2012 0nline Jeda Vol. 20, No. 1docxx

JEDA - Volume 20, Number 1. - March, 2012.
TABLE OF CONTENT
1. Planning Early Childhood Education Delivery Systems - Okorie, Ngozi C.
& Asodike, Juliana D. 371

2. Rebranding Nigerian Education Through Value Orientation -
Dr. (Mrs) S. N. Oranusi 383

3. Perception of Counselling As An Integral Component of Specialized
Service For Parents Of The Hearing Impaired in South-Western Nigeria
Prof. Umoh, S.H. & Oniye, A. O., Ph.D; Oyewo, N. A., Ph.D & Ayena,
O. O., Ph.D 391

4. Generational and Ownership Inequity in the Utilization of Information
and Communication Technology (ICT) in Nigerian Universities
Mfon Eyo, Ph.D. 400

5. Promoting Health Through Effective and Improved Consumer Health
Education - Obiechina, G. O. (M.Ed.) 410

6. Issues and Challenges in the Implementation of National Commission
for Colleges of Education (NCCE) Curriculum on Adult and Non-Formal
Education Programmes in Nigeria. - Animasahun, M. Olaitan 421

7. Alcohol and Narcotics Consumption by The University Students:
Implications For The Nigeria Society - Porbeni Zibo Sam, PhD 427
8. Academic Integrity At Examinations: Forgotten or Waved Aside By
TheUniversity Students in Nigeria? Dr. (Mrs.) I. C. Kosemani 435

9. Government Interference in University Autonomy and Academic
Freedom in Nigeria: Implications For The Achievement Of Vision and
Mission Of Universities - F. I. Etadon, Ph.D & M.A. Oyebamiji, Ph.D 447
10. Nigeria and The Aesthetic Phenomena. - Ike P. Aghaosa, Ph.D 457

11. Problems in The Utilization of Continuing Education Programmes For
Improved Access to Education in The Niger Delta Region of Nigeria -
Dr. J. C. Ihejirika 466

11. Trends in Administration of Primary Schools in Nigeria - Dr. G. G. Kpee,
Dr. O. G. Agabi & Mrs. L. N. Nwoko 476

12. Students Access to Infrastructural Facilities As A Correlate of Quality
Output: The Planning Option - Obasi Kenneth K., Ph.D & Ohia, Adanma
N., Ph.D 483

13. Teachers Welfare Programme As A Time Management Strategy in
Rivers State Secondary Schools. - Chinyere O. Agabi & Worlu I. Wali 491

14. Enhancing Rural Development In Nigeria: Functional Literacy Education
Option - Akande, Joshua Olusola, Ph.D 502

15. Inculcating Good Study Habits For Successful Adjustment of Students
in The U.B.E. Programme - Dr. (Mrs.) Ijeoma M. Opara & Ovensehi
Henry Imwenoghomwen 511

16. Obafemi Awolowos Philosophy of Education: An Analytical
Interpretation - Professor J. D. Okoh & Dr. Chidi Omordu 519

17. Influence of Community Participation on Tourism Development
in Osun State, Nigeria - O. E. Olajide, Ph.D & G. A. Nwogu 527
March, 2012.
JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.20 (1).

w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m

Page 371

Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 20, No. 1.

PLANNING EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
DELIVERY SYSTEMS

By

OKORIE, NGOZI C
&
Asodike, Juliana D. (Corresponding author)
julianaasodike@yahoo.com
+234-8036662621
Department of Educational Management
Faculty of Education
University of Port Harcourt

Abstract
This paper highlights methods that need to be adopted for effective teaching and learning at the early
childhood education centres. In an attempt to do this, characteristics of the teaching personnel, pedagogies
such as exploration, use of songs and rhymes, fun and games were discussed. In addition, analyses of the
three specialized methods of delivery or progression approaches (Waldorf, Montessori and Reggio Emilia) to
early childhood were made. Finally, the application of Montessori approach to the early childhood education
in Nigeria was demonstrated.

Keywords: Early childhood education, Delivery systems

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Introduction
Early childhood education commonly referred to as nursery or pre-primary education is educational
provision made for children before the beginning of compulsory education. It is the formal teaching and
care of young children by people other than their family in setting outside their home. Early childhood
education is not comparable with the term Day care and Childcare as these do not embrace the
educational component. In addition to the fact that staff of early childhood education in the present
dispensation are required to have a teaching qualification.

The framework for early childhood education includes the structural (administration, class size,
teacher-child ratio, services, etc), process (quality of classroom environments, teacher-child interactions,
etc), and alignment (standards, curriculum, assessments) components that are associated with each
individual unique child that has both social and academic outcomes (Wikipedia, 2011 a). At each age band,
an appropriate curriculum that is based on the philosophy that all domains of child development need to
be addressed makes it mandatory that appropriate delivery methods are planned and utilized. However,
different early childhood education providers have adopted different specialized methods of delivery such
as Woldrf, Montessori and Regio Emilia in addition to other pedagogies such as play - exploration,
experiment, discovery, songs, rhymes, fun and games. Each of these are discussed in detail.

The demand for this type of education has been on the increased globally. This is as a result of
increase in higher maternal employment rates and research showing positive link between early childhood
experiences and brain development of young children. The public school system in Nigeria provides 3
years of pre-primary education covering ages 3 through 5. Pre-primary classes are always physically and
administratively attached to primary schools. According to the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004)
pre-primary education is intended to achieve the following purpose:
(a) effect a smooth transition from the home to the school;
(b) prepare the child for the primary level of education;
(c) provide adequate care and supervision for the children while their parents are at work (on the
farms, the markets, offices, etc);
(d) inculcate social norms;
(e) inculcate in the child the spirit of enquiry and creativity through the exploration of nature, the
environments, art, music and playing with toys, etc;
(f) develop a sense of co-operation and team-spirit;
(g) learn good habits, especially good health habits; and
(h) teach the rudiments of numbers, letters, colours, shapes forms etc, through play.
Summarily, the purpose of pre-primary education is to meet the safety, health, education and social need
of the pre-school child.

While primary education has been compulsory since 1976, pre-primary education became part of
primary education with the introduction of Universal Basic Education (UBE) in 1999. This is because the
concept of basic education calls for the inclusion of early childhood in public school system. The
educational provision has given parents the choice of sending their children to pubic early childhood
education programme or private (for-profit) providers.

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Teaching in Early Childhood Education
Teaching in early childhood education is rewarding though at times frustrating. Based on limited
experiences, naturally a pre-school age child will not understand the way an adult would.

Teacher and pupils in nursery class

Experiences have shown that learning is more effective at early childhood period when children recognize
the strategies and methods that may be used to achieve a given assignment. These strategies and methods
will be described as delivery systems in early childhood education in this paper.
The importance of effective delivery system in early childhood education in the present dispensation of
greater awareness of the benefits of educational provision at this level cannot be over-stressed. A poor or
weak educational foundation does not augur well in any educational system. It is like constructing a house
foundation on sand.

Teachers are facilitators of learning, and teaching is an act, which can be cultivated by training,
experience and practice. At all levels and types of educational provision, different methods are adopted
and applied to achieve the institutional set goals and objectives. If teaching adults is a difficult task,
teaching a pre-school child will be a greater problem if appropriate training of personnel is not sought for,
learning styles of the pre-school children is not identified and instructional methods/approaches and
materials are not given adequate considerations. There must also be close co-operation among the centres,
family, and the community. They should endeavour to effectively utilize all available educational resources
and create a good environment conducive to the development of the children.

Personnel in Early Childhood Education
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Teachers in early childhood education should be graduates of normal schools specializing in early
childhood education. They could also be personnel who have undergone professional training and
acquired certified qualifications. Retired schoolteachers and volunteers having undergone some
professional training could be engaged. It is incumbent upon all workers in early childhood education
centres to respect the personality, idiosyncrasies and right of children, and to observe the laws governing
the physical and mental development of the children. It is also very important for them to pay due
consideration to the characteristics of childrens learning and satisfy their needs in multi-faceted
development so that they may acquire experiences necessary for physical and mental development in a
happy childhood, and be able to fully develop their potentialities.

How Does the Pre-school Child Learn?
There are five different developmental domains of children which relate to each other. They are easily
referred to as the SPICE of life (Torkildren, 1999, in Wikipedia, 2011 b). They are:
Social Refers mostly to the ability to form attachments, play with others, co-operation and
sharing, and being able to create lasting relationships with others
Physical Development of Fine (small) and Gross (large) Motor Skills.
Intellectual The process of making sense of the world around them.
Creative The development of special abilities creating talents. Music, Art, Writing, Reading, and
Singing are all ways for creative development to take place.
Emotional Development of self-awareness, self-confidence, and coping with feelings as well as
understanding them.
There is need to explore the learning styles of pre-school children in order to adopt an effective delivery
system that will explore these five domains and apply same to their learning behaviours. Each delivery
method should provide teachers guidance necessary to support childrens early learning and development.
The pre-school child learns through:
1. Play (Exploration, experimentation and discovery)
Play is a very important delivery method in early childhood education. By providing an environment in
which the child is free to explore, experiment and discover what
things are and what they do. Nigeria as a developing economy with rapid growth in cities and its attendant
increase of road traffic, there is now reduction of open space and green areas. Schools no longer have
demonstration fora and play grounds where children can play and explore their talents and environment.
Consequently, nature becomes distant or unfamiliar and obscure to them. Therefore the amount of
learning in the classroom is affected by the nature of materials provided and the quality of the teachers
involvement in the activities carried out. Children should be provided with safe materials, facilities, and
also freedom to enable them experiment and discover things themselves. To these children, seeing is
believing. They need colourful objects that serve as play toys as much as educational tools. These objects
should be made of smooth and manageable materials that are resistant and made up of large pieces. Of
course, they should not be toxic nor have sharp or pointed edges (Posse & Melgosa, 2001). Provision of
varieties of toys in a non-restrictive environment in addition to free observation, play, speech and choice
of toys increases their independence. Children also use their imagination to have fun, learn about
themselves and what a person can do.

The teacher should facilitate development rather than taking initiative away from children by
observing the children at play. After observing, the teacher can adjust the space available for various
activities, judge the amount of time needed for the activity to develop, make decisions about materials and
helps children to set rules that are needed. The teacher can also join in children activities. However, this is
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successful when the teacher can share in it without directing or dominating.
The use of play in the delivery systems of early childhood education cannot be overlooked in the planning
process. It is a sine qua non in all efforts to provide efficient and effective delivery of early childhood
curriculum.

2. Fun and games
Children love to have fun and do many games. Pre-school children love to play with bubbles (water), have
fun with tangrams (shapes), sand and clay.

Nursery pupils exploring toys as they construct different objects

Activities should include measuring water and floating pieces of papers on dishwater. They should be
provided with sand trays where they could trace and clay for modeling. The benefits of a creative learning
environment are immeasurable for the children and teachers involved. Children want to bring out new
ideas, have new experiences and express themselves only (Mayesky, Neuman & Wodkowski in Madumere-
Obike & Olu ,2005).There should be freedom in choice of play items and materials. Children also learn by
dramatizing while mimicking adults. The teachers can role play. As teachers do these things they become
part of a play, add ideas, introduce vocabulary and help the children feel comfortable. A teachers
participation in plays help children to know that play is viewed by the teacher as an important activity.

A child could learn science and mathematics from playing. All subjects should be integrated into
one to enable children have fun. Teachers who understand these learning styles can plan delivery system to
interact with children in ways that adequately correspond to age and intellectual, sound and emotional
development.
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A typical nursery class

3. Songs and rhymes
Children love songs naturally, so much that even when they do not want to sleep, the power of lullaby
overtakes them. They enjoy and benefit from short group sessions during which they learn to listen to
each other. The teacher sings together with them, listen to stories and develop a sense of time by
remembering what they have done and planning ahead.
Singing helps children learn body parts, learn about lots of themes and perform different actions. They like
nursery rhymes, action verses and finger plays. For instance, a popular song such as:
This is the way we wash our face
Wash our face, wash our face
This is the way we wash our face, early in the morning

(This can be sung many times using different parts of the body and changing the action word like comb
the hair, brush our teeth and so on to substitute for the face in the song). While singing this song, children
demonstrate action by pointing to the different parts of the body in question and demonstrating the action
as they are mentioned.

Through songs and rhymes new information items are made meaningful as they are presented and
reference is to the childrens share of previous experience through songs and rhymes. In the light of this
association of presenting items with past experience, meaning comes out of the new items (ACE Series,
1981). These meaningful new items become relevant to the children and so quick accommodation of new
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knowledge is facilitated. While doing these, questions are used in teaching to confirm comprehension of
new items and experiences as contained in the songs or rhymes. Songs also refine the childrens ability of
pronunciation. This is very necessary because even when the songs are in the language in which they are
taught, they are yet to gain mastery of it.
Furthermore, through traditional songs, poems and folk tales guided by traditional activities children learn
social morals and are able to distinguish right from wrong (Asodike, 2011). All these underscore the fact
that songs and rhymes should form integral part while planning delivery systems in early childhood
education.

.
Nursery pupils busy learning with toys

APPROACHES IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
Determining the best approach for effective delivery of early childhood education is an issue that should
be of concern to teachers, researchers and policy makers in their efforts to make sure all children are not
only ready to learn, they should also enjoy it. . It is like determining the best bait to be used to catch the
biggest fish in a fishing expedition.

Karnes and Colleagues (in Golbeck, 2002), studying five model approaches, including traditional,
Montessori, and direct instruction, found that at the end of first grade, children from mostly highly
structured pre-academic programmes were most successful in school. However, in a later follow-up, the
original Montessori group contained the highest percentage of high school graduates, with traditional
programme group close behind. Relatively low rates were shown for other programmes.

Although the models in application of Montessori vary, studies have revealed that boys actually
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outperformed the girls in other programmes at the seventh and eight grades (Miller and colleagues 1998,
Karnes et al, 1998 in Golbeck, 2002). Reporting further Karnes stressed that, children from the
Montessori programme showed high-level school success, although they did not necessarily show the
highest IQ scores.

Comparing their own cognitively oriented curriculum, direct instruction, and a traditional child-
centered theme based approach, Schchweinhart and Weikart (in Golbeck, 2002) in their High/Scope
Foundation, noted that there was a slight advantage for direct instruction initially, but long-term data
collected in adolescence showed higher level of social adjustment for children in their Foundation.
Waldorf, Montessori and Reggio Emilia are three progression approaches to early childhood education
that appear to be influencing early childhood education.

Waldorf Approach
The Waldorf approach is based on the principles developed by Rudolf Steiner (1861-1925), an Austrian
scientist and educator. It emphasizes developing the childs intellectual powers in harmony with the feeling
and active aspects of nature. Waldorf programmes (pre-school through high school) usually include much
of creative activity in their programmes, and the use of natural materials in the classroom is stressed.
Teachers receive specialized training and often remain with the same group of children for several years.
They become a very close-knit group as they explore the world through conscious imagination or feelings.

In this approach, the teacher presents a curriculum that has structure and sequence but relies on
lessons unaccompanied by textbooks. The approach fosters an integrated, multisensorial approach to
learning and expression with more emphasis on oral listening and memory than is found in other early
childhood models for the primary years. For instance, the teacher might introduce an arithmetic operation
by telling a story where the numbers are characters in a drama. Stories such as history of the Nigeria Civil
war can be rendered as an exciting tale. Children listen as the teacher presents the materials, and they
integrate what they have learned as they design and illustrate with care and beauty their own lesson books.
In essence, they compose their own text, which preserve for them what they have learned in their own
personal format, documents and treasures of their learning experiences. Children study literature, folktales,
and mythology; rhythmic musical movement; practical crafts; natural sciences; foreign languages; art; and
music (Edwards, 2002).
Teachers play a performance role as they lead whole-group activities involving integration of academic
and the artistic with an explicit spirituality. They seek to encourage the childs natural sense of wonder,
belief in goodness, and love of beauty.

Montessori Approach
Maria Montessori (1870-1952), an Italian physician and educator, developed her innovative ideas on
teaching young children in the early part of the 20
th
century. Today many pre-schools (and primary
schools) bear her name and follow the Montessori method. This philosophy emphasizes the individual
childs initiative and independence, allowing him or her to progress through an orderly series of structured
learning activities at his own pace. Special materials that emphasize the use of all senses in learning are
employed. The manipulative that are used in many pre-schools today owe a debt to these Montessori
materials (Jordan, 2001).

To introduce a new curriculum, teachers present demonstration lessons at the point when an
individual or small group indicates readiness to advance in the sequence of selfcorrecting materials, in the
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area of practical life, sensorial, mathematics, science and geography, and art and music (Humphryes, 1998).
The high individualization in Montessori approach is with scope, sequence, and clear-cut domains. This
results in some young children mastering reading and writing before the age of 6 following Montessori
writing to read methods. Pre-school children in full-day programmes usually address the Montessori
curriculum in the morning and typical child-care play including fantasy play in the afternoon.

The role of the teacher is that of an unobtrusive director in the classrooms as children individually or
in small group engage in self-directed activity. The teacher brings the children into close contact with
reality through sensory investigation and practical activity and then relies on the childs unfolding inner
programme of curiosity and sensitivities to ensure that the child will learn what he or she needs. According
to their individual capabilities, children progress at their own pace and rhythm.

Reggio Emilia Approach
Reggio Emilia is a city in Northern Italy where educators, parents and children began working together
after World War II to reconstruct society and build an exemplary system of municipal pre-schools and
infant-toddler centres. Under leadership of the visionary founding director, Loris Malaguzzi (1920-1994),
the system evolved from a parent co-operative movement into a city-run system that exercises a leadership
role in Italy.
Programmes in Reggio are family centered and serve children at infant-toddler and pre-school levels, with
first priority given to children with disabilities or social service needs (Edwards, 2002).

In this approach, a resourceful child generates changes in the systems in which he is involved and
becomes a producer of culture, values, and rights (Rinaldi in Edwards, 2002). Teachers seek to hold before
them this powerful image as they support children in exploring and investigating. Children grow in
competence to symbolically represent ideas and feelings through any of their hundreds of languages
(expressive, communicative, and cognitive) words, movement, drawing, painting, building, sculpture,
shadow play, collage, dramatic play, music and so on that they systemically explore and combine.
The teacher plays the role of artful balancing between engagement and attention (Edwards, 1998). Based on
careful and sensitive listening, observation/documentation, and reflection with other adults, the teacher
serves as resources and guides to the children. Teachers also act as recorders for the children, helping
them trace and revisit their words and actions and thereby making the learning visible.
Programmes in Reggio Emlia are not a formal model like Waldorf and Montessori, with defined methods,
teacher certification standards, and accreditation processes. Instead, educators in Reggio Emilia speak of
their evolving experience and see themselves as a provocation vision of the child (Edwards,Gandini, &
Forman; Katz & Cesarone; New in Edwards, 2002).

