1. Chapter 7.

Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms

1. Introduction
The key idea of the chapter is that plastic deformation is due to the motion of a large
number of dislocations. The motion is called slip. Thus, the strength (resistance to
deformation) can be improved by putting obstacles to slip.
2. Basic Concepts
Dislocations can be edge dislocations, screw dislocations and exist in combination of the
two (h. !.!). Their motion (slip) occurs by se"uential bond breaking and bond
reforming (#ig. $.1). The number of dislocations per unit volume is the dislocation
density, in a plane they are measured per unit area.
3. Characteristics of Dislocations
There is strain around a dislocation which influences how they interact with other
dislocations, impurities, etc. There is compression near the extra plane (higher atomic
density) and tension following the dislocation line (#ig. $.!)
Dislocations interact among themselves (#ig. $.%). &hen they are in the same plane, they
repel if they have the same sign and annihilate if they have opposite signs (leaving behind
a perfect crystal). 'n general, when dislocations are close and their strain fields add to a
larger value, they repel, because being close increases the potential energy (it takes
energy to strain a region of the material).
The number of dislocations increases dramatically during plastic deformation.
Dislocations spawn from existing dislocations, and from defects, grain boundaries and
surface irregularities.
4. Slip Systems
'n single crystals there are preferred planes where dislocations move (slip planes). There
they do not move in any direction, but in preferred crystallographic directions (slip
direction). The set of slip planes and directions constitute slip systems.
The slip planes are those of highest packing density. (ow do we explain this) *ince the
distance between atoms is shorter than the average, the distance perpendicular to the
plane has to be longer than average. +eing relatively far apart, the atoms can move more
easily with respect to the atoms of the ad,acent plane. (&e did not discuss direction and
plane nomenclature for slip systems.)
+ and # crystals have more slip systems, that is more ways for dislocation to
propagate. Thus, those crystals are more ductile than (- crystals ((- crystals are
more brittle).
%. Slip in Single Crystals
. tensile stress will have components in any plane that is not
perpendicular to the stress. These components are resolved shear stresses.
Their magnitude depends on orientation (see #ig. $.$).

R
= cos cos
'f the shear stress reaches the critical resolved shear stress
/**
, slip
(plastic deformation) can start. The stress needed is0

y
=
CRSS
!cos cos "
ma#

at the angles at which
/**
is a maximum. The minimum stress needed for
yielding is when 1 1 !% degrees0
y
= 2
CRSS
. Thus, dislocations will
occur first at slip planes oriented close to this angle with respect to the
applied stress (#igs. $.2 and $.3).
$. %lastic Deformation of %olycrystalline &aterials
*lip directions vary from crystal to crystal. &hen plastic deformation occurs in a grain, it
will be constrained by its neighbors which may be less favorably oriented. .s a result,
polycrystalline metals are stronger than single crystals (the exception is the perfect
single crystal, as in whiskers.)
$. Deformation by Twinning
This topic is not included.
Mechanisms of Strengthening in Metals
4eneral principles. .bility to deform plastically depends on ability of dislocations to
move. *trengthening consists in hindering dislocation motion. &e discuss the methods of
grain5si6e reduction, solid5solution alloying and strain hardening. These are for single5
phase metals. &e discuss others when treating alloys. 7rdinarily, strengthening reduces
ductility.
'. Strengthening (y )rain Si*e Reduction
This is based on the fact that it is difficult for a dislocation to pass into another grain,
especially if it is very misaligned. .tomic disorder at the boundary causes discontinuity
in slip planes. #or high5angle grain boundaries, stress at end of slip plane may trigger
new dislocations in ad,acent grains. *mall angle grain boundaries are not effective in
blocking dislocations.
The finer the grains, the larger the area of grain boundaries that impedes dislocation
motion. 4rain5si6e reduction usually improves toughness as well. 8sually, the yield
strength varies with grain si6e d according to0

y
=
+
, k
y
/ d
12
4rain si6e can be controlled by the rate of solidification and by plastic deformation.
