y,,, is the average of the variogram for samples within
a block with the size and onentation of the mining block.
The volume-variance relationship is unimportant where the
entire deposit is above the cutoff grade or where the ore is mined
nonselectively. Generally, however, the cutoff grade is higher,
and only a portion of the mineralized grade diitribution is seiec-
tively mined as ore. The shape of the @e-tonnage distribution,
as defined by the distribution variance, is then a critical factor
in detennining the grade and tomage above cutoK
For practical resource estimation purposes, the variance of
mining blocks is generally larger than the variance of kriged
resource estimation blocks. The variante of mining blocks is
generally smailer than the variance of resource estimation blocks
for polygonal estimation.
Polygonal estimation underestimates tons and overestimates
grade for low cutoffs. At higher cutoffs, tonnage and @e
are both overestimated. Kriging tends to overestimate tons and
underestimate grade for low cutoffs. At higher cutoffs, tonnage
and grade are both underestimated.
For polygonal estimation, the difference between estimated
and mined reserves is usualiy handled with dilution factors where
a fixed tonnage is added with a grade that is less than the cutoff.
These dilution factors are adequate for correction of overall
reserves but are not accurate for smaller areas if local @es
vary significantly from the average grade. Caution must also be
observed since dilution factors wiii vary according to the cutoff
grade, the population variance, and the amount of variance n-
duction between the polygonal and mine block distributions. It
should be noted that polygonal reserve estimates may require
diiution factors for both volurne-variance effects and contact-
mining geometric effects.
Kriging reserves are corrected for volume-variance effects
according to the distribution of mining blocks within the r F q e
block as (1) the variance and distribution of mining block9 mt hn
the reserve block is estimated, and (2) the tonnage and @
above cutoff is estimated for the block. The mining block
bution parameters are most effectively determined by ~ m~ l l l n g
Indicator kriging ( I K)
f
.. .
The value of 3a W L ~ L - ~ : t ;?ti:- 5 1 l r : - 1- :
-
f semi-variograrns for ihr :-.L.: 1 - T .i i :: I - - :
* * -
-
values in brackets are .:::,e cr.zzr: - 1 : : -. i - :I - - 1
' I
I impact of changing corz s:z= :E ::::r.~ .-. - - : -
. - .
F greater impact will be earr,ec zv.- :%:z:r: k: -
. . -
- -
;
core sampling to sampling easr, i,;sr z;::;: ..r ;:
I the stope-face.
' 4.16 I NDI CATOR KRIGING (IK)
4.16.1 Orelwaste estimation
Indicator kriging is an enhancement of the simple
kriging technique, the difference being that it
does not calculate a grade or metal accumulation
value but the proportion of the block which can
be expected t o contain values above a given cut-
off. The technique is particularly applicable
where strict orelwaste boundaries exist within
given blocks, e.g. large copper porphyries where
grade zoning is the major control, and in l ow
grade deposits where the cut-off value is of major
concern. Simple kriging estimates the expected
grade or metal accumulation o f a given block
and, as such, is a true reflection of its value
providing that the block is mined as a complete
unit. It does not, however, allow the user t o
determine whether the assigned value of the
block is heavily biased by a single high value or if
it contains areas of both ore and waste material.
We can examine the problem further by con-
sidering a block of mineralized ground which has
been evaluated by dril1 holes at its four corners.
The grade assigned t o the block will, in this
instance, be assumed t o be the arithmetic mean
of the four holes (i.e. the thickness is constant).
In the case of block A in Figure 4.40, the average
grade is 5.75 g/ t and, given a cut-off grade of 5 g/
t , it would thus be considered as ore. Although
block B has an identical grade and would also be
classified as ore, this decision is highly dependent
on one value, a fact which is not reflected directly
in the result.
Suppose now that the type of material used t o
value the block is taken into account so that ore
material is indicated by the value 1 and waste by
Geostatistical ore-reserve estimation
DDH 1 DDH 2 DDH 1 DDH 2
Av g - 5.75
r s
Av g - 5.75
El
DDH 4 DDH 3 DDH 4 DDH 3
Fig. 4.40 Two blocks showing gold grades o corner
boreholes. Block A has a mean indicator value o 1.0
and Block B a value of 0.25, for a cut-off grade o 5 g/
the value of O. Then, in the first example, the
sample values would be categorized, according
t o a cut-off grade of 5 gl t , as follows:
Dril1 hole Grade Category Indicator value
1 6 g/t ore 1
2 5 g/t ore 1
3 6 g/t ore 1
4 6 g/t ore 1
The average grade of the block suggests that it
is ore and the indicator values suggest that it can
be expected to contain 100% ore-grade material.
If we now consider the second example, we
have:
Drillhole Grade Category Indicator value
1 1 g/t waste O
7
- 2 g/t waste O
3 1 g/t waste O
4 19 g/t ore 1
Although the average grade of the block sug-
gests that the block is ore, the mean indicator
value is 0.25 suggesting that only 25% is of ore-
grade material. This fact must be considered
during the construction of the final gradel
tonnage curve t o avoid an overestimation of the
ore tonnage.
The application of the above technique in
geostatistical ore-reserve estimation procedures
was first proposed by Journel (1983) and further
refined by Lemmer (1984). The mathematical
expression for an indicator variable is i(x;z)
which is based on the grade z(x) of a sample
point x and on the cut-off grade z. Hence:
Once al1 the grade (or accumulation) data have
been transformed in this way, experimental
semi-variograms are generated and mathematical
models fitted as described in sections 4.5 and 4.8.
Where a spherical scheme model is deemed ap-
plicable, the model equation is:
yi(h;t)
= 1, + 1[1.5(h/a) - 0. 5(hla)~] for h < a
(1)
= l o+ I f o r h 2 a (2)
where 1, and I are equivalent to Co and C in a
grade semi-variogram. These indicator semi-
variogram parameters are then used to produce
block indicator values using simple kriging tech-
niques (section 4.1 O), the methodology being
referred to as indicator kriging (IK). This kriged
indicator value for a block thus represents the
recovery function for that block at a specified
cut-off. The above procedure can be repeated for
a range of cut-off values.
The final product of the exercise will thus be a
block plan of kriged grades and indicator values
which is of considerable benefit to an operation
where selective mining is possible within the
confines of ore-evaluation blocks. Revised block
tonnages can thus be computed and used to
produce a more realistic grade-tonnage curve
(the tonnages being determined after repeated
use of IK for a range of cut-off grades).
4.16.2 Semivariogram modelling with
IK
Lemmer (1986) states that indicator semi-
variograms are much more robust wi th respect
t o anomalous outliers than grade or accumula-
tion semi-variograms. Indicator semi- REFERENCES
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conhdence. Also, when the nugget effect is not
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y(h). As a result, the modelling of indicator
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reliable model for the associated grade o r accu-
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respectively, as below:
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therefore
Hence
When
and
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hence
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be superimposed on the experimental gradel
metal accumulation semi-variogram t o test
whether a good fit has been achieved.
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