Analysis of the Three Approaches
Analysis of these approaches reveals that they have many points in common and are built on coherent
visions of how to improve human society by helping children realize their full potentials as intelligent,
creative, whole persons. Edawrds (2002) notes that, the approaches view children as active authors of
their own development, strongly influenced by natural, dynamic, self-righting force within themselves,
opening the way towards growth and learning. Teachers depend for their work with children on carefully
prepared, aesthetically pleasing environments that serve as pedagogical tool and provide strong messages
about the curriculum and about respect for children. Collaborating with parents is highly valued and
children are evaluated by means other than traditional test and grades.
The areas of differences are at the levels of principles and strategies. There are variant views of the nature
of young childrens need, interest and modes of learning that lead to contrast in the ways that teachers
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interact with children in the classroom coupled with the frame and structure of learning experiences.

Postscript
In Nigeria, the Montessori approach appears to be influencing early childhood education. Nigerias early
childhood education advocates have discovered the wisdom of Montessoris methods, grounded in her
own belief that education is the key to the betterment of society. Some privately owned early childhood
education centres are conspicuously labeled Montessori Centres. The extent of their practice of the
principles and strategies are yet to be ascertained, but one thing is clear they uphold Montessoris
ideology and methodology.
How is Montessori approach applied in the teaching of reading, writing, and number work or arithmetic
skills in early childhood education?

Reading skills
Flash cards, sand paper letters and frames are used for reading phrases. The flash cards have pictures
whose first letters have the sound of the letter and not the name. At the top of the flash cards is the capital
letter/upper case of the sound to be taught, at the centre is the picture, and at the end is the lower case/
small letter.

B C

Ball Cup
b c
Children are taught the sound of the letter not the name. The lower case is used for prints when
the children are ready for reading.
Sand paper letters are written in lower cases. They are used to teach the children the recognition and
identification of graphic signs of the letter when the picture cards/flash cards are withdrawn. This method
represents a simple method of reading and word construction.

Writing skill
Children are taught to trace the diverse types of lines, tracing them in various directions and in different
positions relative to the plane. They are taught to reunite these lines to form letters and figures, varying
from simple to complex. Children are taught to distinguish straight lines from curves, vertical from
horizontal, and form the various oblique lines.

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Finally, they are taught to make clear the principal points of conjunction of two or more lines in
forming a letter or a figure. Activities in Evans Writing Books for Nursery Schools clearly depict these
sequential processes.

Number work/Arithmetic
Flash cards spindle box are used to introduce numerals to the children. The flash cards have the number
on top and pictures corresponding to the number in the body of the cards.

Children count and identify numbers by touching what they are counting with their fingers and
seeing with their eyes. The spindle box is used to practically teach the concept of zero. Here the children
are asked to sort the rods (counters) into sets, placing each set in a different box. One box will be empty.
The teacher explains that when a box contains no rod at all, we indicate thus by the number o called
nought or zero.
The geometric cabinet is used to teach children different sizes and kinds of shape.

Triangle Circle Square

Rectangle
The counting-trays, counters and number boards are used for teaching counting, sorting and
seriating. Addition strip-boards and skittle are used for teaching addition and division. There are also
boards for teaching of multiplication, subtraction fraction and other arithmetic concepts.
1
2
0
3
4 5
6 7 8
9
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When children plant seeds in the class in order to care for the plants and observe their growth; when they
are included in preparation and serving of snacks and when a teacher provides sandpaper and three-
dimensional shapes and letters that children can trace with their fingers to reinforce shape and letter
recognition, they are being introduced to Montessoris methods (Early Childhood Today, n.d).

Conclusion
There is need for administrators and teachers of early childhood to foster positive home-school
relationships that will support childrens school success. Parents participation can be facilitated by inviting
them into the classroom, providing them with ongoing information about the activities talking place at
school and showing them the link between what is going on at school and the activities they can do at
home. Teachers can send home pictures of each child engaged in classrooms activities. At home, they
should be allowed to play with things around the house. For example, clothes, plastic empty containers
and boxes of all shapes and sizes are safe for them to experiment with. However, they should be properly
guided to avoid unnecessary injury to one another.

References

Asodike, J.D. (2011). Relevance of pre-school education to sustainable development In S. D. Ossat (Ed.)
Education in Africa: the 21
st
century Nigeria experience pp 97-117. Port Harcourt. Nigeria: University of
Port Harcourt Press.

Associateship Certificate in Education (1981). Nursery Education, University of Ibadan: Institute of
Education.

Edwards, C. P. (2002). Three approaches from Europe: Woldorf, Montessori and Reggio Emilia, Early
childhood Research & Practice, University of Nebraska of Lincoln 4(1), 1-5.

Early Childhood Today (n.d) Maria Montessori: A sensory approach to learning. The third installment in
Early Childhood Todays series on the Roots of Early Childhood Education Retrieved from
http://content.scholastic.com/browse/aricle.jsp?id=3480.

Federal Republic of Nigeria. (2004). National policy on education. Lagos: NERDC
Press.

Goldbeck, S. C. (2002). Instructional models for early childhood education,
ERIC Digest Retrieved from http://www.ericdigest.org./2003-3/early.htm.

Humphryes, J. (1998). The developmental appropriateness of high-quality Montessori programs, Young
Children, 53(43), 4-16.

Jordan. D. (2001). Many faces of preschools philosophies of early childhood education, Berkeley, CA: Parent Press.

Madumere-Obike, C. U. & Olu, S. M. (2005). Montessori system of education in
Nigeria: Its contribution to access and equity to pre-primary schools in Obio/Akpor L.G.A. of
Rivers State, Nigerian Journal of Educational Administration and Planning, 5(2), 145-151.

Posse, R. & Melgosa, J. (2001). New life style foe raising your child, Spain: Pradillo, 6 Poligono Industrial La
Mina.

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (2011a). Preschool education. Retrieved from
http://en.wikpedia.org/wiki/Preschool_education

Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia (2011 b). Early childhood education. Retrieved from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_childhood_education
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REBRANDING NIGERIAN EDUCATION THROUGH VALUE
ORIENTATION

BY

DR (MRS) S.N. ORANUSI
Department of Educational Foundations

Abstract
This paper examined the Educational System of Nigeria with emphasis on value orientations. Its
emphasis rests on the fact that our societal value system are defined and conditioned by the biological,
psychological, social and ecological contexts of the polity. It also revealed that the invisible presence of non-
colonialism today is worse than the colonial physical presence in Africa because Europeans left the shores
of Africa, but have tactically made Africa to chase after their culture, values and traditions. It also
proffers a recommendation which includes; that our educational policy must emphasize the revival of our
norms, myths and cultural values through artistic forms, folklore and myths.

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Introduction
Education is pre-eminently a culture-preserving, culture transmitting and culture transforming
institution designed to build a better tomorrow on the foundations erected by the past generations.
After many decades of cyclic fluctuations in political, economic and social change in Nigeria, the
issue of standard of discipline, self control, and integrity combined with educational qualification
appropriate to the Nigerian socio-economic milieu remains as pressing as ever. Our educational
policy has proved itself progressively incapable of devising a set of value orientations that can
effectively mediate societal interactions in Nigeria. It has failed to inculcate a set of normative
patterns and institutional goals that can stem the rising tide of indiscipline, immorality and
corruption in our public and private lives.
Lugard (1912) stated that the most important question facing Nigeria was how to promote a
better standard of discipline, self-control and integrity, combined with educational qualifications
more adequate to the demands of state and commerce. Value orientation is a set of preferential
behaviours, generalized, organized and institutionalized concept of the good life by a society to
guide and influence mans behaviour. It is a set of cognitive maps which delimit mans world view,
his concept of nature, his relation to his fellow human being and to his total environment. It defines
and delimits the desirable and undesirable aspect of human interaction within a particular socio-
economic milieu (Aronfreed, 1987).
A society value system is defined and conditioned by the biological, psychological, social and
ecological context of that particular society. By ecology we refer to the individual total
environmental frame of reference including the economic and political dimensions of his relation
with his environment. All these four variables mentioned above exert reciprocal influence on each
other. This is what Smith (1999) terms the field of theory of values. They determine the value profile
of the society. A change in one set of variables necessarily leads to corresponding changes in the
other variables. The cumulative effect of these changes is a perceptible change in the value profile of
the society.
At each stage in societys socio-economic and political development the society must make
realistic efforts to reassess its dominant values to bring them in line with the changing social,
political and cultural milieu. It must build a firm foundation for the emergent value clusters through
its educational philosophy, educational goals and educational practices. It must ensure that these
values are not held in the abstract, that they permeate and form the basis of the formal and informal
educational system; that they conform to the dominant ethos of the society and make a perceptible
impact on physical, psychological and social realities of that particular society.
Problem Statement
The problem of Nigerian education has reached the dimension of a crisis which threatens the very
stability of the society. Yet there is a comfortable and smug assumption that the countrys
educational system has been eminently successful, that on the whole the machinery of
administration is well structured at every level. According to Taiwo (1980) The process of decision-
making is clear and all the people affected are involved directly or indirectly in the process. The
duties of the functionaries, from the minister/commissioner and permanent secretary, to the
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headmaster and the teachers in the lowest unity, all grow and develop to meet new challenges.
With all due respect to Taiwo, a veteran educator of no mean order, this statement bags a
number of questions. For example, how can educational system designed to further the aims and
objectives of an extractive colonial power be made to serve the interest of an independent Nigeria?
How can educational values designed to serve, to maintain and to perpetuate an imperial political
system be made to serve the needs of an independent Nigerian political system without radical
restructuring?
Almond (1990) observed that every political system is embedded in a particular pattern of
orientation of political actions. Certainly, orientation to a colonial regime can never be the same as
orientation to an independent policy. Furthermore, it is patently true that the underlying legitimacy
of behaviour patterns and values exists in and responds to a political bargaining relationship. It
therefore, standsP to reason that an educational system designed to inculcate the values of a colonial
be made to serve the needs of an independent Nigerian political system. This paper therefore
concerns itself with the role of education in providing, within an independent Nigeria, the moral,
emotional and intellectual foundations. The individual identity, group identity and national identity
must reinforce and revitalize each other in order to ensure the development of a concerned and
committed citizenry conscious of their rights and duties. They should be committed to a set of value
that will foster a strong participant onentation.
The Concept of Value System
It takes as its premise the concept that a nations political culture is a composite of its values and
traditions, its folklore, its heroes and myths, its language, its history and the totality of its
environmental factors. This includes its peculiar way of life consisting of its means of livelihood, its
art, settlement patterns. Certainly, no man in any society provides for his family independently of the
intricate pattern of cooperation and mutual assistance. None, in fact, can function effectively outside
an established pattern of human relation and institutional framework which assures him of the
actions and reactions that his behaviour will evoke from his neighbours. It is in fact the nature of the
established patterns of human relations and the institutional framework designed to mediate
between these interactions which determines the difference between the citizen of an independent
political system or a subject of colonizing power. The competence required of the citizen is quite
different from the competence required of a subject.
In like manner, the educational system designed for the education of citizens is quite different
from the educational system designed for the subject of a colonial power. Each education system
reflects and inculcates a set of attitudes and goals appropriate to the status of the individual in a
particular political system. Therefore, a change in the status of the individual requires corresponding
change in attitudes, beliefs and values systems which the educational system must instill in the young
and in every member of the society.
This change is particularly important in countries such as Nigeria which was dominated by a
colonial power for almost a century. The norms, values and authority of the central institution
derived their power and legitimacy from the imperial power where the behaviour of the indigenous
population had been conditioned by the dictates of their colonial masters. The treated them not as
citizens but as subjects.
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Every political system designs its educational system, both formal and informal, to ensure that
the perpetuation of a certain political system cannot be transplanted to serve another political system
without necessary modification and adoption. Such modifications and adaptations must take into
consideration the domain of values embracing the biological, psychological, social and ecological
determinants of a given society.
The Nigerian Educationa1 System
The greatest problem facing the Nigerian educational system is that there is a manifest discrepancy
between the values taught in school and the public domain of values and societal trends, between
governmental philosophy and operation of that philosophy; between government goals for the
development off society. Kandel (1990) emphasized that in Nigeria one cannot say with any degree
of certainty that what you want in state, you must put into the school for the state institution and the
educational institutions operate at different wave-lengths.
The Attitudes and be1iefs, inculcated in school cannot produce the desired effect unless they
are objectified, reified, operationalizcd in their private and public transactions. One cannot gain
currency without the other. We are by no means belittling the power of ideas and beliefs. They are
powerful in their own right. But for them to exercise sway over our lives, there must not be any
perceptible dissonance between beliefs and customs, between expectations and performance;
between policy and practice. (Bright 2001).
Thus for our educational system to exercise a perceptible influence over the actions of men,
there must be a measure of congruence between appearance and form, between the value
determinants of our educational system and ritualized, operative and dominant norms of our society.
What sustains the efficacy of the educational institutions of a society is a realization by the young
that is based on a clear perception that the image and ideals of a society propagated in schools have
some measure of relevance to the manners and mores, the operative myths and world view of the
society which designed and upholds the educational system (Coleman, 1965).
There is no doubt that an element of idealism and romanticism is inseparably bound up with
the emotive component of cultural transmission through educational and socializing agencies of the
community (Johnson 1989). Certainly, life is a constant struggle; constant straining to expand the
boundaries of experience to reach after the ideal, to merge with the infinite. Therefore at each stage
in our life experience, the practice must always fall short of the ideal. James Coleman (1965)
emphasized that it is the fall of the ideal image that leads to the collapse of empires and the decay
of cultures. It is the search for the ideal that spurs the creative faculty of man. But the inspiration
and the ideals that vitalize the education system of a nation, like the proverbial phoenix must renew
itself from the ashes of its past.
A nations education system is meant to strengthen and refine the character of future
generations to give the student knowledgeable confidence in himself, to develop pride in the
achievement of his ancestors coupled with a burning desire to improve on these achievements; to
plough new grounds to leave a legacy to posterity. There is certainly no doubt that people who
cannot look back with pride on the achievements of their ancestors will find it extremely difficult to
muster the courage, the pride, the confidence and consequently, the ability to improve on the
present state of things. They will find it a Herculean task to blaze new traits, to dream fresh dreams
and to make the impossible possible.
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Here-in lies the core problem of the Nigerian educational system. A resolute and practical
attempt to solve this problem is the first step in the right direction to relevant and functional
education for Nigeria. The question which demands an urgent answer is; how this can be done... the
most important step in the solution to this problem is to identify those values which impede the
realization of our educational goals and suggest some alternative solutions.
The Colonial Education
The first and foremost problem is that education in Nigeria is regarded as an agent of change.
Change as a value has so many dimensions. However, these dimensions can be summed up under
the four value variables noted previously: biological, psychological, social and ecological
determinations. Morris (1990) emphasized that the variables in the four determinants or domains of
value are so related that a change in the variable in any one domain is companied by a change in the
variables in the other domains. But the ultimate result of the change in the interacting variables
depends on the motive and thrust of the change.
The schoo1s from the beginning of the British colonial period was regarded pre-eminently as a
means of changing our traditional culture and of planting British ideals, values and culture. This is
totally at variance with the major tenets of those cultures and highly destructive of our individual
and collective identity. Johnson (1989) noted that the result has been that we as a people have lost
our self respect and our love for our self-respect and our love for our own race, and we have
become a sort of non-descript people.
Obviously, the British education system was pre-eminently successful in educating the African
and weaning him away from his culture and his values. It was very effective in changing the
psychological orientation of the educated African to things British, to the British way of life and to
some extent, British values. What was not recognized then was that a change in the psychological
orientation of the people would bring about material change in the variables involving their
biological, social and ecological orientations.
Consequences of Wrong Value Orientation
After independence, the Nigerian government emphasized the aim of education as an instrument of
rapid economic development (National Policy on Education, 2004). There is no doubt that well
intended and infact sincere statements were made about creating equal opportunities, about using
education to bring about a well-rounded human being, but the method of accomplishing this was
vaguely defined. There was no clear-cut idea about how to relate the change in the economic
variables to the variables in such value domains as the ecological, sociological and psychological
determinants in the value clusters of independent Nigeria.
The result was the accentuation of the economic factor and the consequent mad rush to acquire
wealth by any means just for the sake of it. Thus while the government is making every effort to
establish more educational institutions of all types and to finance them, the public is increasingly
concerned that the way to power and influence lies not in the hallowed halls of the universities but
in the mercantile house and market places. Money has thus become not just the means to an end,
but an end in itself, not just an instrument value but the ultimate value. A close examination of the
behaviour of Nigerian youths today will help to judge if such behaviour is in harmony with the
prescribed aims and values of education.
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The materialistic tendency of most Nigerians is fast gripping the youths. Students have become
less interested in courses that provide general knowledge and are now more interested in courses
that are applicable to work roles so that they can get rich quickly. Young school leavers prefer
engaging in business or any other venture that will yield money overnight rather than pursuing
higher education or to becoming rich through worthwhile painstaking means. The result of the mad
rush is that principles and values are thrown overboard, respect is taken for granted and honour and
integrity are completely set aside.
The Nigerian society has been constantly harassed by armed robbers, hired assassins and
kidnappers. Whether it is at night or during the day, cars are stolen from garages, on the high ways,
banks are robbed, users of public transportation systems are robbed right inside such vehicles.
People are made to surrender their money and property at gun points even in their bedrooms.
Students burn down and destroy valuable government and institutional property for one flimsy
reason or the other. Corruption which is not exclusive to Nigeria is gaining acceptance in the society
because the people appear to be fanning its embers. Students bribe teachers to sell examination
questions to them, they bribe office executives to gain employment even when they do not have the
relevant certificates. They bribe the law enforcement agencies to pervert the course of justice.
Certainly, a nations culture, its cluster of values, its myths and folkways cannot be separated from
the educational system of its political order without obvious dysfunctional effects.
Value Orientation: The Continuing Crisis
Education is viewed essentially as a cognitive map which enables the individual to exploit his/her
environrnent for his/her very survival. All education systems contain an element of exploitative
orientation which finds overt expression in mans economic drives. However, the difference in the
effectiveness of the various educational values lies in the degree to which this exploitative dimension
is checked, cushioned arid directed.
Orientation education is an instrumental value in the sense that by examples and precepts the
educational system instills in the child such traits as mutual accommodation and acceptance;
sensitivity to the feelings and interests of fellow students and citizens, devotion to a cause, and an
idealistic quest for the betterment of the society at large.
It emphasizes that without faith in human beings and confidence in a plighted world, human
cooperation in business and social life become extremely precarious and vexatious. Through
anecdotes, fables and living examples of transparent honest, it engenders in the youth a sense of
justice and fair play without which political contests wear the appearance of a Russian Roulette
played to a deadly finish.
If one may rightly ask; What aspect of our educational policy can infuse these values in our
students? First of all, there is the overwhelming majority of teachers, principals, curriculum planners,
school superintendents who are devoted to passing on knowledge that children need in order to live
in our industrialized society. They are not especially imaginative or creative nor do they often
question why they are teaching the things they teach. Their chief concern is with efficiency, that is,
with implanting the greatest number of facts into possible number of children, with a minimum of
time, expenses and effort.