-. Solid.Solution Strengthening
.dding another element that goes into interstitial or substitutional positions in a solution
increases strength. The impurity atoms cause lattice strain (#igs. $.1$ and $.12) which
can 9anchor9 dislocations. This occurs when the strain caused by the alloying element
compensates that of the dislocation, thus achieving a state of low potential energy. 't
costs strain energy for the dislocation to move away from this state (which is like a
potential well). The scarcity of energy at low temperatures is why slip is hindered.
-ure metals are almost always softer than their alloys.
1+. Strain /ardening
Ductile metals become stronger when they are deformed plastically at temperatures well
below the melting point (cold 0or1ing". (This is different from hot working is the
shaping of materials at high temperatures where large deformation is possible.) *train
hardening (work hardening) is the reason for the elastic recovery discussed in h. :.2.
The reason for strain hardening is that the dislocation density increases with plastic
deformation (cold work) due to multiplication. The average distance between dislocations
then decreases and dislocations start blocking the motion of each one.
The measure of strain hardening is the percent cold work (;&), given by the relative
reduction of the original area, A< to the final value Ad 0
2C3 = 1++ !A
+
4A
d
"A
+
Recovery, recrystallization and Grain Growth
-lastic deformation causes 1) change in grain si6e, =) strain hardening, >) increase in the
dislocation density. /estoration to the state before cold5work is done by heating through
two processes0 recovery and recrystalli6ation. These may be followed by grain growth.
11. Reco5ery
(eating increased diffusion enhanced dislocation motion relieves internal strain
energy and reduces the number of dislocation. The electrical and thermal conductivity are
restored to the values existing before cold working.
12. Recrystalli*ation
*trained grains of cold5worked metal are replaced, upon heating, by more regularly5
spaced grains. This occurs through short5range diffusion enabled by the high temperature.
*ince recrystalli6ation occurs by diffusion, the important parameters are both temperature
and time.
The material becomes softer, weaker, but more ductile (#ig. $.==).
Recrystalli*ation temperature0 is that at which the process is complete in one hour. 't is
typically 1?> to 1?= of the melting temperature. 't falls as the ;& is increased. +elow a
9critical deformation9, recrystalli6ation does not occur.
13. )rain )ro0th
The growth of grain si6e with temperature can occur in all polycrystalline
materials. 't occurs by migration of atoms at grain boundaries by
diffusion, thus grain growth is faster at higher temperatures. The 9driving
force9 is the reduction of energy, which is proportional to the total area.
+ig grains grow at the expense of the small ones.
Important Terms
Cold 0or1ing
Critical resol5ed shear stress
Dislocation density
)rain gro0th
6attice strain
Reco5ery
Recrystalli*ation
Recrystalli*ation temperature
Resol5ed shear stress
Slip
Slip system
Strain hardening
Solid.solution strengthening
=. Mechanical Properties of Metals
$. Introduction
7ften materials are sub,ect to forces (loads) when they are used. @echanical engineers
calculate those forces and material scientists how materials deform (elongate, compress,
twist) or break as a function of applied load, time, temperature, and other conditions.
@aterials scientists learn about these mechanical properties by testing materials. /esults
from the tests depend on the si6e and shape of material to be tested (specimen), how it is
held, and the way of performing the test. That is why we use common procedures, or
standards, which are published by the .*T@.
7. Concepts of Stress and Strain
To compare specimens of different si6es, the load is calculated per unit area, also called
normali6ation to the area. #orce divided by area is called stress. 'n tension and
compression tests, the relevant area is that perpendicular to the force. 'n shear or torsion
tests, the area is perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
= !A
+
tensile or compressive stress
= !A
+
shear stress
The unit is the @egapascal 1 1<
:
Aewtons?m
=
.
There is a change in dimensions, or deformation elongation, L as a result of a tensile or
compressive stress. To enable comparison with specimens of different length, the
elongation is also normali6ed, this time to the length L. This is called strain, .
= ""
The change in dimensions is the reason we use A< to indicate the initial area since it
changes during deformation. 7ne could divide force by the actual area, this is called true
stress (see *ec. :.$).
#or torsional or shear stresses, the deformation is the angle of twist, (#ig. :.1) and the
shear strain is given by0
= tg
'. Stress8Strain Beha5ior
9lastic deformation. &hen the stress is removed, the material returns to the dimension it
had before the load was applied. Balid for small strains (except the case of rubbers).
Deformation is reversible, non permanent
%lastic deformation. &hen the stress is removed, the material does not return to its
previous dimension but there is a permanent, irreversible deformation.
'n tensile tests, if the deformation is elastic, the stress5strain relationship is called (ookeCs
law0
= #
That is, E is the slope of the stress5strain curve. D is Young's modulus or modulus of
elasticity. 'n some cases, the relationship is not linear so that D can be defined
alternatively as the local slope0
# $ dd
*hear stresses produce strains according to0
= G
where is the shear modulus.
Dlastic moduli measure the stiffness of the material. They are related to the second
derivative of the interatomic potential, or the first derivative of the force vs. internuclear
distance (#ig. :.:). +y examining these curves we can tell which material has a higher
modulus. Due to thermal vibrations the elastic modulus decreases with temperature. E is
large for ceramics (stronger ionic bond) and small for polymers (weak covalent bond).
*ince the interatomic distances depend on direction in the crystal, E depends on direction
(i.e., it is anisotropic) for single crystals. #or randomly oriented policrystals, E is
isotropic.
-. :nelasticity
(ere the behavior is elastic but not the stress5strain curve is not immediately reversible. 't
takes a while for the strain to return to 6ero. The effect is normally small for metals but
can be significant for polymers.
1+. 9lastic %roperties of &aterials
@aterials sub,ect to tension shrink laterally. Those sub,ect to compression, bulge. The
ratio of lateral and axial strains is called the !oisson's ratio .
=
lateral

a#ial
The elastic modulus, shear modulus and -oissonCs ratio are related by E 1 =(1E)
11. ;ensile %roperties
<ield point. 'f the stress is too large, the strain deviates from being proportional to the
stress. The point at which this happens is the yield point because there the material yields,
deforming permanently (plastically).
<ield stress. (ookeCs law is not valid beyond the yield point. The stress at the yield point
is called yield stress, and is an important measure of the mechanical properties of
materials. 'n practice, the yield stress is chosen as that causing a permanent strain of
<.<<= (strain offset, #ig. :.3.)
The yield stress measures the resistance to plastic deformation.
The reason for plastic deformation, in normal materials, is not that the atomic bond is
stretched beyond repair, but the motion of dislocations, which involves breaking and
reforming bonds.
!lastic deformation is caused by the motion of dislocations.
;ensile strength. &hen stress continues in the plastic regime, the stress5strain passes
through a maximum, called the tensile strength (T*) , and then falls as the material starts
to develop a nec" and it finally breaks at the fracture point (#ig. :.1<).
Aote that it is called strength, not stress, but the units are the same, @-a.
#or structural applications, the yield stress is usually a more important property than the
tensile strength, since once the it is passed, the structure has deformed beyond
acceptable limits.
Ductility. The ability to deform before braking. 't is the opposite of (rittleness. Ductility
can be given either as percent maximum elongation max or maximum area reduction.
296 =
ma#
# 1++ 2
2:R = !A
+
. A
f
"A
+
These are measured after fracture (repositioning the two pieces back together).
Resilience. apacity to absorb energy elastically. The energy per unit volume is the
area under the strain$stress curve in the elastic region.
;oughness. .bility to absorb energy up to fracture. The energy per unit volume is the
total area under the strain$stress curve. 't is measured by an impact test (h. 2).