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Conclusion
When one looks at all the queries and counter-queries about the deadline in our value system, one
finds that they all boil down to the issue of search for identity. The invisible presence of neo-
colonialism today according to Emuemokumo (2009) is worse than the colonial physical presence of
colonialism in Nigeria of those days. Europe left the shores of Africa, but has tactically made Africa
including Nigeria to chase after her. This is where the crisis or dilemma lies.
Recommendations
It is through the enabling vision of our indigenous art and literary form that we can recreate our past
and restore the lost heritage. This work therefore recommends that
1. Our education policy must emphasize the revival of our norms, myths and cultural values,
through artistic forms, folklore and myths.
2. It must recognize and exploit the rich resources of our language, our values and ecological
settings as vehicles for our cultural revival.
3. Our policy makers must bear in mind that education is meant to strengthen the character of our
people by giving them knowledgeable confidence in themselves, pride in the achievements of
their ancestors and a burning desire to improve on these achievements. It must spur them to
plough new grounds and leave a legacy for posterity.
4. Courses such as social studies, civic, religious knowledge and the likes should be incorporated in
the curriculum to assist in promoting our cultural values.
References

Almond, W. (1990) The structure and function in society, London. Victor Gollari Ltd., Intro Section.

Aronfreed, J. (1987) Moral Education and Behaviour, New York, Theory, Research and Social Issues.

Bright, S.T. (2001) Variety of Human values. Princeton University Press. Comn,J-f-f965)

Coleman, J. (1965) Education and Political Change. New Jersey, Princeton University Press.

Emiemokumo, A.N. (2009) Modern African Art: Beyond Colonialism. The Nigerian Academic Forum;
Awka; National Association of Academic Press.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) National Policy on Education; Lagos. NERDC press

Johnson, S.N. (1989) The Aims of Educat,on, International Education. The University of
Tennessee Press

Kandel, M.N. (1990) Economics, and Education in Developing Countries. Foundation Development
Dialogue (uppersale) Pg. 112-114

Lugard, F.E. (1912) Report on the Amalgamation of Northern and Southern Nigeria. 1912-1919,
CMD 468, 1920 para.165.

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Morris, 0. (1990) Society and Culture New York David Mackey Press- 1112.

Smith, H. 0. (1999) Political Personality and Nation Building. International review of Education,
Princeton University press.

Taiwo, C.O. (1980) The Nigerian Education System: Past, Present and Future. Lagos. Thomas
Nelson Press.

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PERCEPTION OF COUNSELLING AS AN INTEGRAL COMPONENT
OF SPECIALIZED SERVICE FOR PARENTS OF THE HEARING
IMPAIRED IN SOUTH-WESTERN NIGERIA
By
PROF. UMOH, S.H.
&
ONIYE, A.O., Ph.D
oniyeraz@gmail.com
Dept. of Counsellor Education,
University of Ilorin.

and

OYEWO, N. A., Ph.D
&
AYENA, O. O., Ph.D

Emmanuel Alayande College of Education,
P.M.B. 1010, Oyo,
Oyo State Nigeria.

Abstract
This study is a survey of counselling as an integral component for helping parents of the hearing impaired
in South-Western Nigeria. Using purposive and simple random sampling techniques, a total of 200
respondents were selected for the study. An instrument named Counselling: an Integral components for
Helping Parents of the Hearing Impaired (CICHPHIQ) was used to collect data for the study. Two
research hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 alpha level of significance. Data collected were
analysed using the t-test statistics. Results of the study revealed that special educators, irrespective of their
age and types of institution agreed that counselling is an integral components for helping parents of the
hearing impaired. Also, there is no significant difference between the old and the young special educators
in their perception of counselling as an integral component for helping parents of the hearing impaired.
Results further revealed that significant mean difference does not exist between tertiary institution and
secondary school special educators in their perception of counselling as an integral component for helping
parents of the hearing impaired. This study therefore recommends family-centered counselling for the entire
family of the hearing impaired.

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Introduction
Counselling has been described as an applied psychology that may be considered as either an art or a
science. The art of counselling concerns its clinical practice; the talents and skills the counsellor brings
to it. The science of counselling concerns the theories that support the art of practice, the formation of
those theories through ongoing research.
The art and science of counselling are mutually dependent, and mutually enhancing dimensions.
Due to its multidisciplinary base, the definition of counselling varies among disciplines because
individual professionals within specific disciplines tend to form their own personal composite
theoretical frameworks for counselling research and practice (Crowe, 1997). To a professional
counsellor, counselling is a service designed to help the individual analyze him or herself by relating his
capacity, achievement, interest, weakness and modes of adjustment (Makinde, 1988).
Hence, counselling to a special educator in relation to the hearing impaired refers to a process
where special educators facilitate an individuals adjustment to the auditory and non-auditory
consequences of hearing loss. The process of counselling is designed to facilitate resolution of
problems by enabling individual to find appropriate solutions for their difficulties (Sanders, 1993).
The counselling process consists of two components:
(1) Informational counselling
(2) Personal-adjustment counselling
Informational counselling provides information about aspects of the hearing impairment such
as audiogram, the consequences of the hearing loss and the use of amplification; while personal-
adjustment counselling refers to the emotional aspects of adjusting to the hearing loss and assisting
the parent and child in finding solution to their problems and ways of achieving independence
(Luterman, 1999).

What is Hearing Impairment?
The term hearing impairment is an all inclusive term referring to all types and degrees of
hearing loss (Sanders, 1993). There are generally two categories of hearing impairment viz: hard-of-
hearing and deaf.
Hard-of-Hearing: The term hard-of-hearing describes the child in terms of how he/she functions
communicatively. Typically, children who are hard-of-hearing use their residual hearing and
amplification as their primary mode of communication. Although most hard-of-hearing children learn
speech and language to some degree, many of them even learn sign language to help them relate to the
deaf and deaf culture.
Deaf: The term deaf generally refers to profound hearing loss that prevents the child for using hearing
as a primary mode of communication. This degree of hearing loss evokes distinction in culture as well
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as in audiometric designation (Sanders, 1993).
Finally, some terminology refers to the functional effects of an individuals hearing impairment.
It is important to view all children with hearing impairment individually. This is because many have the
same degree and configuration of hearing loss, but behave or function quite differently in terms of
language, communication and learning situations. For example, a child with a 70-dB sensory loss who
uses hearing aids could function as a deaf child or a hearing child depending on success with
amplification, speech and language development, psychosocial development and so forth (Crowe,
1997).

Parental Reaction to Children with Hearing Impairment
When parents learn that their child has a significant hearing impairment, they experience a multitude of
reactions. For some, there is a sense of relief and confirmation that the behaviours they have been
observing in their child have some justification. However, many reactions follow this sense of relief and
confirmation (Crowe, 1997).
Parental reactions to hearing impairment in their children are similar to those experienced when
a loved one has died (Luterman, 1999). In a sense, most parents loose hopes, dreams and aspiration
that they might have had for their child. Their once perfect child is now not so perfect; hence, these
parents tend to go through a grieving process in dealing with such knowledge about their child. The
grief parents experience is understandable, but it can have negative effects on rehabilitation. Hence, it is
critical that counsellors respond to the grieving process in a manner that facilitates acceptance of the
loss (Luterman, 1999).
Shontz (1995) describes the psychological reactions to crisis as a useful model for
understanding the reaction of parents who have deaf children. Immediately after parents receive the
diagnosis of deafness, they often experience crisis. The psychological reactions are also similar to the
stages of grief (Kobler-Ross, 1999).
In crisis reactions, Shontz (1995) explains that parents initially experience shock. During this
stage, parents may divorce themselves from the crisis situation as a defensive reaction. They may be
present physically, but may not be emotionally or intellectually attentive. Counsellors and psychologists
therefore should be aware that they may need to repeat many times the important information about
the childs deafness and intervention until they are sure parents are emotionally and intellectually
attentive.
The second stage in crisis reaction, according to Shontz (1995), is recognition. In this stage,
parents begin to realize the awfulness of the situation and begin to acknowledge it emotionally. They
may be totally overwhelmed in this stage and have feelings of inadequacy, confusion, anger, frustration,
depression and guilt. Subsequently in this stage, parents try to bargain. That is, they will do anything
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as long as the childs, deafness is alleviated. Counsellors at this stage should be very supportive and try
to provide nonverbal consolation by using good listening skills.
The third stage in crisis reaction is denial. In this stage, parents may go back to their defence
retreat as a coping mechanism with full thinking that their child is not deaf. They may reject the
diagnosis of the hearing loss and get other opinions, or they accept the diagnosis but reject the
permanence of it. If parents stay in the denial stage too long and avoid recommendations for early
intervention, the child may be slighted. Counsellors should accept parental denial and continue to
provide appropriate information for the childs habilitation.
The fourth stage called acknowledgment stage is a lifelong stage. In this stage, parents begins
the acceptance process. As Luterman (1999) described it, parents begin to accept their childs hearing
impairment in this way.
I have a deaf child and he will always be deaf, and although there is nothing
I can do about changing the hearing impairment, there are things I can do to
help this child grow into a responsible human being p.13.

It is a good sign of acceptance when parents begin to take good care of hearing aids and follow through
on recommendations made for the child (Crowe, 1997).
Shontz (1995) opined that the final stage and ultimate goal of crisis reaction is constructive
action. This is also a life-long stage in which evidence that the grief is resolved first occurs. During
constructive action stage, parents adapts more easily to change and are more positive about their child
and management of the impairment.
Counselling Parents of the Hearing Impairment
Sanders (1993) proposed a general model for intervention management that contained eight steps viz:
- Providing emotional and informational support
- Reviewing and interpreting available test results
- Ascertaining present situation and need
- Supplementing interview and test results
- Determining primary and secondary goals
- Identifying appropriate resources
- Developing a management plan and
- Monitoring effectiveness of intervention strategies
One of the goals of counselling in the rehabilitation of children who are hearing impaired is for the
parents to achieve confidence in their ability to cope with situations that are affected by their childs
hearing impairment (Sanders, 1993). When this goal is achieved, it results in improvement of the quality
of life for parents and children by reducing the negative physical and psychological influence of hearing
loss.
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The counselling relationship should be a partnership where the two parties coordinate their
resources to reduce the actual or potential negative impact of hearing impairment. A successful
counselling relationship is the one that allows both parties to work together on all aspects of
intervention and which allocates time throughout habilitation for counselling (Sanders, 1993).
In recent years, the target of intervention service has shifted from child to family. Consequently,
these changes have also increased the emphasis on a family-centered approach to counselling. Family-
centered counselling utilizes family resources and strengths and it enables active role for families in the
habilitation of their children. Family-centered counselling also emphasizes the need for families to be
intimately involved in the decisions made for their children throughout their habilitation (Kricos, 1993).
Counsellors should be aware of certain multicultural aspects of family centered counselling.
Cultural diversity has a significant impact on family dynamics and the counselling process (Kricos,
1993). With significant changes occurring in the demography of the worlds population, counsellors are
already working with individuals who may have different values and cultures than their own. These
differences are critical to the success of a healthy counselling relationship between parents and
professionals. Therefore, counsellors must take time to learn about different cultural perspectives so
that they can work effectively with families whose views may be different from their own.
Another aspect of the counselling process for parents of the hearing impaired is the need for
genetic counselling (Crowe, 1997). If the parents have normal hearing and their children are hearing
impaired they need to be made aware of the potential risk of having more children who maybe hearing
impaired. Because majority of children who are deaf are born to parents who have normal hearing,
parents must increase their knowledge of risks of their future children through generic counselling
(Crowe, 1997).
Statement of the Problem
There is no doubt that the services provided by audiologist alone cannot bring a total rehabilitation
sufficient enough to cater for the needs of the hearing impaired. This statement is supported by
findings of the research conducted by McCarthy, Culpepper and Lucks (1986) who reported that very
little has changed in the way audiologists are educated with regard to counselling and their role as
counsellors.
Nevertheless, Crowe (1997) asserted that it is in the realm of management that counselling
becomes an integral component of intervention with hearing impairments as it is truly the cornerstone
of rehabilitative audiology. Shifting emphasis back to the individual and family and providing successful
counselling determines the extent to which all other rehabilitative measures succeed or fail (Clerk,
1994).
Hence, this paper attempt to find out the perception of special educators in South West Nigeria
on counselling as an integral component of intervention with hearing impaired parents.
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Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to find out whether special educators in South Western Nigeria perceive
counselling as an integral component of intervention for helping parents of the hearing impaired.
Methodology
Research Design
The research design adopted for this study was the descriptive survey method. This design is deemed
appropriate because it involves direct contact with a population or sample that has characteristics,
personal qualities or attributes which are relevant to this investigation.
Population and Sample
The target population of this study consisted of all special educators (male and female, old and young
tertiary institution based and secondary institution based) in South West Nigeria. Two hundred (200)
special educators were selected from at least 2 tertiary institutions and 5 secondary schools in each of
the 6 states of South West Nigeria. Both purposive and random sampling techniques were used to
select the respondents.
Instrument
The instrument used to collect data for this study was a self developed questionnaire tagged
Counselling: An Integral Component of Helping Parents of the Hearing Impaired Questionnaire
(CAICHPHIQ). This instrument has two sections i.e. Section A and B. Section A sought information
on the personal data of respondents i.e. the demographic data such as gender, age, and type of schools
(secondary and tertiary), while section B contained 20 items which participants responded to on a 4-
point Likert type scale format of Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree
(SD).
Validity of the Instrument
After construction the instrument was given to experts in psychology and special education to critique.
Their various suggestions were thus incorporated into the final draft of the questionnaire. This ensures
the face and content validity of the instrument.
Reliability of the Instrument
The test re-test reliability method was used after which the Pearson Product Moment Correlation
Coefficient formula was used to calculate the scores from the two tests. The reliability coefficient was
found to be 0.75 which was considered high enough for the study.
Method of Data Collection
All the researchers were personally involved in the administration of the instrument with the help of
research assistants. The questionnaire forms were given to participants in the selected schools under a
conducive atmosphere. The researchers/assistants ensured proper filling of the questionnaire after
which they were collected immediately to avoid loss or interference.
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Method of Data Analysis
Data collected were analyzed using frequency counts, means, standard deviation and t-test statistics.
The t-test statistics was considered adequate to analyze data collected for this study because only two
means being compared in all the three null hypotheses raised to pilot the study.
Results
The results obtained from the study were presented hypothesis by hypothesis for ease of reference and
logicality.
Hypothesis one: There is no significance difference between male and female special educators in
their perception of counselling as an integral component of intervention for helping parents of the
hearing impaired.
Table 1: t-test Analysis of Young and Old Special Educators Perception of Counselling as an Integral
Component of Intervention for Helping Parents of the Hearing Impaired
Gender N X SD Df t-cal t-critical
Young 128 43.95 5.73 198 0.17 1.96
Old 72 43.80 5.72
The calculated t-value of 0.17 at 0.05 level of significance was found to be less than the critical
t-value of 1.96. This indicated that there is no significant difference between young and old special
educators in their perception of counselling as an integral component of intervention for helping
parents of the hearing impaired. Hence, hypothesis one was accepted.
Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference between tertiary and secondary school special
educators in their perception of counselling as an integral component for helping parents of the hearing
impaired.
Table 2: t-test Analysis of Tertiary Institutions and Secondary School Special Educators
Perception of Counselling as an Integral Component for Helping Parents of the Hearing Impairment
Types of
School
N X SD Df t-cal t-critical
Tertiary 97 43.89 5.32 184 0.13 1.96
Secondary 103 44.14 6.12

Results in Table 2 shows that the calculated t-value (0.13) is less than the critical t-value of 1.96
at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, hypothesis 2 was accepted with the conclusion that tertiary
institutions and secondary school special educators do not differ significantly in their perception of
counselling as an integral component for helping parents of the hearing impaired.
Discussion of Findings
The participants, irrespective of their age and type of institution agreed that counselling is an
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integral component of helping parents of the hearing impaired. This result agrees with that of Sanders
(1993), which stated that one of the goals of counselling in the rehabilitation of children who are
hearing impaired is for the parents to achieve confidence in their ability to cope with situations that are
affected by their childs hearing impairment. Achieving this goal, according to Sanders (1993), results in
improvement of the quality of life for parents and children by reducing the negative physical and
psychological influences of hearing loss.
Findings of this study also revealed that there is no significant difference between old and
young special educators in their perception of counselling as an integral component for handling
parents of the hearing impaired. This result finds corroboration in the earlier study of Kricos (1993),
who found that in recent years, the target of intervention services has shifted from child to family.
Consequently, these changes also have increased the emphasis on a family-centred approach to
counselling the hearing impaired.
Furthermore, findings of this study revealed that there is no significant difference between
tertiary institution and secondary school teachers in their perception of counselling as an integral
component for handling parents of hearing impaired. This result is in tandem with that of Crowe
(1997) who cautioned that counsellors should be aware of certain aspects of family-centered
counselling such as diversity in values and cultures as well as genetic aspect of counselling the hearing
impaired.
Summary of the Findings
The following are the major findings of the study:
All participants, irrespective of their age and types of institution agreed that counselling as an
integral component for helping parent of the hearing impaired.
Old and young special educators do not differ significantly in their perception of counselling is
an integral component for helping parent of the hearing impaired.
Tertiary institution and secondary schools special educators do not differ significantly in their
perception of counselling as an integral component for helping parent of the hearing impaired.
Conclusion
Based on the findings of this study, the following conclusions were drawn:
Counselling services in support of audiologic services are essential in helping parents of the
hearing impaired and their families to adjust to the effect of hearing impairment.
Special educators irrespective of their age agreed that counselling is an integral component for
helping parent of the hearing impaired.
Special educators irrespective of their type of institutions agreed that counselling is an integral
component for helping parents of the hearing impaired.
Counselling Implication of the study
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This study has some implications for counselling as a profession and counsellor in training and
practice. For counselling as a profession, counsellors in training need to be trained specifically in family-
centered counselling to equip and to enable them have enough competency necessary to handle hearing
impaired clients and their parents. Practicing counsellors should attend conferences, seminars and
further training in special education so that they can be further exposed to methods of handling not
only the hearing impaired but also their parents.
Recommendation
Counsellors should be employed to handle person with disabilities in special schools.
Counsellors should receive enough training family-centered counselling to enable them handle
hearing impaired clients effectively.
Counselling Association of Nigeria (CASSON) as a body should sensitize government
institutions, members and the general public on the need to employ the services of counsellors
in handling hearing impairment clients and their family.

REFERENCES
Clark, J.G. (1994). Audiologists counselling purview. In J.G. Clark & F. N. Martin (Eds). Effective
counselling in audiology: Perspectives and practice. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Crowe, T.A. (1997). Application of counselling in speech-language pathology and audiology.
London: Williams & Wilkins
Kobler-Ross, E. (1999). On death and dying. New York: Macmillan
Kricos, P.B. (1993). The counselling process: Children and Parents. In J.C. Alpiner & P.A. McCarthy
(Eds). Rehabilitative audiology: Children and adults. Baltimore: MD Williams & Wilkins.
Luterman, D. (1999). Counselling parents of hearing-impaired children. Boston: Little brown & Co.
Makinde, Olu (1988). Fundamentals of guidance and counselling. London: Macmillan
Publishers.
McCarthy, P.A. Culpepper, N.B. & Lucks, L.E. (1986). Variability in counselling experiences
and training among ESB-accredited programs. ASHA, 28(9), 49-52
Sanders, D.A. (1993). Management of hearing handicap infants to elderly (3
rd
ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall
Shontz, F. (1995). Reactions to crisis. Volta Review, 67(5), 364-370

March, 2012.


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GENERATIONAL AND OWNERSHIP INEQUITY IN THE UTILIZATION
OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) IN
NIGERIAN UNIVERSITIES

By

MFON EYO, Ph.D
Principal Consultant
Eno-Ette Memorial Resources Ltd

234 802 222 7311; 234 809 222 7311
dr.mfon.eyo@gmail.com

Abstract
This study aimed at identifying the existence or otherwise of digital divide in the utilization of
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in counsellor education in Nigerian universities
based on generations and ownership status of the universities. It had two research questions and two
hypotheses tested at 0.05 alpha level of significance. Survey design was adopted for the study and ICT
Utilization Questionnaire (IUQ) was used in gathering data from the entire population of 142
counsellor-educators and trainee-counsellors in the five universities in the South-South geopolitical zone of
Nigeria who offered Guidance and Counselling as a course of study at the Masters degree level in the
2007/2008 session. The IUQ was validated by five experts, and its reliability was established to be
0.9. A direct delivery technique was adopted for data collection. Data was analyzed using t-test,
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), mean and standard deviation. Findings show that there is no
digital divide based on ownership of universities but there is digital divide based on generation of
universities. Recommendations were made to different stakeholders on the strategies and actions to be
taken to bridge this gap thus improving the utilization of ICT in counsellor education in particular and
education generally.

March, 2012.


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Introduction
According to the National Policy for Information Technology (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2007),
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) includes any equipment or interconnected system
or subsystem of equipment, that is used in the automatic acquisition, storage, manipulation,
management, movement, control, display, switching, interchange, transmission or reception of data or
information. Akir (2006) sees it as a term that refers to stand-alone computers, networked devices
and telecommunication technologies with multimodal interface, mobile phones/devices with capability
to perform data communication, and other technologies that allow multimodal and interactive
communication. Since no single study can efficiently cover the entire broad scope of ICT, this study
focused on the Internet, an aspect of ICT. The Internet is a worldwide interconnection of computers
that allows for sharing of resources, whose accessibility is not limited by time and space.
ICT is novel in Nigeria in general and Nigerian education in particular; as the country got a
National Policy for Information Technology in March 2001, established the Nigerian National
Information Technology Development Agency (NITDA) in April 2001 but got an enabling law giving
legal recognition to the Agency in April 2007 (Iboma, 2007; Okonji, 2007). The newness created the
need to establish the disparity in the utilization of ICT by counsellors in Nigeria with respect to
generations of universities and ownership status.
Investigating the utilization of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Nigerian
University libraries, Nkanu (2006) sought to determine if there is any significant difference between
Southern and Northern Nigeria University libraries of the first, second and third generations in their
utilization of ICT facilities with respect to their location, amongst other objectives. This study which
had all the Federal Universities libraries as its population had a sample of 590 respondents drawn from
13 Federal University libraries. The findings indicated an acceptance level of 60% in the use of ICT in
Nigerian University libraries and that there was no significant difference between Southern and
Northern university libraries in their utilization of ICT facilities with respect to location. These findings
created a gap in the field of Guidance and Counselling which the present study sought to fill. This gap
included identifying the existence or otherwise of digital divide amongst the generations of Nigerian
universities in the utilization of ICT in counsellor education.
Furthermore, Jurado, Gurpegui, Moreno and de Dios Luna, (1998) studied school setting and
teaching experience as risk factors for depressive symptoms in teachers. They used a representative
random sampling of school teachers working in the city of Granada, Spain; and stratified the schools by
ownership (private and public) and grade level (primary and secondary). Using a sample of 310
teachers, the researchers used questionnaire to generate data for the study, while the data was analysed
using logistic regression. The findings indicated that school ownership was associated with higher risk
of depressive symptoms; school ownership was therefore said to play a significant role in the likelihood
of teachers in Granada being depressed. Horowit and Spector (2005) investigated the impact of school
ownership (public or private) on academic performance of college students. Using 15,270
undergraduate students who registered at Ball State University as the sample, the researchers reported
that students who went to religious high schools seem to outperform their private and public school
counterparts. This suggests that school ownership is an influential factor on academic performance.
These studies are relevant to the present study as the present study considered the influence of
ownership of university on the extent of utilization of ICT in counsellor education.
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As the Internet emerged in the global polity, it was discovered that there was an inequity at different
levels on the use of this powerful technology. This inequity is referred to as digital divide, and it is a
major issue in the use of the ICT. Much as there is concordance on digital divide as an existence of gap
in the utilization of ICT amongst different people, there has been no agreement on where the disparity
actually exists. Kling (1998) considered the disparity as existing in technical and social aspect. Keniston
(2004) identified the digital divide in four groups. These were the rich and the powerful and those who
were not; the English speakers and those who did not; those that lived in regions that were technically
well-established and those who did not; and those who had the technical know-how and those who did
not. Another attempt at categorizing the digital inequity is the one made by Norris (2001). He had three
types of digital divide viz: the global disparity between the industrialized and the developing nations;
the social divide with focus on inequality within a given population; and the democratic divide which
implied different levels of civic participation by means of ICT. Compaine (2001) raised alarm on the
widening gap on this inequity and reported that Internet access was lower for women than men,
implying digital divide on gender basis. The present study sought to establish the existence or otherwise
of this divide based on generation of universities, and ownership of universities (Federal or States
owned). This customized categorization of digital divide constituted the two basic independent
variables in which the core theme of the study was investigated.
The purpose of the study was to establish whether there was digital inequity based on generation and
ownership of universities. Specifically, the study sought to identify the following:
1. The existence of digital divide amongst counsellors in the three generations of Nigerian
universities in the utilization of ICT in counsellor education.

2. The existence of digital divide between counsellors in the Federal and State owned universities
in the utilization of ICT in counsellor education

Scope of the study
The study sought to establish whether there was digital divide in the utilization of ICT in counsellor
education, based on generation and ownership of universities. It was however delimited to the Internet,
an aspect of ICT. Geographically, it was delimited to the South-South geopolitical zone which is one of
the six geopolitical zones in the Federal Republic of Nigeria as it had the major characteristics that are
relevant to this study. These includes having a combination of the three generations of universities;
hosting universities that are owned by either the Federal or State governments that offered Guidance
and Counselling as a course of study at the Masters degree level as at the 2007/2008 academic session.
In Nigeria, six universities founded between 1960 and 1970 were referred to as the first-generation
universities; seven universities established in 1975 were known as second-generation universities; while
the universities founded after 1975 were grouped as third-generation Universities.
Research questions
This study sought to answer the following research questions:
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1. Is there digital divide amongst counsellors in the three generations of Nigerian Universities in
the utilization of ICT in counsellor education?
2. Is there digital divide between counsellors in the Federal and State owned universities in the
utilization of ICT in counsellor education?

Research hypotheses
Two non directional hypotheses were derived from the research questions, and were tested at 0.05
alpha level of significance. They include:
Ho 1. There is no significant difference in the mean score on the extent of utilization of ICT
amongst counsellors in the three generations of Nigerian Universities.
Ho 2. There is no significant difference in the mean score on the extent of utilization of ICT
between counsellors in the Federal and State owned universities.
Methodology
Design
The design of the study was survey. According to Ali (2006), a survey is a descriptive study which seeks
to document and describe what exists or the present status or existence or absence of what is being
investigated, in its natural settings and involving no manipulation of any variable. The present study fits
into this design as it sought to document the existing facts with respect to digital inequity based on
generation and ownership of universities.
Population
The population of this study included all the 142 counsellor-educators and the Master of Education
(MED) students in Guidance and Counselling in the 2007/08 academic session in the entire first,
second and third generation universities offering Guidance and Counselling as a course of study at the
Masters degree level in the South-South geopolitical zone of Nigeria. This included 38 lecturers
teaching Guidance and Counselling courses at the MED level and 104 MED Guidance and Counselling
students in all the universities used for this study.
Sample and Sampling technique
This study used the entire population, thus no sample was composed in this regard. This was due to the
fact that the whole population was manageable. In the same vein, all the universities in the South-South
zone that offered Guidance and Counselling as a course of study at the Masters degree level as at the
2007/2008 academic session were used for this study, so no sample was composed.
Instrument for data collection
The instrument used in data collection was a questionnaire called ICT Utilization Questionnaire (IUQ).
The IUQ, developed by the researcher, had two parts labelled parts I and II. Part I sought to gather
demographic information while the second part was an 8-item statement that sought to elicit data on
the extent of utilization of ICT in counsellor education. It had Very High Extent (VHE), High Extent
(HE), Low Extent (LE) and Not At All (NA) as the response options. The scoring of the
questionnaire was done thus: Very High Extent (VHE) had four points, High Extent (HE) had three
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points, Low Extent (LE) was assigned two points and Not At All (NA) had one point. This scoring was
then utilized in the statistical analysis, which provided a platform for answering the research questions
and testing the hypotheses. Table 1 shows the items on the Part II of the IUQ.

Table 1: The items on IUQ for establishing the extent of use of ICT in counsellor education
S/N DESCRIPTION VHE HE LE NA
To what extent do you make use of the Internet to:
1 browse for materials to write your academic assignment, term
paper or journal article

2 browse for general materials on Guidance and Counselling
3 access electronic journals
4 access virtual libraries
5 send email for counselling purposes during practicum or
counselling session

6 chat for counselling purposes during practicum or counselling
session

7 participate in discussion forum, mailing list or listserv with an
academic or counselling topic

8 participate in video conferencing
9 deliver or attend lectures

Validity and Reliability of the Instrument
The Instrument was validated by five experts in the field. The reliability of the IUQ was
determined by administering it to fourteen (14) Trainee Counsellors and Counsellor Educators of
Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka. The data generated from this instrument was tested using
Cronbach Statistics. The reliability of the questionnaire was established as 0.9.

Method of data collection and Analysis
The method of data collection was by direct delivery/selfadministered technique. The data
gathered and collated was analysed using t-test, ANOVA, mean and standard deviation. ANOVA was
used in testing hypothesis 1 while t-test was used in testing hypotheses 2. In using the ANOVA, either
the exact probability was compared with the level of significance or the calculated f-ratio was compared
with the critical value of f-. If the exact probability was greater than the alpha, and/or the calculated f-
ratio was less than the critical -f-, the null hypothesis was accepted and retained; otherwise it was
rejected. The same was applicable to t-test. If the exact probability was greater than the alpha, and/or
the calculated t-value was less than the critical value of -t-, the null hypothesis was accepted and
retained; otherwise it was rejected.
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Results and discussion
Research question one: Is there digital divide amongst counsellors in the three generations of
Nigerian Universities in the utilization of ICT in counsellor education?
To answer this research question, the data generated from the study was analyzed and the
results are as presented in the table below.

Table 2: The mean and standard deviation on the extent of utilization of ICT amongst the
three generations of universities
Groups N Mean SD
1st generation
2nd generation
3rd generation
24
44
70
2.25
1.91
2.10
1.19
1.06
1.13

It is evident from the table above that 24, 44 and 70 counsellors took part in this study from the
first, second and third generation universities respectively. While the second generation universities had
the lowest mean score of 1.91, the first generation universities had the highest mean score of 2.25 while
the third generation universities had 2.10. The table indicates obvious differences in the extent of
utilization of ICT in counsellor education in these different generations of universities. One could not
however say, if the differences were due to chance, or if they were statistically significant. To be able to
take a decision on this direction, the first research hypothesis was tested.

Research hypothesis one: There is no significant difference in the mean score on the extent of
utilization of ICT by counsellors in the three generations of Nigerian universities.
The first hypothesis sought to establish if there was a significant difference in the mean score
on the extent of utilization of ICT in counsellor education amongst the three generations of Nigerian
universities. It sought to find out if generation of university was a significant factor in determining the
extent of utilization of ICT in counsellor education, thus establishing the existence or otherwise of
digital divide amongst the generations of Nigerian universities. It however assumed that there was
actually no difference in the mean score on the extent of utilization of ICT in counsellor education in
these generations of universities. The table below presents the results of the study in respect of this
hypothesis.

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Table 3: ANOVA of significance of difference in the mean score on the extent of utilization of
ICT amongst the three generations of Nigerian universities
Sum of
squares
Mean
Square
df F f
critical
p Decision Inference
Between
groups
Within
groups

Total
18.03

1545.94

1563.98
9.02

1.25
2

1239

1241

7.23

3.00

0.00

.05

Reject H
o

Difference is
significant

According to the table above, the calculated f ratio was 7.23 while the critical value of -f- was
3.00 at 0.05. The table also indicates that the probability was 0.00 at the same 0.05. The table also
shows that the decision was to reject the null hypothesis due to the fact that the exact probability was
less than the alpha, just as the calculated -f- value was greater than the critical -f- value. This means that
the difference in the mean score on the extent of utilization of ICT by counsellors in the three
generations of universities was statistically significant and thus not negligible. This therefore established
that there was digital divide amongst the generations of universities with respect to the utilization of
ICT in counsellor education. The finding here disagreed with the finding of Nkanu (2006) who
reported no significant difference between Southern and Northern Nigeria University libraries of the
first, second and third generations in their utilization of ICT facilities with respect to their location.
Research question two: Is there digital divide between counsellors in the Federal and State owned
universities in the utilization of ICT in counsellor education?
The second research question was interested in the existence or otherwise of digital divide
between counsellors in the Federal and State universities with respect to the utilization of ICT in
counsellor education. It sought to find out if ownership of a university had influence on the extent of
utilization of ICT in counsellor education. The table 4 below gives the summary of the results of the
analysis done in respect of this research question.
Table 4: The mean and standard deviation on the extent of utilization of ICT in Federal and
State universities
Groups N Mean SD Mean
Difference
Federal Universities

State Universities
92

46
2.04

2.11
1.13

1.10

0.07

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According to the table above, 92 and 46 respondents took part in the study in Federal and State
universities respectively. Moreover, while the Federal Universities had a mean score of 2.04 on the
extent of utilization of ICT in counsellor education, the State universities had 2.11 as their mean score;
thus leaving a mean difference of 0.07 between the Federal and State universities. It was therefore clear
that there existed a difference in the mean scores of the Federal universities and their State counterparts
with respect to the extent of utilization of ICT in counsellor education. One could not however lay
claim to this difference as being statistically significant or negligible until a related hypothesis was
tested. The hypothesis 2 below was therefore tested to allow for a safe conclusion in this regard.
Research hypothesis two: There is no significant difference in the mean score on the extent of
utilization of ICT by counsellors in the Federal and State owned universities?
The second hypothesis is a null one which assumed that the difference, if any, in the mean
scores on the extent of utilization of ICT in counsellor education in the Federal and State universities
was statistically not significant and was thus negligible. The hypothesis was interested in identifying the
existence or otherwise of digital divide between the Federal and State owned universities, and it
assumed that no such divide existed as ownership of a university did not influence the extent of
utilization of ICT in a university. The table 5 below presents the summary of the analysis done to test
this hypothesis.
Table 5: t-test of significance of difference in the mean score on the extent of utilization of ICT
in Federal and State universities
Groups N Mean SD df t t
critical
p Decision Inference
Federal