12. ;rue Stress and Strain
&hen one applies a constant tensile force the material will break after reaching the tensile
strength. The material starts necking (the transverse area decreases) but the stress cannot
increase beyond T*. The ratio of the force to the initial area, what we normally do, is
called the engineering stress. 'f the ratio is to the actual area (that changes with stress)
one obtains the true stress.
13. 9lastic Reco5ery During %lastic Deformation
'f a material is taken beyond the yield point (it is deformed plastically) and the stress is
then released, the material ends up with a permanent strain. 'f the stress is reapplied, the
material again responds elastically at the beginning up to a new yield point that is higher
than the original yield point (strain hardening, h. $.1<). The amount of elastic strain that
it will take before reaching the yield point is called elastic strain recovery (#ig. :. 1:).
14. Compressi5e= Shear= and ;orsional Deformation
ompressive and shear stresses give similar behavior to tensile stresses, but in the case of
compressive stresses there is no maximum in the curve, since no necking occurs.
1>. /ardness
/ardness is the resistance to plastic deformation (e.g., a local dent or scratch). Thus, it is
a measure of plastic deformation, as is the tensile strength, so they are well correlated.
(istorically, it was measured on an empirically scale, determined by the ability of a
material to scratch another, diamond being the hardest and talc the softer. Aow we use
standard tests, where a ball, or point is pressed into a material and the si6e of the dent is
measured. There are a few different hardness tests0 /ockwell, +rinell, Bickers, etc. They
are popular because they are easy and non5destructive (except for the small dent).
1$. ?aria(ility of &aterial %roperties
Tests do not produce exactly the same result because of variations in the test e"uipment,
procedures, operator bias, specimen fabrication, etc. +ut, even if all those parameters are
controlled within strict limits, a variation remains in the materials, due to uncontrolled
variations during fabrication, non homogenous composition and structure, etc. The
measured mechanical properties will show scatter, which is often distributed in a
4aussian curve (bell5shaped), that is characteri6ed by the mean value and the standard
deviation (width).
1$. DesignSafety @actors
To take into account variability of properties, designers use, instead of an average value
of, say, the tensile strength, the probability that the yield strength is above the minimum
value tolerable. This leads to the use of a safety factor % F 1 (typ. 1.= 5 !). Thus, a
working value for the tensile strength would be & 1 T* ? %.
Important Terms
:nelasticity
Ductility
9lastic deformation
9lastic reco5ery
9ngineering strain
9ngineering stress
/ardness
&odulus of elasticity
%lastic deformation
%oissonAs ratio
%roportional limit
Shear
;ensile strength
;oughness
<ielding
<ield strength
>. Chapter 8. Failure
1. Introduction
#ailure of materials may have huge costs. auses included improper materials selection or
processing, the improper design of components, and improper use.
2. @undamentals of @racture
#racture is a form of failure where the material separates in pieces due to stress, at
temperatures below the melting point. The fracture is termed ductile or brittle
depending on whether the elongation is large or small.
*teps in fracture (response to stress)0
track formation
track propagation
Ductile vs. brittle fracture
Ductile Brittle
deformation extensive little
trac1 propagation slow, needs stress fast
type of materials most metals (not too cold) ceramics, ice, cold metals
0arning permanent elongation none
strain energy higher lower
fractured surface rough smoother
nec1ing yes no
>. Ductile @racture
*tages of ductile fracture
'nitial necking
small cavity formation (microvoids)
void growth (elipsoid) by coalescence into a crack
fast crack propagation around neck. *hear strain at !%
o
final shear fracture (cup and cone)
The interior surface is fibrous, irregular, which signify plastic
deformation.
!. Brittle @racture
There is no appreciable deformation, and crack propagation is very fast. 'n
most brittle materials, crack propagation (by bond breaking) is along
specific crystallographic planes (cleavage planes). This type of fracture is
transgranular (through grains) producing grainy texture (or faceted
texture) when cleavage direction changes from grain to grain. 'n some
materials, fracture is intergranular.