State
92

46
2.04

2.11
1.13

1.10

136

-1.00

1.96

0.32

.05

Accept H
o

Difference is
not
significant

The calculated t-value, according to the table above, was -1.00 at 0.05 and a degree of freedom
of 136. The table also indicates a probability of 0.32 and t-critical of 1.96, all at 0.05. Since the
probability was greater than the level of significance, the null hypothesis was accepted. The acceptance
was also valid as the calculated t-value was less than the critical t-value. This means that there was
actually no significant difference in the mean scores on the extent of utilization of ICT by counsellors
in the Federal and State owned universities, which connotes that there was no digital divide between
the Federal and State universities. Following from this test, the difference of 0.07, recorded in table 4 as
existing between the mean scores on the extent of utilization of ICT by counsellors in the Federal and
State owned universities, can be ignored as it was negligible and due to chance. This disagreed with
other reported findings on the influence of ownership on the investigated variable (Horowit and
Spector, 2005; Jurado, Gurpegui, Moreno and de Dios Luna, 1998). While the latter researchers
investigated school setting and teaching experience as risk factors for depressive symptoms in teachers,
and reported that school ownership was associated with higher risk of depressive symptoms; the
former considered impact of school ownership (public or private) on academic performance of college
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students and reported that ownership of school had a significant impact on the academic performance
of college students.
Summary of major findings
The summary of major findings includes:
1. There was digital divide amongst the generations of Nigerian universities in the utilization of
ICT in counsellor education.
2. The status of the universities as being owned either by the Federal or the State government did
not influence the extent of utilization of ICT in counsellor education as the established difference was
statistically insignificant. There was therefore no digital divide in the utilization of ICT in counsellor
education based on status of ownership of a university.
Implications of the study
The findings of this study have implications for the National Universities Commission (NUC),
trainee-counsellors, counsellor educators, curriculum experts, university administrators, National
Information Technology Development Agency (NITDA) amongst others. The findings indicated that
there was digital divide based on generations of universities while there was no divide based on
ownership of universities. This implies that in devising strategies to improve the utilization of ICT in
counsellor education, adequate consideration should be given to generations of universities as what is
suitable for the first generation universities may not be good for the other generations. The finding on
ownership status portrays the fact that ownership status of the universities is not a critical factor to be
considered as the extent of utilization is the same irrespective of the ownership status.
Recommendations
Findings of this study show that there is digital divide existing amongst the generations of
universities on the extent of utilization of ICT in counsellor education. It is therefore recommended
that the National Universities Commission and other stakeholders should take decisive steps to bridge
this gap. They should liaise with any relevant body to organize training programmes on computer usage
and computer skill acquisition for staff and students in the universities. They should also take other
steps that would enhance a more effective utilization of ICT in counsellor education in particular and
education in general.
References
Akir, Z. I. (2006). Impact of Information and Communication Technology on teaching and training: A
qualitatite systematic review. Unpublished Ph.D Dissertation, Ohio University. Retrieved on
08/05/07 from http://www.ohiolink.edu/etd/send-pdf.cgi?ohiou1145903498
Ali, A. (2006). Conducting Educational Research in Education and the Social Sciences. Enugu: Tashiwa
Networks.
Compaine, B. M. (Ed)(2001). The Digital Divide: Facing a crisis or Creating a Myth? Massachusetts: The MIT
Press. Retrieved on 29/09/08 from
http://books.google.com.ng/books?hl=en&id=MbareJicwKAC&dq=%22digital+divide%22&pr
intsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=BZFkw1keFg&sig=dUxJArgsa5qjT0oAj2PcnnC_h0M&sa
=X&oi=book_result&resnum=7&ct=result#PPP1,M1
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Federal Republic of Nigeria (2007). Nigerian National Policy for Information Technology. Retrieved on
05/07/07 from http://www.nitda.gov.ng/document/nigeriaitpolicy.pdf
Horowitz, J. B & Spector, L. (2005). Is there a difference between private and public education on
college performance. Economics of Educational Review, 24(2), 189 195. retrieved 31/05/09 from
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VB9-4D16SS5-
1&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_versio
n=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=8c9d01e71742d8351a700e9127eb37df
Iboma, J. (2007). Nigerian IT development agency established by law. Retrieved on 05/07/07 from
http://www.bizcommunity.com/Article/157/16/14665.html
Jurado, D., Gurpegui, M., Moreno, O. & de Dios Luna, J. (1998). School Setting and teaching
experience as risk factors for depressive symptoms in teachers. Retrieved on 31/05/09 from
http://hera.ugr.es/doi/15000989.pdf
Keniston, K. (2004). Introduction: The Four Digital Divides. In K. Keniston and D. Kumar (Eds.) IT
Experience in India. Delhi: Sage Publishers. Quoted in Ryder, M. (2008). The digital divide.
Encyclopedia of Science, Technology, and Ethics Retrieved on 06/07/07 from
http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/dig_div_este.html
Kling, R. (1998). Technological and Social Access to Computing, Information, and Communication
Technologies. White paper for the Presidential Advisory Committee on High-Performance
Computing and Communications, Information Technology, and the Next Generation Internet.
Quoted in Ryder, M. (2008). The digital divide. Retrieved on 06/07/07 from
http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/dig_div_este.html
Nkanu, W. O. (2006). Utilization of Information and Communication Technology and the provision of
library and information services in Nigerian University libraries. Unpublished PhD dissertation,
University of Uyo.
Norris, P. (2001). Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide. Cambridge;
New York: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved on 29/09/08 from
http://books.google.com.ng/books?hl=en&id=D0CSHNEfRlAC&dq=%22digital+divide%22&
printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=QvoiF8G0Gc&sig=jepeYCnMARn_7BCW3y697r3nQ6
I&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPP1,M1
Okonji, E. (2007). NITDA Act 2007: Boost To Technology Development, Says Angaye. Daily
Independent newpaper, online edition, 29th May. Retrieved on 05/07/07 from
http://www.independentngonline.com/?c=51&a=27335

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PROMOTING HEALTH THROUGH EFFECTIVE AND IMPROVED
CONSUMER HEALTH EDUCATION
By
OBIECHINA, G. O. (M.Ed.)
Department of Human Kinetics and Health Education

08023710891, georgyobechina@yahoo.com
Abstract
Consumers today operate in increasingly complex markets, challenged by global information, education
and communication with expanding choice of product. Making good choices and protecting the interests of
individuals require a wider range of skills and knowledge. The paper examines the potential of a
consumer health behaviour approach as a means of using information, education and communication for
health promotion purposes. It reveals the practical knowledge of what consumers can do after learning
about a particular issue in other to support sustainable consumption. It also aims to increase awareness
on how to identify the issues that concern the public through information, education and communication
system; one of which is the uncontrolled advertisement in various media especially in Nigeria by
practitioners of traditional medicine (TM) and complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) which
exposes the consumers to a lot of information that may be harmful to their health. It is recommended
among others that businesses should be encouraged to play a consultative role to governments in consumer
education, and to develop their own methodologies and guidelines for promoting consumer education in
their respective fields.
Key words: Consumer information, consumer education, consumer communication,
and health promotion

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Page 411
Introduction
Most times the incidence of disease epidemics and other ill-health conditions occur as a result of
consumption of unhealthy products such as food, drugs, water, among others. For instance in the early
part of this millennium, the country witnesses deaths of children after consumption of wholesome
noodles. Sometimes, chemical composition of cosmetics has been found to be injurious to health
which can result in cancer and allergies.
Consumer health education is sometimes considered to be an alternative to government
regulation of the health care industry. It is the acquisition of human information, knowledge and
communication that create awareness towards positive change in behvaiour. Consumer education gives
individual, family and community the opportunity to know their right. According to Babatunde and
Njoku (2011) consumer information, education and communication revolve around the fact that
knowledge or a meaningful message is ascertained and passed from person(s) to person(s) to promote
health and lifestyle of every individual. Information could be a wealth of knowledge about something,
such as goods, substances, foods, cosmetics, drugs, devices and services, which may be obtained from a
source to promote and prolong individual life. It also helps them to be aware of the dynamic quality
product in the market at any given time.
Education on the other hand involves teaching someone, using formal system of school, college
or university or passing knowledge of a particular subject. An educated individual knows his or her
right to any goods and services of any product in the market, and how to make the right choice.
Communication is the successful ways of sharing of thoughts, feelings, ideas,and information to others
through speech, writing, printing, electronic media, signals among others for health promotion and
well being of people.
Different groups in the community or society require different kinds of information, education
and communication, particularly on drugs, food, environment and other regulated products. This
information may enhance their life style as well as promoting their health. The stakeholder groups are
consumers, Consumer groups include, manufacturers, importers, prescribes, dispensers, patients and
general public.
The use of traditional medicine (TM), complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) has
increased significantly over the past few years. However, a recent report has shown, in addition to the
many benefits that there are also risks associated with the different types of TM/CAM. Although
consumers today have widespread access to various TM/CAM treatments and therapies, they often do
not have enough information on what to check when using TM/CAM in order to avoid unnecessary
risk and complication that may arise in future, (WHO,2004). That is, the dose, right time to take the
herbs, right mixture among others. Globalization has led to intercultural exchanges and widespread use
of techniques and therapeutic products of CAM often unknown to local communities as local herbs.
This phenomenon requires particular attention in order to avoid inadequate misunderstandings and
inappropriate use that could be harmful to the individuals and subsequently affect entire communities.
In low and middle-income countries, up to 80% of the population may rely on TM for their primary
health care needs (WHO, 2004).
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Consumers need to be informed about the risks associated with the use of TM/CAM
medication therapies. Awareness and vigilance are valuable steps towards minimizing risks such as
direct toxicity, interactions and contraindications, depending on the specific TM/CAM medication
therapy used. Governments have a key role in the control of information on TM/CAM, irrespective of
whether a national TM/CAM centre exists. However, in most countries the majority of consumers may
not have access to information controlled by either a national TM/CAM centre or by the government.
In any case, consumers are likely to collect information from a variety of sources like television,
newspaper, media and through friends. Hence there is a need to help consumers understand how to
evaluate information about TM/CAM so that he can make informed decision that will not pose treat to
their health.
Again, there is uncontrolled advertisement in various media especially in Nigeria by
practitioners of TM and CAM which exposes the consumers to a lot of information. The major aim of
these practitioners is to make profit so they resort to all sorts of bogus claims to entice consumers. The
consumers, consequently, get fed with a lot of lies and misinformation that can expose them to very
dangerous and unhealthy situations. More so, when the educational background of these TM and CAM
practitioners are mostly low with basically no professional training in medicine or allied medical
profession. Unfortunately, Nigerian Government has no legislation against such reckless practices.
Concepts of consumer health
Consumer according to Wikipedia (2011) is defined as someone who acquires goods or services for
direct use or ownership rather than for resale or use in production and manufacturing. World (2010)
defined consumer as someone who can make the decision weather or not to purchase an item at the
store, and someone who can be influenced by marketing and advertisement. A consumer is any
individual member of the public, group of people, organization, institution, corporate body that
procures or obtains things for himself, herself or others, such as utility ( house hold, soaps), food (milk,
rice), devices (cars, electronics), services (physicians, engineers) among others for the purpose of
maintaining and promoting good health and well being of individuals.
Consumer education involves transferring information and communication from experts such
as government agencies, to the general public in other to promote their life style, (Keeffe 2011). It
identifies issues that will be beneficial to the affected groups, choose efficient presentation models and
inform the audience about consumer right and effectively teach the necessary skills.
Consumer health according to Beurett (2006), encompasses all aspects of the market place
related to the purchase of health products and services. Positively, it involves the facts and
understanding that enable people to make wise choices. Negatively, it means avoiding unwise decisions
based on deception, misinformation, poor communication and other factors. Consumer health relates
to products that may be consumed, injected, worn, applied on the body or utilized in form of devices
or services in other to promote health and well being of an individual. It is also referred to as the goods
and services utilized at home, school, workplace and the community for promoting the life of an
individual, family or community.
Consumers today operate in increasingly complex markets, challenged by growing amounts of
information and an expanding choice of products. Making good choices and protecting their interests
require a wider range of skills and knowledge. Consumer education is critical in this regard; it can be
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defined as a process of developing and enhancing skills and knowledge to make informed and well-
reasoned choices that take societal values and objectives into account. Consumer education can help
develop critical thinking and raise awareness, thereby enabling consumers to become more pro-active.
It is also an important vehicle for building the confidence that consumers need to operate in
increasingly complex markets.
Today consumer education covers more diverse areas than it has in the past. It now covers, for
example, consumer rights and obligations, personal finance, sustainable consumption, and digital media
and technology. Such education should be viewed as a long-term and continuous process that develops
better decision making and skills throughout consumers lives (Merlin & Boer, 2004). The aim
education is to render positive information that will assist individuals in selection of good, reliable
products and services rather than the bad, adulterated and deceptive ones. It guides them in decision
making on the right choice of positive health services. It also provides opportunity for the consumer to
be aware of his or her right under consumer protection laws.
Consumer education is the process of gaining the knowledge and skill needed in managing
consumer resources and taking action to influence the factors which affects consumer decision, or
passing knowledge of a particular subject to someone either in schools, workplace, market among
others. This has promoted consumer health, change individual idea about certain product, and with
sound education one cannot be misled to buy expired product. Also one knows his or her right in
buying any commodity. He or she knows the legal implications of every item and knows where to
report, in case of any fraud.
In 2004, the Nigeria government policy makers introduced the SERVICOM to assist the
consumer in case of any problem with the marketers. The consumer health education provides the
consumers with information on regulated products recalls, labeling, changes and expiring date. Also the
National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and control (NAFDAC) assist the consumers
nation wide to be aware of the fake, and to be able to differentiate the good products from the bad or
fake ones (Ogunrin & Erhijakpor, 2009).
Consumer health promotion could be viewed using information, education and
communication. Consumer health information can be defined as any information that enables
individuals to understand their health and makes health related decisions to themselves or their families.
(Patrick & Koss, 1995). It is also defined as a wealth of knowledge about something, such as goods,
substances, food, cosmetic, drugs, devices and services which is aim at promoting and prolonging
individual life and behaviour. The sources of information include reference book, scientific journal,
food and drug bulletin, news papers, conferences, media, television, among others ( Akintola & Njoku
2010).
Consumer health information has developed broad interest and very specific needs to promote
health and well being of individual, family and community. Example, people especially older ones look
out for health information to enable them watch what they eat, while the young one look out for the
latest style of wears, cloth, shoes, Gucci, necklace, bag, cup, hair and kit ( Yumy ,2011) .
It is obvious that consumer information, education and communication are an effective and
improved way to health promotion. With consumer information the message is being disseminated to
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every individual either in school, newspaper, medial, television, internet, journal, among others.
Consumer communication involves ways of sharing thought, feeling, ideas, information
excetera to friends, family and community, in other to promote health and well being of individual
family and community. This could explain why some one like Anna Okon, for example, gets some facts
on the internet and put it in Punch newspaper so that the information education and communication
will circulate to anyone who is interested. National Agency For Food and Drug Administration and
Control ( NAFDAC) sustained public enlightenment and education of consumers, importers,
distributors, retailers of regulated product to be aware of fake, fraud and quack. In case of any fake or
fraud, NAFDAC requires individual to report what happened as soon as possible, give the names,
address and phone number of the person affected as well as the clinic, hospital and doctor, state the
problem clearly, indicates the name and address of the store where you purchase and the date.
Classification of Concepts in Consumer Education
Green.(2009) classified the concept as decision making, resources management and citizen
participation and responsibility.
1. Consumer decision making covers critical thinking, skills related to consumer goal,
needs, wants and the effect of attitudes, advertising, information and opportunity cost on
consumer behaviour.
2. Resource management- examines the allocation of scarce resources among competing
wants. Explores the principles of supply and demand and how prices are determined.
3. Personal finance. This includes budgeting, record keeping, income and net worth
statement, credit, saving and investing, retirement and estate planning insurance and taxes.
4. Right and responsibilities: This includes responsible citizenship concerning consumer
protection laws and regulations and redress mechanism. It also addresses environment, safety,
health care and affordable goods and services.
Consumer Health Education sets to;
1. It identifies the issues that concern the public through information system. Reeffe
(2011) gave the example of credit cards fraud and how it affects both business and
credit cards holder. The objective is to reduce fraud by passing formal information to
the credit users on how to protect their card. He further stated that the best way to do it
is to identify an audience who are affected by a particular issue so that they can easily
understand the message.
2. Effective consumer education should aim to present knowledge to the general public or
to the specific groups affected by the issue. Example of consumer rights, basic nutrition
or information about additives; should be presented in the most efficient way to
promote their life.
3. Education of the public about consumers and business role in the society in terms of
demand and supply, in other to meet the needs of every individual.
4. Educate the audience about the skills needed to implement consumer knowledge. e.g.
after learning about a particular issue, the public should have the skills about how to
spot sales gimmick and correctly judge value for money.
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Objectives of Consumer Health Education
The objective of consumer health is to encourage the prevention of disease through knowledge and
communication and to assist the public make informed decision to a variety of alternatives. This could
be based on holistic or natural approach to promote the whole body e.g. botanical medicine, nutrition,
massage therapy, medication therapy etc.
To bridge the gap between allopathic medicine and holistic preventive medicine and to
work in cooperation with the conventional medical community.
To work together with other like- minded health advocacy groups in a spirit of harmony
and cooperation to help promote and improve the quality of life of individual, family or the
community.
Consumer education covers the following areas, health, nutrition, food- borne disease and food
adulteration. Consumers need to be educated about;
1. Product hazard-like hazards due to storage and consumption of a particular product,
2. Product labeling- pasting labels on the packaging of products regarding their
composition status, weight, ecological impacts, purity standards, colour, preservatives
used, data of manufacture and expiry, address of producer/ manufacture, matters
pertaining to registration, trademarks, marks of standard etc.
3. Protective laws- Laws framed by the government to protect rights of consumer and
seeking redressed, how and who to approach.
4. Environment, different right of pollution, sustainable consumption among others
(Misha, 2010)
Scope of Consumer Health Education
Consumer health education covers the consumer rights, consumer laws, product quality- standards,
health aspect of various products, availabilities of various public and private services, units and
measurement and making correct choices while buying different commodities (Mishia, 2010).
Consumer rights
The agencies that are responsible for the protection of consumers right are consumer protection
council (CPC), Service Compact with all Nigerians (SERVICOM), National Drug Law Enforcement
Agency (NDLEA), Food and Drug Information Centre (FDIC), National Agency for Food and Drug
Administration and Control (NAFDAC) among others. Nigerian government had acknowledged that
Nigeria have for too long felt short- changed by the quality of public service, which often are not
delivered without undue influence or inducements. SERVICOM noted that public offices in Nigeria
have long been riddled with inefficiency, corruption and have become impediments to the effective
implementation of government policies. In other to reverse this trend, the Nigeria government in 2004
introduced the SERVICOM, described as a service compact with all Nigerians (Ogunrin &Erhiyapor
2009).
Basic Consumer Right; According to Wilson (2008) reported that in1985, eight basic consumer rights
were adopted by the United Nations' Assembly, which resulted in consumers having stronger consumer
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protection policies worldwide. March 15 is now declared as World Consumer Rights Day
1. Right to safety against hazardous goods and services; Consumers have the right to expect
protection from hazardous products and services purchased in the marketplace, particularly if
used properly for their intended purpose. The product offered for sale should not pose undue
risk or physical harm to consumer or their family members. Impure or adulterated food,
defectively manufactured automobiles and tyres, drugs having harmful side effects and unsafe
appliances can cause harm, risk or injury to consumer. Therefore, consumers should have
protection from the sale and distribution of dangerous goods and services.
2. Rights to be informed about the quality, quantity, purity and standard price; Consumers have
the right to receive adequate information about products on which to base buying decisions.
Reliable sources exist to inform consumers about products or services.
3. Right to choose from a verity at competitive prices; within reason, consumers have the right to
be assured that a selection of quality products and services are available for them to purchase at
competitive prices. It means that a consumer should have the opportunity to select the goods
or services that he or she wants to purchase.
4. Right to be heard; Consumers have the right to equal and fair consideration in government
policy-making situations, as well as prompt treatment in administrative courts or legal
communities. They have the right to speak up, to be heard, and to expect positive results.
5. Right to seek redress or remedy; Consumers are afforded an opportunity to have a hearing to
voice dissatisfaction such that a resolution is reached and the complaint is settled satisfactorily.
6. Right to consumer education; Consumers are extended the right to continuing consumer
education that supports the benefits and enjoyment of other specific rights. Consumers have
the right to some form of training and mastery of knowledge and skills needed to make
informed decisions in the marketplace.
7. The right to environmental health; Consumers should be protected from the devastating effects
of air, earth, and water pollution that may result from the performance of daily marketplace
operations. Consumers have the right to live and work in an environment that does not
threaten the well-being of present and future generations
8. The right to service; Consumers may expect convenience, the right to be treated with respect,
an appropriate response to their needs and problems, and good quality design and
workmanship in a product.
Consumers have the rights to know about the quality, purity, potency (standard, price etc about the
product they go for buying. Consumer should check for composition preservations used, colouring
agents mixed in the products, date of manufacture and expiring date before buying.
Consumer law
Laws are designed to ensure fair trade competition and the free flow of truthful transformation in the
market place. These laws are designed to prevent business that engage in fraud or specified unfair
practices from gaining advantages over competition. These may provide additional protection for
themselves (Wikipedia 2011). It is a form of government regulation aimed to protect the right of
consumers.
In Nigeria, the food and drug laws were the initial steps towards the protection of the consumers. The
laws mere enacted through the Decree No 35 of 1974 of Federal Republic of Nigeria which become
operational in 1976. It was expanded under the Decree No 17 of 1989 title Food and Drugs. The
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Decree of Nigeria prohibit the following
1. The sale of certain food, drug, cosmetics and devices that may be poisonous, harmful
and unfit for human consumption, filthy rotten, adulterated or prepared under unsanitary
condition.
2. The sale of advertisement of food, drugs, cosmetics or devices as treatment or cure for
certain disease such as appendicitis, diabetes, hernia, measles, goiter, yellow fever.
3. The importation, exportation and distribution of specified drugs such as LSD,
Mescaline psilocybin, amphetamines, caffeine, ephedrine etc.
4. Misleading practices such as deceptive labels, package, treatment, processing or the
mistaking identity such as given food, drugs cosmetic or devices.
5. The manufacture of drugs such as antibiotics, insulin and lever extract without first
obtaining permission in accordance with the regulation, a commissioners certificate for
manufacturing which ensures that drug will be safe for use.
Consumer Health Products
There are national industry association representing manufacturers, marketers and distributors of
consumer products. They are committed to working with their members, the broader health care
sectors and government to build an environment that improves the opportunities for people to manage
their own health through the responsible use of safe and effective consumer health product (Consumer
Health Product, 2010). Some of these industries are Johnson and Johnson, their products stand out to
improve the quality of our everyday life. They offer products and information targeting baby care, skin
and hair care, oral care, nutrition for a healthier diet, over- the counter medicine products for womens
health care need; wound care and topical for cuts, scrapes, rashes and itching among others industries
cover pharmaceuticals, ( like drugs, beverages, water). Also, they produce food, cosmetics good,
alcohol, household materials and weight control materials.
Consumer Health Service
This aimed at effectively utilizing the available resources to protect the individual, family and
community by offering services on prevention of disease, disability and death resulting from food
borne and water- borne illness and swimming- pool drowning through enforcement and education,
(Bureau of Consumer Health Service 2010). They provide educational training for industries and
consumers on hand washing activities in school, food safety education and inspection activities, safe
water and environmental safety. Examples include medical physicians, nurses, pharmacists,
construction engineers, faith homes, herbalists, marketers of services among others.
Consumer Appliances
This is integrated circuits that use a specific function that appeals to a wide market. It could also be
seen as a device used to apply medication or treatment to a particular part of the body (Oxford medical
dictionary 2003) e.g. blood pressure and heart rate/ fitness mortaring systems, digital thermometer,
drug cosmetics etc .Consumer application can come in the following ways like home appliance, -air
conditioner, mobile phone, power supply,-adaptors, consumer- audio among others. Consumer
electronics, today release highly anticipated product digital motion processor capable of expanding
into smart phones, tablet, television remotes, handheld gaming devices and digital still, video cameras
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and many other consumer products, which is widely used globally.
How Consumer Education is Carried Out
School provides an important opportunity to teach children about consumer issues, and to help them
to develop critical skills. Taking advantage of this opportunity requires teachers to be familiar with
consumer issues, and to have sufficient teaching resources available.
Although effective consumer education programmes outside the classroom exist, these initiatives could
be enhanced by incorporating consumer education into school curricula. This can be done by
embedding the education in broader learning projects that span a number of subjects and disciplines or
by providing such education as an independent subject. (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
Development,2009).
However, it is often provided by several governmental agencies, as well as by regional and local
authorities. Non-governmental entities, including consumer organisations, teachers and parents
associations professionals and other civil society groups, also play a major role in consumer education.
In many countries co-coordinating bodies have been established to help ensure coherence across
government and vis--vis other stakeholders.
The Role Of Consumer Health Education in Health Promotion
Health promotion is the process of enabling people to increase control over, and to improve their
health, (WHO, 1986). Health promotion means any activity that is fostering social, economic,
environment and personal factors conducive to health, including raising public awareness regarding
health matters and enabling individuals to cope with health problems, by increasing knowledge and
providing valid information, by encouraging adequate and appropriate diet, exercise and sleep,
providing adequate and appropriate programs such as consumer health education, diet and nutrition,
behavioral health, exercise and physical fitness, personal health and wellness practices, among others,
However, consumer health education improves individual, family and community health promotion in
different ways. For example, other than lecture, seminars and workshops, television, audio, and
newspaper are veritable medium of health information, communication and education. Also, workplace
health promotion has proven to be a valuable instrument for improving employee consumer health and
self care education. Just as mothers are important providers of health information in the home, health
educators serve as role models and can play a valuable role in health promotion in the classroom.
Health educators should understand basic health information and services, with the competence to use
such information and services in ways that enhance the learning of health concepts and skills by school
students.(Peterson, Cooper & Laird, 2001)
Conclusion
The paper recognizes consumer health education as the acquisition of human information, education
and communication that create awareness towards positive change in behvaiour. It also identified a
number of key problems or issues that must be addressed to meet demand and improve delivery of
consumer health education; one of which is the uncontrolled advertisement in various media especially
in Nigeria by practitioners of TM and CAM which exposes the consumers to a lot of information that
may be harmful to their health. Today consumer education covers more diverse areas than it has in the
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past. It now covers, for example, consumer rights and obligations, consumer law, personal finance,
sustainable consumption products, consumer health services, digital media and technology.
Recommendations
Based on the conclusions, the following recommendations were made;
1. The possibility of including consumer issues in courses to fulfill professional development
requirements should be explored. Efforts to ensure that teachers are sufficiently well-versed
about consumer issues and effective teaching techniques need to be enhanced; this could be
facilitated by including the subject in teacher training programmes. Government should explore
how to supplement consumer education as a life-long process, including how education can be
structured to build knowledge in a cumulative fashion over time. In either case, care should be
taken to promote policy coherence and to create an environment that will engage the interest of
teachers and students.
2. Intra-governmental co-operation among relevant organizations should be promoted. In
particular, co-operation between education ministries and consumer affairs ministries is
essential to strengthen consumer education.
3. Government should explore how to supplement consumer education as a life-long process,
including how education can be structured to build knowledge in a cumulative fashion over
time.
4. Governments have a key role in the control of information education and communication on
TM/CAM, irrespective of whether a national TM/CAM centre exists.
5. In addition to providing consumer education, businesses should be encouraged; to play a
consultative role to governments in consumer education, and to develop their own
methodologies and guidelines for promoting consumer education in their respective fields.
Ways to engage business more effectively in promoting societal objectives, such as sustainable
consumption and development need to be strengthened.
6. Media (print, radio, and television) could be used more effectively in most countries to support
consumer education, as partners with other stakeholders, or through their own programmes.
7. Internet could be used to promote transparency and facilitate co-operation and co-ordination
among stakeholders (e.g. online project databases) should be explored.
8. International co-operation among relevant stakeholders should be enhanced to promote the
overall effectiveness of consumer education to recognise and build on other countries
successful experiences.
9. Stakeholders should work together to determine how to share consumer education
responsibilities in different areas, with a view towards exploiting synergies and avoiding
redundancy.

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ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF
NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR COLLEGES OF EDUCATION (NCCE)
CURRICULUM ON ADULT AND NON-FORMAL EDUCATION
PROGRAMMES IN NIGERIA.
By
ANIMASAHUN, M. OLAITAN
Department of Educational Foundations and Management,
Osun State College of Education,
Ila-Orangun, Osun-State.
e-mail: animashaun.moshood@yahoo.com
Phone No: 08033929313
Abstract
The paper examines the issues and challenges in the implementation of National Commission for
Colleges of Education (NCCE) on Adult and Non-formal Education programme in the context of
meeting the targets set in the new millennium development goals and Education for All (EFA) goals as
well as Universal Basic Education (UBE) objectives towards addressing the illiteracy pandemics of the
Nigerian society. The paper highlights the objectives of Nigerian Colleges of Education (NCE)
curriculum on Adult and Non-formal education programmes as well as justification for the programmes.
Some issues that are likely to pose challenges for the implementation of the programmes were extensively
discussed. The paper concludes by making some recommendations that would enhance successful
implementation of the programme, among which is, human resource capacity building and collaborative
efforts of all key stakeholders vested with the responsibilities for setting minimum standards towards the
realization of the laudable objectives.

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Introduction
According to National Commission for Colleges of Education, the nation plans to package teacher
education programme on adult and non-formal education borne by the fact that there are
overwhelming public outcry about the quality of Nigeria Certificate in Education in their inability to
effectively delivery instruction to meet the yearning, needs and aspirations of Nigerian youths. (NCCE,
2010). Hence, to ensure productive and efficient teachers for the basic education of our educational
system, the implementation of adult and non-formal education programme is very imperative.
Nigeria is hoping to be among the first twenty economic buoyant countries in the world, yet,
illiteracy pandemic is at higher rate. This usually stem out from the resolution and endorsement of
Adult and non-formal education as the major component of the Education for All (EFA) by United
Nations in Dakar 2000 and Millennium Development Goals (MDGS) to reduce the high illiteracy rate
drastically. It is believed that to educate the children and adult is to lay a solid foundation not only for
future socio and economic progress but also to enable them develop and acquire relevant knowledge
and skills that will make them function in the world of work.
In order to ensure that the individual lives a useful and promising life as well as meeting the
challenges of life due to technology advancement, the implementation of National Commission for
Colleges of Education (NCCE) curriculum on Adult and Non-formal Education is expected to give
new direction to the intervention of mass education delivery in the country by specifying clearly, the
vision, mission, goals/objectives, strategies and action plan that will introduce more productive
dimension in achieving EFA and MDGs. The implementation of curriculum package on Adult and
Non-Formal Education affords the opportunity for prospective facilitators or professional teachers to
assist mass literacy delivery with a view to address illiteracy pandemics of Nigerian society. It is in this
context that this paper examines the objectives as well as justification for Adult and non-formal
education programmes, and some issues that are likely to pose challenges towards achieving the
objectives of the programmes having in mind the future consequence and task ahead for sustainability.
Objectives of NCE curriculum on Adult and Non-formal education programmes in Nigeria.
In line with the National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE, 2009). The objectives of the
curriculum on Adult and non-formal education is:-
i. To produce committed dedicated and skilled facilitators
ii. To prepare facilitators with in-depth knowledge of emerging contemporary issues related to
Adult and Non-formal education.
iii. To train facilitators with right attitude to Adult and non-formal Education.
iv. To produce facilitators who should be able to assist learners acquire relevant knowledge, skills,
attitudes and values necessary for living through the use of appropriate methods and up-to date
media and technology.
v. To provide opportunity for further education in Adult and Non-formal Education.
vi. To produce facilitators who should be able to mobilize the whole communities for education
and development.
A critical appraisal of the aforementioned objectives in Nigeria signify the significant roles of
Adult and Non-formal Education in making sure that education is more accessible and more relevant
to the needs and aspirations of Nigerian Youths so that the individual lives a useful life and capable of
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solving personal, domestic and social problems as well as being a useful member of the society.
Justification for Adult and Non-formal education programme
The blueprint of any programme is the roadmap which guides the delivery of the broad and specific
objectives of such programme. Thus, some of the arguments in support of the need for Adult and
Non-formal Education Programme are derived from the fact that:
Illiterate population constitutes the poorest population in Africa, particularly in Nigeria.
In term of health, it contains the largest population of the sick. Take for example, HIV/AIDS,
more, than 44 million Africans are living with AIDS
Considering the rate of development, the most backward continent in the world is Africa. When
we compare it with Asia, today, Asia is far ahead in terms of development.
Considering the rate of bombing, kidnapping, ritual-killings and flooding that have been
unraveling the country in the recent times always come from the state of ignorance of the society.
A case study is the Boko haram.
On living standard, the most illiterate population constitutes the poorest of states in Nigeria.
Again, when we consider the girl child access to education, the girl-child remains uncatered for.
They comprised street labourers and beggars in most states and they continue to be abused.
In some states, there is constant ethnic crisis leading to mass killing of citizens and destruction of
properties and vandalization of oil pipelines. These constant ethnic conflicts among people come
from illiterate population.
Considering the Muslim-dominated states, there is no doubt that there are a lot of problems
emanating from their low literacy rate.(CLTDPA,2004)
In case of women, they still remain at the background. A simple survey of women in public
position in various states will reveal their marginalization.
There is also persistently growing number of children out- of -school and adults remaining
illiterates or relapsing into illiteracy. For instance, in 2003, it was estimated that about 7.3 million
children were out- of- school. while current estimates derived from 2005 school census report
showed that about 10 million school age children were out of the formal school system.(FME,
Baseline Report, 2005,NMEC,2008)
The girl-child is not given priority attention on issues relating to education. More than six percent
of the out of school children are girls residing in the northern part of the country (FME, Baseline
Report, 2004,NMEC,2008)
Therefore, having known the implications of the above ugly cases to the future consequence on
the life of Nigerian Youths, the problems can be reduced or completely eliminated through the
implementation of objectives of NCE curriculum on Adult and Non-formal education programme.
Issues and Challenges ahead
In spite of several attempts made over the years by the government at all levels to give attention to
mass literacy and adult and Non-formal Education through the launching of action oriented
programmes such as Agency for Adult And Non-Formal Education (AANFE), National Commission
for Mass Literacy Adult and Non-formal Education, declaration and launching of ten year mass literacy
campaign by the former president Sheu Shagari in 1982, launching of International Literacy Decade and
support by the international development partners such as UNESCO, UNICEF, UNDP and World
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Bank to eradicate illiteracy in the country, the challenges remain formidable.
It is important to understand our past, so as to map out effective strategies for our future effort.
The National Commission for Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-formal Education (NMEC, 2008)
identified the following strategies for achieving proper implementation of Adult and NFE programme.
These include:-
i. Advocacy at the highest level of government to generate political will needed for sustainability of
the programme;
ii. recruit qualified personnel including facilitators, train and retrain all staff at specific intervals;
iii. organize seminars, conferences and quarterly meetings with management of colleges of education
as well as Head of Departments of adult education departments;
iv. establish Information and Communication Technology (ICT) facilities to facilitate the teaching
and learning of Adult education programme;
v. provide e-learning packages for basic and post literacy programme.
Above all, the implementation of NCE curriculum on Adult and NFE should be seen as a collective
responsibility of all and sundry, all hands must be on deck towards making the programme sees the
light of the day.
It is very obvious that, our educational system in general has no problem with the planning; the
problem is always at the implementation stage. Thus, issues that are likely to pose serious challenges to
proper implementation of Adult and Non-formal Education programme are therefore looked into. The
issues that may bother our mind at this point is how prepared are we for take off of the programme,
when the structure of the curriculum did not specify the graduation requirements for the course to be
taken by the students in terms of General Studies Education (GSE) and education courses as being
provided in other education programmes.
Aside from graduation requirement, the structure of the curriculum did not specify the teaching
subjects to be combined with adult education and at the same time, the structure did not indicate where
students will have their teaching practice exercise, whether in primary/secondary schools or literacy
centres.
Other pertinent questions to be critically examined include:-
i. To what extent has the National Commission for Colleges of Education gone in its
sensitization programmes, specifically in the areas of awareness creation, workshops, seminars
and conferences for management staff of all NCE awarding institutions and HODs of Adult
Education Departments?
ii. What practical effort has the NCCE put in place to train and re-train personnel and recruit
professionally qualified personnel including facilitators or lecturers in consideration of various
courses embedded in the scheme in a view to meeting the minimum standard?
iii. To what extent has the NCCE gone in the provision or availability of infrastructural facilities
such as office equipment, lecture rooms and learning materials such as primers (textbooks) in
subject areas as well as follow up reading materials?
The National Commission for Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-formal Education (NMEC, 2008)
highlighted a number of challenges that are likely to hinder the proper implementation of adult and
non-formal education in Nigeria. Prominent among these include:-
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i. Equitable funding;
ii. political will;
iii. advocacy, publicity and mobilization (e.g. community partnership);
iv. human resources capacity gap (training of facilitators to reflect learners diversity, community
values, beliefs and practices);
v. data challenges; and
vi. planning, monitoring and evaluation.
Thus the need for adequate planning which is more bottom-up than top-down approach for a
successful implementation of the new curriculum in NCE through NCCE and other stakeholders. It
must be emphasized clearly that government alone cannot carry the responsibilities of a successful
implementation of the NCE curriculum, but the involvement of all and sundry in its implementation.
Conclusion
From the forgoing discussion, it can be deduced that the implementation of Adult and NFE
programmes in Colleges of Education is a landmark in the development of education specifically
towards reducing high rate of illiteracy in the Nigerian society. The laudable programme may not
accomplish its objectives as a result of various challenges which may militate against its successful
implementation. Hence, if issues raised in this paper are well examined and recommendations made are
vigorously pursued, it will go a long way in meeting the NCE curriculum objectives on Adult and NFE
programme as well as targets set in Millennium Development and Education for All (EFA) goals.
Recommendations
With the aim of ensuring the successful implementation of the programme, certain things need to be
put in place. It is therefore recommended that the following strategies be adopted:
ii. Curriculum on adult and Non-formal education programme need to be restructured in line
with other educational structure so as to ensure sufficient element of relevance in the entire
programme of study. Such issues like graduation requirement for the courses to be taken by
the students, teaching subjects to be combined with adult education as well as the place where
students who have their teaching practice exercises should be vigorously looked into.
iii. The National Commission for Colleges of Education and other key stakeholders vested with
responsibility for setting minimum standards should be fully committed and back it up with
vigorous sensitization programme with sincerity of purpose. Workshops, seminars and
conferences should be mounted for the management staff of colleges of education and HODs
of Adult education, prior, during and after the take off of the programme.
iv. For the implementation to be meaningful, recruitment of professionally qualified personnel
such as facilitators or lecturers to handle the teaching and learning of adult education courses
should be intensified. At the same time, factors responsible for incessant strike actions by the
teachers and lecturers in the education sector must be critically looked into.
v. There is dire need to look into the problems of inadequate infrastructural facilities in our
colleges of education such as office equipment, lecture rooms and availability of learning
materials such as primers as well as follow up learning materials/facilities.