%. %rinciples of @racture &echanics
#racture occurs due to stress concentration at flaws, like surface scratches, voids, etc. 'f
a is the length of the void and the radius of curvature, the enhanced stress near the flaw
is0
m 2 + !a"
12
where < is the applied macroscopic stress. Aote that a is 1?= the length of the flaw, not
the full length for an internal flaw, but the full length for a surface flaw. The stress
concentration factor is0
%t 1 m?< = (a?)
1?=
+ecause of this enhancement, flaws with small radius of curvature are called stress
raisers.
:. Impact @racture ;esting
Aormali6ed tests, like the harpy and '6od tests measure the impact
energy re"uired to fracture a notched specimen with a hammer mounted
on a pendulum. The energy is measured by the change in potential energy
(height) of the pendulum. This energy is called notch to&ghness'
Ductile to (rittle transition occurs in materials when the temperature is
dropped below a transition temperature. .lloying usually increases the
ductile5brittle transition temperature (#ig. 2.13.) #or ceramics, this type of
transition occurs at much higher temperatures than for metals.
!atig&e
#atigue is the catastrophic failure due to dynamic (fluctuating) stresses. 't
can happen in bridges, airplanes, machine components, etc. The
characteristics are0
long period of cyclic strain
the most usual (3<;) of metallic failures (happens also in ceramics
and polymers)
is brittle5like even in ductile metals, with little plastic deformation
it occurs in stages involving the initiation and propagation of
cracks.
$. Cyclic Stresses
These are characteri6ed by ma&imum, minimum and mean stress, the stress amplitude, and the
stress ratio (#ig. 2.=<).
2. ;he S() Cur5e
'(% curves (stress5number of cycles to failure) are obtained using apparatus like the one
shown in #ig. 2.=1. Different types of '(% curves are shown in #ig. 2.==.
@atigue limit (endurance limit) occurs for some materials (like some ferrous and Ti allows).
'n this case, the '(% curve becomes hori6ontal at large % . This means that there is a
maximum stress amplitude (the fatigue limit) below which the material never fails, no matter
how large the number of cycles is.
#or other materials (e.g., non5ferrous) the '(% curve continues to fall with %.
#ailure by fatigue shows substantial variability (#ig. 2.=>).
#ailure at low loads is in the elastic strain regime, re"uires a large number of cycles (typ. 1<
!

to 1<
%
). .t high loads (plastic regime), one has low5cycle fatigue (% G 1<
!
5 1<
%
cycles).
3. Crac1 Initiation and %ropagation
*tages is fatigue failure0
'. crack initiation at high stress points (stress raisers)
''. propagation (incremental in each cycle)
'''. final failure by fracture
%
final
1 %
initiation
E %
propagation
*tage ' 5 propagation
slow
along crystallographic planes of high shear stress
flat and featureless fatigue surface
*tage '' 5 propagation
crack propagates by repetive plastic blunting and sharpening of the crack
tip. (#ig. 2.=%.)
1<. . rack -ropagation /ate (not covered)
11. . @actors ;hat :ffect @atigue 6ife
@ean stress (lower fatigue life with increasing
mean
).
*urface defects (scratches, sharp transitions and edges). *olution0
polish to remove machining flaws
add residual compressive stress (e.g., by shot peening.)
case harden, by carburi6ing, nitriding (exposing to appropriate gas at high
temperature)
1=. . 9n5ironmental 9ffects
Thermal cycling causes expansion and contraction, hence thermal stress, if
component is restrained. *olution0
eliminate restraint by design
use materials with low thermal expansion coefficients.
orrosion fatigue. hemical reactions induced pits which act as stress raisers.
orrosion also enhances crack propagation. *olutions0
decrease corrosiveness of medium, if possible.
add protective surface coating.
add residual compressive stresses.
*reep
reep is the time5varying plastic deformation of a material stressed at high
temperatures. Dxamples0 turbine blades, steam generators. Heys are the
time dependence of the strain and the high temperature.
1>. . )enerali*ed Creep Beha5ior
.t a constant stress, the strain increases initially fast with time (primary or
transient deformation), then increases more slowly in the secondary region
at a steady rate (creep rate). #inally the strain increases fast and leads to
failure in the tertiary region. haracteristics0
)reep rate0 d?dt
Time to failure.
1!. . Stress and ;emperature 9ffects
reep becomes more pronounced at higher temperatures (#ig. 2.>$). There is essentially no
creep at temperatures below !<; of the melting point.
reep increases at higher applied stresses.
The behavior can be characteri6ed by the following expression, where *, n and +c are
constants for a given material0
d?dt 1 *
n
exp(5+c?,T)
1%. . Data Dxtrapolation @ethods (not covered.)
1:. . :lloys for /igh.;emperature Bse
These are needed for turbines in ,et engines, hypersonic airplanes, nuclear
reactors, etc. The important factors are a high melting temperature, a high
elastic modulus and large grain si6e (the latter is opposite to what is
desirable in low5temperature materials).
*ome creep resistant materials are stainless steels, refractory metal alloys
(containing elements of high melting point, like Ab, @o, &, Ta), and
superalloys (based on o, Ai, #e.)
Terms
Brittle fracture
Charpy test
Corrosion fatigue
Creep
Ductile fracture
Ductile.to.(rittle transition
@atigue
@atigue life
@atigue limit
@atigue strength
@racture mechanics
@racture toughness
Impact energy
Intergranular fracture
I*od test
Stress intensity factor
Stress raiser
;hermal fatigue
;ransgranular fractur
!. :nnealing %rocesses
11.1 Introduction
.nnealing is a heat treatment where the material is taken to a high temperature, kept there for some time
and then cooled. (igh temperatures allow diffusion processes to occur fast. The time at the high
temperature (soaking time) is long enough to allow the desired transformation to occur. ooling is done
slowly to avoid the distortion (warping) of the metal piece, or even cracking, caused by stresses induced by
differential contraction due to thermal inhomogeneities. +enefits of annealing are0
relieve stresses
increase softness, ductility and toughness
produce a specific microstructure
11.2 %rocess :nnealing
Deforming a piece that has been strengthened by cold working re"uires a lot of energy. /everting the effect
of cold work by process annealing eases further deformation. (eating allows recovery and recrystalli6ation
but is usually limited to avoid excessive grain growth and oxidation.
11.3 Stress Relief
*tresses resulting from machining operations of non5uniform cooling can be eliminated by stress relief
annealing at moderately low temperatures, such that the effect of cold working and other heat treatments is
maintained.
11.4 :nnealing of @errous :lloys
Aormali6ing (or austeniti6ing) consists in taking the #e5 alloy to the austenitic phase which makes the
grain si6e more uniform, followed by cooling in air.
#ull anneal involves taking hypoeutectoid alloys to the austenite phase and hypereutectoid alloys over the
eutectoid temperature (#ig. 11.1) to soften pieces which have been hardened by plastic deformation, and
which need to be machined.
*pheroidi6ing consists in prolongued heating ,ust below the eutectoid temperature, which results in the soft
spheroidite structure discussed in *ect. 1<.%. This achieves maximum softness that minimi6es the energy
needed in subse"uent forming operations.
/eat ;reatment of Steels
1.> /ardena(ility
To achieve a full conversion of austenite into hard martensite, cooling needs to be fast enough to avoid
partial conversion into perlite or bainite. 'f the piece is thick, the interior may cool too slowly so that full
martensitic conversion is not achieved. Thus, the martensitic content, and the hardness, will drop from a
high value at the surface to a lower value in the interior of the piece. (ardenability is the ability of the
material to be hardened by forming martensite.