March, 2012.


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References
Centre for Literacy Training and Development for Africa (CLTDPA,2004). Proposal on 5-day orientation/
capacity building workshops for directors of non-formal education staff. Department of Adult Education,
University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
Federal Republic of Nigeria, (FGN, 2009) National Commission for Colleges
of Education, Minimum Standards for NCE teachers (General education) 4
th
edition. Abuja. Nigeria.
Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN, 2004). The Compulsory Free, Universal Basic Education Act 2004, and
other related matter. Abuja.
National Commission for Mass Literacy, Adult & Non-Formal Education (NMEC,2008) National Blue
Print for Adult and NFE. Abuja, Nigeria.
National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE, 2010). Framework for designing a new college
structure. Abuja. Nigeria.
UNESCO (1990). World UNESCO, Declaration on Education for All (EFA)

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ALCOHOL AND NARCOTICS CONSUMPTION BY THE UNIVERSITY
STUDENTS: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE NIGERIA SOCIETY

PORBENI ZIBO SAM, Ph.D
Niger Delta University
P.M.B 071, Wilberforce Island
Bayelsa State
Email: samzibo@yahoo.com

Abstract
This is an expository x-ray of the many effects of alcohol, its narcotics ally and all substances found
within this family. The paper takes you through the length of the subject of alcohol and narcotics
consumption and its implication from the point of contact by the students through the duration of their
studies giving the motivation leading to this paper. It defines in lucid term, the concepts of alcohol and
narcotics abuse, hunting on such issue as why, how, where and when do students take these substances. It
enunciated the two side of the coin of the effects of the use of these substances i.e. the positive and negative
effects and implications of the abuse of these substances. It made recommendations on how to combat the
increasing use of alcohol and narcotics by university students and concluded that such substances are
nothing but destruction when consumed, unregulated, uncontrolled and or in excess of the bodys
requirement.
KEY WORDS: Alcohol, Narcotics, Students and Abuse

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Introduction
We have lived in the contemporary Nigerian society to witness youth restiveness being
motivated by varying factors-political, religious, ethnics, and socio-economic amongst others. Youth
restiveness and naivety have gradually become the order of the day often times resulting in the lost of
live and property. We may not be in a hurry to forget the many and ever lingering violence in various
parts of Nigeria which have almost become synonymous with many northern states of Nigeria. Worthy
of mention are the recent Jos, Kano, Bauchi, Borno-Maiduguri crisis. It is pertinent to mention that
youths are the key players in all. This violence, mayhem as they may be called their immediate or
remote causes not withstanding while this scenario remains undisputable, further study reveals that a
substantial number of these youths involved in this violence are those who have found themselves in
the tertiary institutions of which the university is dominant. This is further attested to by the recent
demonstration in Lagos State arising from the recent fuel crisis (occasioned by the government
announced intention to remove fuel subsidy by the 1
st
of January 2012. It is worth noting that it was in
an effort to prevent the demonstration from degenerating into full blown violence that NLC and CLO
suspended the demonstration. Every other doubt relating to this claim against university students
would have been eliminated if other youth vices, peculiar only to university students alone are brought
to focus. Typical among these are the known and well exhibited disregard for law and order, morals
values at different places and times. Today there exists a correlation no doubt between University
students and the much talked about violence, fostered by alcohol and narcotic abuse. These are the
current trends in most universities and institutions these days.
Moral decadence, disregard for law and order, sex abuse, indecent dressing and exposure of
body part on one part and the dreaded proliferation cultism which is now endemic in our universities
and other higher institutions in Nigeria. We have also lived to see alcoholism manifest in horrors and
barbarism leading to students slaughtering fellow students, grossly abuse themselves, abuse their
mother institution (citadels of higher learning), their families and the entire Nigerian society at large.
More to these are the ever increasing wanton display of alcohol induced violence and recklessness
which manifest itself in accidents, rape, intimidations of all sorts, examination malpractice amongst
others. Worst yet are the fast growing war wonders of smoking publicly, the different forms of weed
(the varying forms of narcotics).The wild and indiscriminate consumption of alcoholic drinks
intoxicating and drinking to stupor all in the name of civilization. Most dishearten is seeing our girls
involved in these activities. It is for these stimulants that such profane behaviors such as nude dressing,
wild act which are foreign to our culture are now possible and inconsequential to our universities
students. There is no doubt that some of these mundane and obnoxious acts of students are induced
as many confessional statements by youth criminals the police reveals that most of the crimes were
never premeditated but were induced. Often times, after association with friends and peers; and
followed by with substances known to contain alcohol and or other substances of addiction. Notable
among them are opium, morphine, marijuana, power drinks, cannabis etc. Justice Clianakwalam in
(1982) while inaugurating the arm rubbery and fire arms! Tribunal in Owerri said Youth by themselves
are often times innocent and no doubt were born innocent, except for the inducing circumstances
behind their crimes. Therefore, the final judgment should be shared reasonably between the culprits
and the inducement behind the crim. The honorable judge simply was referring to alcohol and its
vendors. No doubt, the tribunal recommended among others things a heavy taxation on drink
dispensing outlets and registration of such places with government. Given the above, it becomes
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scholarly interesting to put up an academic paper such as this to highlight and address certain basic
issues relating to university students intake of alcohol and narcotic, what constitute alcohol and
narcotics; why, when, where do students take these substances and their effect among others.
Alcoholic beverage such as beer and wine that contain ethyl alcohol [ethanol] were probably
made in pre-history time through fermentation of either sugar or starches from plant products under
the action of a catalyst called enzymes from yeast or malt. Although the primary product in this process
is ethanol, small quantities of propanol, butanol, pentanol etc and higher alcohol are produced in
combination.
These distillation process as of producing alcohol had continued over time to the point that
much higher concentration beyond the initial 12% volume being realized in distillation process give rise
to such high alcoholic beverages as whisky, gin and rum today alcoholic production have been much
modified and diversified into different form of energy drinks wine, tonic etc.
Literature Review
According to Oviasu (1976,) the use of drugs by students is known to be partly responsible for
admission into psychiatric hospital. In a study of the use of marijuana among inmate in a psychiatric
hospital in Benin City, 21.3% of those classified as abusers of the drugs were found to be students.
Anderson (1975) said that the use of substances by students can develop into an addictive stage
and this presents numerous problems which affect the student and his immediate family. The social
aspects of drug abuse manifest in dropping out of school, promiscuity, delinquent acts, loss of the
sense of responsibility and deliberate self havoc (Odejide, 1986).
Ajagu (2005), in his contribution on the dangers of drug abuse among secondary school
students published in Daily Sun Newspaper of the 4th September, 2005 edition titled SAD-Smoking,
Alcohol and Drugs, said that youths are often under pressure to smoke, use drugs and guzzle alcohol.
Smoking seems to be considered a fashionable habit, particularly among secondary school students. In
secondary schools those who smoke are considered cool and stylish. Every stick of cigarette you smoke
reduces one's life span. Some disease from cigarette smoking could cause cancer, heart diseases,
infertility, it darkens lips and teeth, gives bad breath, false self confidence and at the end; leaves one
confused and depressed. Often times, from smoking and alcoholism; students graduate to smoking
Indian hemp, heroine, and sniffing cocaine and drugging extensively. This is because the temporary
feeling of euphoria experienced never really makes users feel happy rather it leaves them with a feeling
of emptiness which craves for a deeper sense of euphoria by advancing more into drug abuse.
Some extreme cases of drug abuse as noted in schools magazine NEPA Staff secondary school,
Sapele(-) "Chandelier" written by Bright (2003), said the extreme bad behavior of secondary school
students as a result of drug abuse include truancy, irregular school attendance and of course their brains
at this stage can neither absorb or kept what is being delivered to them in the classroom rather they
look for alternative ways of passing their examination through malpractices which at the long run is
often unsuccessful.
Drug abuse has serious and devastating consequences on the academic performance of
students of Sapele Local Government secondary school. They take a lot of locally brewed gins
popularly known as "Sapele Water" which they copied from their parents.
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Students taking alcohol and drugs of any kind on a daily basis are likely to be affected mentally
throughout their school years. They also suffer from low self-esteem, are prone to undue anger,
aggressive in behaviors, violence, rebellious, confused, lost of memory, lacked concentration, looses
focus, and very rude, Mood swing problem, they are usually quiet, introversion, sure and full of fears,
always anxious, full of hatred, superfluity of ingratitude, murmuring, feel pains, depressed, always in
misery and ultimate insanity which are altogether inimical to good academic performance.
Drug abuse and alcoholism abuse also lead to cultism, armed rubbery, rape, murder and other
hideous crimes (Bristol, 1986). The after effect of drug abuse is certainly poor academic achievement
and dropping out of school which result finally to the following miserable wretch, living a life of
restlessness, hatred, misery, hopelessness and unfulfilled life expectation of being a graduate. Life as a
drop-out is not an easy one.
Drug and alcohol abuse among university and secondary school as shows by the students in
Sapele Local Government Area of Delta State, like any other student anywhere else in the country,
who is fool hardy and embraces indiscriminate use of drug and alcohol is like jumping into a lions
den, and should be ready to be bitten and crushed. Alcoholism does the same thing as drugs, some
students have cut their lives short because of drinking excessively as it damages their organs, like their
kidney, liver and hearts. Addiction to any form of drug or alcohol is an addiction no matter the form
they come in. the effects and implication of any form of addiction, is dangerous and their effects could
be for life.
The Concept of Alcohol and Narcotics
Alcohol: Alcohol in the words of encyclopedia American is any of a family of organic compounds
containing the atomic group OH. This group which largely determine the physical and chemical
properties of alcohols is attached to a chain of carbon atoms that also hold hydrogen atoms The
formula CH20H(methanol) C2H3OH(ethanol) and CH20HC2H3OH(2 buthanol) are typical. Ethanol,
also called ethyl alcohol or grain alcohol is familiar as the beverage alcohol. It is a member of a large
family of compound that is the only simple alcohol that can be consumed safely. Alcohol and related
substances e.g. methanol are very poisonous and have caused many their lives, Alcohol have great
industrial importance as a commercial solvent, antifreeze mixture, solvent for pharmaceuticals and
intermediate in the manufacture of other products. Again, the word alcohol is used to denote all the
compounds containing hydroxyl groups-OH attached to non benzenoid carbon atoms, Alcohol are
characterized by wide variety of chemical reactions and uses. Some of the substances found in the
alcohol groups include methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol, glycol, glycerol alcohol. Alcohols are classified
according to the number of hydroxyl group of alcoholic character. These include monohydric, dihydric,
trihydric etc. they can also be classified as primary CH20H2C2H3OH Secondary (CH2) C2H3OH and
tertiary alcohol (CH2C2H3OH.
Nacotics: This constitutes one of the oldest classifications of drugs known to man. It produces several
effects, primarily analgesia known as pain reliever as well as Narcosis - a state of stupor or sleep,
addiction - a state of physical dependence. The term narcotic is often restricted. the addictive pain
killers, other forms of Nacotics include morphine, Codine, Ethylmorphine, Heterocodeine, Heroin,
Hydrocodone, Metopon, Oxymorphone, Oxycodone etc. narcotics may also be classified as
semisyntheic e.g heroin and synthetic narcotics.

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Qualities of Alcohol & Narcotics
Narcotics and alcohol have been proven to be substances of addiction, they tends to make consumers
depends on them, often time made the consumers to develop a form of chemical secretion(enzymes)
that makes the human body always in want of such substance. They are seductive in nature i.e. dulling
the senses of the user, inducing sleep on them, making them hardy, more resistant to pains and physical
injuries and stimulating the production of more calories of energy required in sporting activities and
other manual activities. Simply put, narcotics have a way of affecting the body chemistry of its users.
Alcohol and Narcotics are both intoxicating and are easily absorbed by the skin. Alcohol
contains ethyl and hence quit inflammable.
Consumption of Alcohol and Narcotics among University Students
UNESCO (2002) reveals that over 60% of the universities students in Columbia are prone to mental
health risk, having been introduced to smoking, snuffing and or consumption of different kinds of
weed, cannabis and or hemp. The UNESCO bulletin shows that the world Governments and their
agencies have become lose that these regulated substances have entirely gained a free trade status
around the world, helped by many forms of cartels. A local statistical study of Psychiatric Association
of Nigeria (2007) reveals that 56% of the total inmates of three major hospitals University of Port
Harcourt Teaching Hospitals, Federal Medical Center Yenagoa and Federal Psychiatric Hospital Uselu,
Benin City are Youths of University age 18-26years. This is also true about the situation in our prisons
where a recent study by the Federal ministry of women affairs reveals that University undergraduate
forms a fair number of prison inmates in Nigeria. In the course of this study, a number of reasons were
identified, why students either drink or smoke. Among these are: to feel bold among equals, feel equal
and belonged, to be part of the on-going trend as criteria for membership or enrolment into
fraternities/cults. To appeal to be attracted to the opposite sex, peer pressure, to overcome timidity and
intimidation, mentorship, to accomplish dreamt life style, social ties.
Often times, smoking and drinking among students begin in clandestine gatherings and
activities such as in night parties, clubs, political rallies, hostel get together where and when the habit
will have been developed. Here the student. The victim may no longer resist the urge and can now be
taken anywhere. Alcohol most often is taken in form of beverage-beer, whisky, gin, brandy, rum etc
narcotics on the other hand may be taken as snuff i.e. in powder form, chewed and swallowed as
tablets, peels grain, weed, (fresh or dried as hay) root/herb, it can be smoked, cooked along with
regular food like rice, potage yam, beans, plantain, soup, stew. Narcotics can also be soaked with
ordinary water, drinks of different types and other forms of liquid solvent and be drunk like water. It is
also inhaled or sniffed especially as it contains ethanol a substance known for tarnishing and
evaporating quality. Narcotics are also taken by students as injection i.e. intravenously. (Direct into their
blood stream). Finally fresh leaves of Narcotic plants e.g. Opium can be chewed raw, dried or cooked.
Implication of Alcohol and narcotics consumption
This section of this article discusses the abuse of the opium, the central nervous system (CNS)
depressant, CNS stimulants, psychedelics or hallucinogens, and the much popularized designer drugs. It
is very difficult to discuss the effects of alcohol and or narcotics without mentioning the term drug
abuse. Unfortunately variations in culture, ordinances and social norms have made it imperative to
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come up with a clear cut definition of drug abuse whose principal effect includes drug addiction,
alcoholic insanity and physical dependence among others. Drug addiction as defined by encyclopedia
Americana is a behavioral pattern of drug use characterized by an overwhelming involvement in the
procurement and use of the drugs and the high tendency of the user to relapse to drug after a period of
abstinence. Alcoholic insanity results from acute alcoholic intoxication which manifests in a euphoria-a
senses of great physical and mental power, noisiness, increased motor activity, progressing to
clumsiness, in coordination, staggering, gait, a feeling of remoteness, emotional instability, nausea,
vomiting, poor control of urination, which eventually may cumulates into loss of conscious, stupor and
profound coma and eventual death should coma persist for hours.
Alcohol and associated substances have a comprehensive effect on the nervous system. In the
digestive system, alcohol has a way of stimulating the flow of saliva and gastric juice, causing hyperemia
and inflammations. On the cardiovascular system, the effect of alcohol is principally the dilation of the
blood vessels especially those of the skin. Alcohol tends to increase the outpour of urine, and hence
leading to dehydration. Drugs affect the kidney, lungs, liver, pacer, the eye and the abdomen. Socially,
drug addict are commonly associate with crime and often times also the victims even when they may
not have committed or being involved in the crime them self. Drug consumption such as seductive-
opium, marijuana etc. that may lead to wrong discussions inducement, easy of manipulation and for the
female, it can result in pregnancy, destruction of the reproductive organs, career abandonment and
other forms of distractions. Drug users are usually non trustworthy. Drugs consumption form part of
the well known economic waste pipe in government workers affected with addiction weather alcohol or
drugs will regularly miss work. Research shows that their production levels in government or public are
reduced greatly due to their addictions. There are of course other social and family problems that are
associated with them mainly due to their additions. The issues of poverty have also exacerbated due to
their addictions, especially in this present economic crisis where most people live below the poverty
line.
Recommendations
As we try to reduce the rate of university students consumption of alcohol and narcotic especially in
the light of the many problems they cause as has being exposed above, this paper recommends among
others.
1. A national campaign aimed at discouraging the consumption of alcohol and narcotic substances
can be intensified with clear emphasis on the effect of such substances.
2. The acts of statutory bodies charged with the regulation and administration of seductive substance
be review and modified to empower them with the power to arrest and award punishment people
of certain age (students) found in possession or consumption of such substances. (NELEA)
3. Where such substances are manufactured or grown locally such bodies should have the power to
take over such farms, for destruction and in the case of factories, determine the mode of operation
of such outfit.
4. There should be a joint patrol on our brothers by custom and men of the quarantine department
to check the influx of this substance in to Nigeria.
5. The federal road safety should be equipped with apparatus that can detect the level or volume of
alcohol in individual drivers. This is to checkmate recklessness among road users.
6. There should be progressive tax i.e. pay as you earn on tobacco and other beverage industries
who are into the production of this all destructive substances.
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7. All retail outlet of such product should be taxed appropriately after due incorporation and or
registration.
8. Such retail outlets should be restricted to certain distances from school and tertiary institutions and
all forms of addictive substances prohibited within and around the institution.
9. All hospitality shops- hotel, beer parlors, club houses, guest houses, Inns, brothels etc. be
prohibited within university campuses and where practicable be made to register with the students
affairs department of the school before it can commence operation and strict surveillance be
maintained within such places.
10. The driving incense of certain age (student age) be reduced to just one year. This is to
systematically subject them to regular periodic test to ensure that they are confined to total
abstinence from alcohol and related substances.
11. A carefully structured course be study and inculcated into the existing, General Nigerian studies
GNS programs to create awareness and discouragement of drinking and smoking among students.
12. All the National mass media-NTA, NBC, VON, Radio Nigeria, NOA, among others will have to
mount programs targeted at discussing issues of alcohol periodically.
13. All stake holders in the Nigerian judicial system-the National judicial council, for legal education,
the bar and the bench should evolve a practicable penal codes aiming at dealing with, juvenile and
diligent university students involved in alcohol and other related offenses.
Conclusion
Put together, alcohol and all other substances found within the alcoholic and narcotic family especially
when taken without, recommendation, unregulated and or in excess causes, serious damage to the
person and the implications to the families and the country at large is too great to ignore. Little wonder
the federal ministry of health had compelled tobacco companies to depart from their life threatening
slogan smoking is dangerous to your health to a more life treating and more persuasive slogan
smokers are liable to die young and at reducing smoking if not a total eradication