(ardenability is measured by the Iominy end5"uench test (#ig. 11.=). (ardenability is then given as the
dependence of hardness on distance from the "uenched end. (igh hardenability means that the hardness
curve is relatively flat.
11.$ Influence of Cuenching &edium= Specimen Si*e= and )eometry
The cooling rate depends on the cooling medium. ooling is fastest using water, then oil, and then air. #ast
cooling brings the danger of warping and formation of cracks, since it is usually accompanied by large
thermal gradients.
The shape and si6e of the piece, together with the heat capacity and heat conductivity are important in
determining the cooling rate for different parts of the metal piece. (eat capacity is the energy content of a
heated mass, which needs to be removed for cooling. (eat conductivity measures how fast this energy is
transported to the colder regions of the piece.
%recipitation /ardening
(ardening can be enhanced by extremely small precipitates that hinder dislocation motion. The precipitates
form when the solubility limit is exceeded. -recipitation hardening is also called age hardening because it
involves the hardening of the material over a prolonged time.
11.7 /eat ;reatments
-recipitation hardening is achieved by0
a) solution heat treatment where all the solute atoms are dissolved to form a
single5phase solution.
b) rapid cooling across the solvus line to exceed the solubility limit. This leads to
a supersaturated solid solution that remains stable (metastable) due to the low
temperatures, which prevent diffusion.
c) precipitation heat treatment where the supersaturated solution is heated to an
intermediate temperature to induce precipitation and kept there for some time
(aging).
'f the process is continued for a very long time, eventually the hardness decreases. This is called overaging.
The re"uirements for precipitation hardening are0
appreciable maximum solubility
solubility curve that falls fast with temperature
composition of the alloy that is less than the maximum solubility
11.' &echanism of /ardening
*trengthening involves the formation of a large number of microscopic nuclei, called 6ones. 't is
accelerated at high temperatures. (ardening occurs because the deformation of the lattice around the
precipitates hinder slip. .ging that occurs at room temperature is called natural aging, to distinguish from
the artificial aging caused by premeditated heating.
11.- &iscellaneous Considerations
*ince forming, machining, etc. uses more energy when the material is hard, the steps in the processing of
alloys are usually0
solution heat treat and "uench
do needed cold working before hardening
do precipitation hardening
Dxposure of precipitation5hardened alloys to high temperatures may lead to loss of strength by overaging.
;ermsD
:nnealing
:rtificial aging
:usteniti*ing
@ull annealing
/ardena(ility
Eominy end.Fuench test
G5eraging
Hatural aging
%recipitation hardening
%recipitation heat treatment
%rocess annealing
Solution heat treatment
Spheroidi*ing
Stress relief
Stress.Based Criteria
The purpose of failure criteria is to predict or estimate the failure?yield of machine parts and structural members.
. considerable number of theories have been proposed. (owever, only the most common and well5tested theories
applicable to isotropic materials are discussed here. These theories, dependent on the nature of the material in
"uestion (i.e. brittle or ductile), are listed in the following table0
&aterial
;ype
@ailure ;heories
Ductile @aximum shear stress criterion, von @ises criterion
+rittle @aximum normal stress criterion, @ohrCs theory
Aot
e0
1.
&hether a material is brittle or ductile could be a sub,ective guess, and often depends on temperature, strain
levels, and other environmental conditions. (owever, a -. elongation criterion at break is a reasonable
dividing line. @aterials with a larger elongation can be considered ductile and those with a lower value
brittle.
.nother distinction is a brittle materialCs compression strength is usually significantly larger than its tensile
strength.
.ll
=.
.ll popular failure criteria rely on only a handful of basic tests (such as uniaxial tensile and?or compression
strength), even though most machine parts and structural members are typically sub,ected to multi5axial
four
crite
ria
are
pres
ente
d in
ter
ms
of
prin
cipa
l
stre
sses
.
The
refo
re,
all
stre
sses
sho
uld
be
tran
sfor
med
to
the
prin
cipa
l
stre
sses
befo
re
appl
ying
thes
e
fail
ure
crite
ria.
loading. This disparity is usually driven by cost, since complete multi5axial failure testing re"uires extensive,
complicated, and expensive tests.
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Hon Stress.Based Criteria
The success of all machine parts and structural members are not necessarily determined by their strength. &hether a
part succeeds or fails may depend on other factors, such as stiffness, vibrational characteristics, fatigue resistance,
and?or creep resistance.
#or example, the automobile industry has endeavored many years to increase the rigidity of passenger cages and
install additional safety e"uipment. The bicycle industry continues to decrease the weight and increase the stiffness
of bicycles to enhance their performance.
'n civil engineering, a patio deck only needs to be strong enough to carry the weight of several people. (owever, a
design based on the 9strong enough9 precept will often result a bouncy deck that most people will find
ob,ectionable. /ather, the stiffness of the deck determines the success of the design.
@any factors, in addition to stress, may contribute to the design re"uirements of a part. Together, these re"uirements
are intended to increase the sense of security, safety, and "uality of service of the part.
&a#imum Shear Stress Criterion
The maximum shear stress criterion, also known as TrescaCs or 4uestCs criterion, is often used to predict the yielding
of ductile materials.
Jield in ductile materials is usually caused by the slippage of crystal planes along the maximum shear stress
surface. Therefore, a given point in the body is considered safe as long as the maximum shear stress at that point is
under the yield shear stress y obtained from a uniaxial tensile test.
&ith respect to =D stress, the maximum shear stress is related to the difference in the two principal stresses (see
@ohrCs ircle). Therefore, the criterion re"uires the principal stress difference, along with the principal stresses
themselves, to be less than the yield shear stress,
4raphically, the maximum shear stress criterion re"uires that the two principal stresses be within the green 6one
indicated below,
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?on &ises Criterion
The von @ises riterion (131>), also known as the maximum distortion energy criterion, octahedral shear stress
theory, or @axwell5(uber5(encky5von @ises theory, is often used to estimate the yield of ductile materials.
The von @ises criterion states that failure occurs when the energy of distortion reaches the same energy for
yield?failure in uniaxial tension. @athematically, this is expressed as,
'n the cases of plane stress, > 1 <. The von @ises criterion reduces to,
This e"uation represents a principal stress ellipse as illustrated in the following figure,
.lso shown on the figure is the maximum shear stress criterion (dashed line). This theory is more conservative than
the von @ises criterion since it lies inside the von @ises ellipse.
'n addition to bounding the principal stresses to prevent ductile failure, the von @ises criterion also gives a
reasonable estimation of fatigue failure, especially in cases of repeated tensile and tensile5shear loading.
&a#imum Hormal Stress Criterion
The maximum stress criterion, also known as the normal stress, oulomb, or /ankine criterion, is often used to
predict the failure of brittle materials.
The maximum stress criterion states that failure occurs when the maximum (normal) principal stress reaches either
the unia&ial tension strength t, or the unia&ial compression strength c,
5c G K1, =L G t
where 1 and = are the principal stresses for =D stress.
4raphically, the maximum stress criterion re"uires that the two principal stresses lie within the green 6one depicted
below,
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&ohrIs ;heory
Case %rincipal Stresses Criterion
reFuirements
1 +oth in tension 1 F <, = F < 1 G t, = G t
= +oth in compression 1 G <, = G < 1 F 5c, = F 5c
> 1 in tension, = in compression 1 F <, = G <
! 1 in compression, = in tension
1 G <, = F <
4raphically, @ohrCs theory re"uires that the two principal stresses lie within the green 6one depicted below,
.lso shown on the figure is the maximum stress criterion (dashed line). This theory is less conservative than @ohrCs
theory since it lies outside @ohrCs boundary.