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ACADEMIC INTEGRITY AT EXAMINATIONS: FORGOTTEN OR
WAVED ASIDE BY THE UNIVERSITY STUDENTS IN NIGERIA?
By
DR (MRS.) I. C. KOSEMANI
Department of Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology,

Abstract
This study investigated academic integrity in examinations among students in Nigerian universities. It is
a survey intended to find out students awareness of examination regulations stated in their university
Academic Policy and the extent to which they upheld and practiced them. The survey covered all the final
year students of Nigerian higher institutions. Six hundred (600) male and female students drawn
through simple random sampling technique constituted the sample for the study. The instrument for data
collection was a thirty-six item Likert-type five-point rating scale questionnaire designed to elicit
responses on students awareness of the regulations guiding academic integrity and the extent to which
students upheld them during examinations. Five research questions guided the study. The findings
revealed that students were aware of the examination regulations but seemed not to uphold or have
integrity during examinations. Most students involved in academic dishonesty seemed motivated by
prevalent factors capable of inducing students to violate the rules and appropriate penalties were not
inflicted on offenders. It was recommended that strategies should be put in place to promote academic
integrity, punish offenders, control dishonesty for the sake of reputation of degrees from Nigerian
universities.

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Introduction
In Africa, respect for elders, constituted authorities and strict observance of social norms are some of
the values highly upheld by disciplined members of the society. Equally in an academic community,
certain norms, values and standards are considered central to the existence of such a community.
Paramount among them is academic integrity. Integrity involves honesty, trustworthiness, strength and
firmness of character or principles as practiced by members of a community (Paul, 1987). Teaching at
Mizzou; A guide for new faculty, graduate instructors and teaching assistants states that academic
integrity is the core set of values and principles that underwrite the very mission of the university.
integrity, honesty, hard-work, and the determination to translate personal and professional principles
into behaviour.
Academic integrity the core set of values upheld in all academic communities includes high
academic standards, love for learning, creating an atmosphere of trust in the classroom and working in
an environment where competition is fair (Donald and Gary, 1973). Taylor (n.d) describes academic
integrity as an essential part of any true educational experience. He views integrity as a quality to
nurture and practice constantly at various spheres of academic life. He says academic integrity requires
the students to come into examination fully prepared and to make profitable use of their time in writing
the best answers they could and where problems arose and answers were not forthcoming, students are
not expected to cheat. Centre for the Advancement of Teaching (CAT) at Rutgers says:
Academic integrity is a fundamental cornerstone of any academic community. In
many ways, the perception about the quality of an institution and the value of its
degrees are based on the belief that graduates earned their diplomas honestly and that
faculty certified that graduates have knowledge and skills learned through rigorous
work guided by high standards of excellence.
Consequently, the expectation of every academic institution should be that its members uphold
the ideals stated above especially in matters relating to teaching, learning, examinations, grading and
other academic matters that bother on academic integrity. The same tenets hold for Nigerian
universities since there are rules stated in the Academic Policies to guide members conduct on matters
relating to academic integrity during examinations.
The rules and regulations intended to guide the members of Nigerian universities both staff and
students on examination matters are stated in every universitys Academic Policy. For instance the
University of Port Harcourt Statement of Academic Policy (2002:25-28), sub-sections 18.11 to 18.18
states as follows:
18.11 A student should be in the examination room at least 30 minutes
before the start of examination. A student who is up to 30
minutes late shall be admitted, but shall not be given any extra-
time. A student who arrives more than 30 minutes after the start
of examination shall not be admitted. A student may be allowed
to leave the examination room temporarily before the end of
examination but must
NOT:
(a) do so during the first hour of the examination except in cases of
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emergency like illness;
(b) do so unaccompanied OR with his scripts.
18.14 No student shall keep any handbag, briefcase, books, notebooks,
or paper near him/her during the examination.
18.15 No student shall directly or indirectly give or accept any
assistance during the examination, including lending/borrowing
any material.
18.16 No student shall continue writing when, at the end of allotted
time, the invigilator orders all students to stop writing.
18.17 A student shall avoid noise-making and/or communicating with
any other person, except with the invigilator if necessary.
18.18 Students who disrupt an examination at any venue will have
their examination cancelled, and they will be required to re-
register for the course.

The policy statements above are the ideals which every institution of higher learning should expect its
students and staff to observe and uphold.
However, the ideal is not always the practice by some students and staff in some Nigerian
universities. Considering the degree of academic dishonesty perpetrated by students during
examinations, one would think that such policies do not exist or if at all they exist, probably, they have
been swept under the carpet. The rate of cheating at examinations by candidates before gaining
admission into higher institutions could be attributed to their desperation to gain admission at all cost.
One would assume that once admission is secured, that the propensity to cheat would cease. On the
contrary, academic dishonesty in institutions of higher learning has taken very dangerous dimensions
namely cheating, plagiarism, forgery and crime against humanity. These dishonest acts are violations of
academic integrity.
Purpose of the study
The study set out to:
1. determine the level of students awareness of the policy on academic integrity in Nigerian
universities.
2. find out whether students uphold the policy as demanded in matters relating to examinations.
3. elicit the types of dishonesty prevalent among university students
4. identify the causes of students disregard for academic integrity in examinations.
5. proffer solutions to the problem
Consequently, the study intended to answer the following research questions:
1. To what extent are the Nigerian university students aware of the examination regulations
stated in their Universitys Academic Policy?
2. To what extent do students uphold the policy on academic integrity particularly during
examinations?
3. What types of dishonest academic practices are perceived to be common with male and
female students in Nigerian universities?
4. What factors could be considered to induce the students to violate the policy during
examinations?
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5. What solutions could be proffered to curb dishonest academic practices among Nigerian
university students?

Methodology
The survey was conducted with the administration of a structured questionnaire. The population
comprised all the final year students in twelve Nigerian universities. From each university, 50 final year
students (25 males and 25 females) were randomly selected as samples for the study. From the twelve
universities, a total of 600 students were drawn as samples for the study.
Research instrument
The instrument for data collection was a 36 item structured questionnaire titled Questionnaire on
Academic Integrity at Examinations among University Students (QAIEUS). The instrument was a
Modified Likert-type 4-point rating scale with the following response options: Strongly Agree (SA);
Agree (A); Disagree (D), Strongly Disagree (SD).
The instrument was divided into five sections labeled A, B, C, D and E. Each section had items
that gave answers to the five research questions. The face, content and construct validity of the
instrument were established showing to colleagues. The test re-test reliability technique was used to
determine the reliability co-efficient of the instrument. A mean of reliability co-efficient of 0.82 was
obtained showing that the instrument was reliable. The data collected were computed with the use of
mean, standard deviation and percentages.
Data Analysis and Results
The data generated were analyzed and the results presented in line with the research questions as
follows:
Research question one: To what extent are the Nigerian University students aware of the
examination regulations stated in their Universitys Academic Policy?
The data collected in response to research question one were computed with mean and
standard deviation as presented on table 1 below:
Table 1: Extent of students awareness of the examination regulations in the academic
policy of Nigerian Universities
Item Statements x SD N Decision
1. I am quite aware of the rules titled examination
regulations stated in my university academic policy.
4.21 1.02 600 Accepted
2. The rules are made specifically to guide students
behaviours at examinations and examination related
matters.
3.48 1.06 600 Accepted
Source: Researchers Field Work, 2012.

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Table 1 presents the mean scores of students responses regarding the extent of their awareness
of examination regulations stated in the Academic Policy of their university. The mean scores of the
responses are itemized and presented thus: item 1: x = 4.21; item 2: x = 3.48. An observation of Table
1 reveals that students are quite aware that regulations exist to guide the conduct of examinations and
their behaviours during examinations; hence the two statements were accepted.
Research question two: To what extent do students uphold the policy on academic integrity
particularly during examinations?
The data collected in response to research question two were computed and presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Mean scores of the extent to which university students uphold the policy on
academic integrity at examinations
3. If I am 30 minutes late for examination I should not be
given extra time.
3.2 1.27 600 Accepted
4. If I arrive more than 30 minutes after the start of
examination, I should not be admitted into the room to
write the exam.
4.01 0.88 600 Accepted
5. I should not be allowed to leave the examination room
unless the first hour of the examination has been spent.
4.33 1.26 600 Accepted
6. I should not keep handbag, briefcase, books, notebooks,
or papers near me during the examination.
4.62 0.99 600 Accepted
7. I should not give or receive assistance from my colleagues
during examinations including lending and borrowing of
materials.
4.53 0.73 600 Accepted
8. I should stop writing as soon as the allotted time for
examination has ended and the invigilators ordered me to
stop.
1.65 1.16 600 Rejected
9. I should not make noise or communicate with my
colleagues or with any other person, except with the
invigilator if necessary.
4.51 0.83 600 Accepted
10. If I should disrupt an examination at any venue, my paper
should be cancelled and I should be made to re-register
for the course
1.46 1.02 600 Rejected
Source: Adapted from University of Port Harcourt Academic Policy (2002)
Note: - negative statement: if x is equal to or greater than 3.0 reject, if x is less than 3.0 accept
Table 2 presents the responses of the students on the extent to which they uphold the policy on
academic integrity during examinations. The item by item presentation of the mean scores are as
follows: item 3: x = 3.2; item 4; x =4.01; item 5: x = 4.33; item 6: x = 4.62; item 7: x = 4.53; item 8;
x = 1.65; item 9: x = 4.51; item 10, x = 1.46 respectively.
An observation of Table 2 reveals that university students were not favourably disposed to the
policy statements and consequently rejected all of them probably because the rules did not favour their
behaviour during examinations.
Research question three: What types of dishonest academic practices do you perceive to be common
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with male and female students in Nigerian Universities?
The data generated in answer to research question three are computed with the use of
percentages and presented in Table 3 thus:
Table 3: Dishonest academic practices perceived to be common with male and female
students in Nigerian universities
Item Statements Male response Female
response
Total
No. % No. % No. %
11. Arriving late to the examination 210 35 390 65 600 100
12. Obtaining permission to ease oneself less than
one hour after the commencement of
examination
300 50 300 50 600 100
13. Keeping handbags, books, notebooks, cell
phones, and other incriminating materials near
self during examination
250 41.7 350 58.3 600 100
14. Giving and receiving assistance from other
students
260 43.3 340 56.7 600 100
15. Refusal to stop writing after the invigilator has
ordered me to stop at the expiration of the
allotted time
220 36.7 380 63.3 600 100
16.

Communicating and borrowing/lending
materials from/to my colleagues when
examination is in progress
210 35 390 65 600 100
17. Causing confusion at the expiration of allotted
time so that prompt submission of scripts
becomes impossible
366 61 234 39 600 100
18. Sneaking out with examination questions to
solve
412 69 188 31 600 100
19. Colluding with fellow students to submit already
prepared answer scripts brought from outside
372 62 228 38 600 100
20. Hiring impersonators to write examination 214 36 386 64 600 100
21. Bringing into the examination room, papers
containing likely answers
243 40.5 357 59.5 600 100
Source: Researchers Field Work 2011
Table 3 shows the responses of students to the various types of dishonest academic practices
which they perceived to be common with male and female students in some Nigerian universities.
The responses are presented item by item and by gender as follows: item 11; male 35%; female
65%; item 12: male 50%; female 50%; item 13: male 41.7%, female 58.3%; item 14: male 43.3%, female
56.7%; item 15: male 36.7%, female 63.3%; item 16: male 35%, female 65%, item 17: male 61%, female
39%, item 18; male 69%, female 31%; item 19: male 62%, female 38%; item 20: male 36%, female 64%;
item 21: male 40.5%, female 59.5% respectively.
A close observation of Table 3 shows that female students involve themselves in most of the
dishonest academic practices more than their male counterparts (see items 11,13,14,15,16,20,21 on
Table 3). Both sexes commit the offence in item 12 on equal basis while the male students are more
liable in items 17, 18, and 19 of the dishonest academic practices than their female counterpart.

Research question four: What factors do you consider could induce the students to violate the policy
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during examinations?
Research question four is answered in table 4 as follows:
Table 4: Factors inducing students to violate the policy on integrity during examinations
22. Inadequate preparation for examination and too much
involvement in non-academic activities
3.55 1.26 600 Accepted
23. Inadequate provision of large halls that can comfortably
accommodate many students during examinations
3.6 1.51 600 Accepted
24. Students are of the view that academic dishonesty can be
overlooked for students to pass examination
3.5 1.46 600 Accepted
25. Students have the impression that no severe penalty
would be inflicted on them if caught cheating at
examinations
2.68 1.24 600 Rejected
26. Students are afraid to expose fellow students for fear of
intimidation and threat to life
4.52 0.76 600 Accepted
27. Students concern for grades supercedes their concern
for knowledge acquisition, honesty and integrity
4.43 1.82 600 Accepted
28. The authorities treat cases of violation of integrity at
examinations with levity
3.67 1.26 600 Accepted
29. Students are of the view that god fathers exist that could
help them to quench the penalties of dishonesty at
examinations
3.8 1.44 600 Accepted
Table 4 presents the responses of students to the factors that induce them to violate the policy
on integrity during examinations. The mean scores of their responses are as follows: item 22: x =3.55;
item 23: x =3.6; item 24: x = 3.5; item 25: x =2.68; item 26: x = 4.52; item 27: x = 4.43; item 28: x
=3.67; item 29: x 3.8 respectively.
Table 4 reveals that the eight factors listed above are very prevalent among the students in the
Nigerian universities under study. The statements on factors responsible for the violation of academic
integrity were accepted.
Research question five: What solutions do you consider could be proffered to curb dishonest
academic practices among the students in Nigerian universities?
Research question five is answered in Table 5. Students responses were computed with mean
and standard deviation and presented as follows.
Table 5: Solutions to curb the violation of academic integrity in examinations among
Nigerian university students
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30. The universities should provide infrastructural facilities
sufficient enough to meet the study and examination needs
of all students.
4.54 1.28 600 Accepted
31. Students should have frequent and unrestricted access to
the library facilities/internet services at all times.
4.16 1.18 600 Accepted
32. The rules and regulations guiding examination conduct
should be strictly enforced.
3.04 1.12 600 Accepted
33. Necessary penalties should be meted out to the violators 4.07 1.08 600 Accepted
34. Time limit should be given to social and administrative
activities that could impinge on academic activities and the
duration of such activities should be strictly kept to.
3.24 1.48 600 Accepted
35. Authorities should strictly monitor students compliance
with upholding integrity at examinations.
3.41 1.23 600 Accepted
36. Invigilators should be adequately protected during
examinations.
3.54 1.07 600 Accepted
Table 5 presents the responses of the students to the likely solutions that could be put in place
to curb students violation of integrity at examinations. The mean scores of the responses are presented
thus: item 30: x = 4.54; item 31: x = 4.16; item 32: x = 3.04; item 33: x = 4.07, item 34: x =3.24;
item 35: x = 3.41; item 36: x =3.54 respectively.
Observation of Table 5 reveals that the solutions proffered were accepted as capable of curbing
students violation of integrity at examinations.
Discussion
The study reveals that the students were quite aware of the examination regulations stated in the
Academic Policy of their universities. They are aware of the purpose of regulations in matters
concerning examinations.
The study also reveals that inspite of students consciousness of the existence of the regulations
guiding behaviour at examinations, their responses to the policy statements put before them were
unfavourable. The policy statements constitute impediments to their passing examinations, hence they
are rather too harsh on them to uphold. For any reputable institution to maintain its standard,
regulations must be put in place to guide students behaviour at examinations, unfortunately, most of
the policy statements were rejected. By implication, the students seem not prepared to stress themselves
before passing examinations. This type of conduct is what the university of Saskatchewan (2005)
referred to as academic dishonesty that is, failure to observe any stated rule with regard to the
procedure used in an examination . At examinations, some students are dishonest and failure to
uphold integrity could spell doom for the affected institutions in terms of the quality of its products
and the degree awarded.
The study reveals that the students were involved in different types of dishonest academic
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practices listed on Table 3. But when viewed critically, the female students were more involved in
certain dishonest practices in examinations than their male counterparts. The female students seemed
to be more involved in arriving late to examinations (65%); keeping handbags, books, cell phones and
incriminating materials (58.3%); giving and receiving assistance from other students (56.7%) refusal
to stop writing at the expiration of allotted time (63.3%); communicating and borrowing/lending
materials from/to colleagues at examination (65%).
On the contrary, male students seem to specialize in causing confusion at the expiration of
allotted time (61%); sneaking out with examination questions (69%); colluding with fellow students
to submit already prepared answer scripts brought from outside (62%) (table 3, p6).
When students are caught in these dishonest acts, they quickly remind the invigilators of the
huge sums already invested in their education and that they would not allow the investment to waste
should they fail. But on a more serious note, school fees payment is not synonymous with the measure
of knowledge imparted based on which students are examined. Students involvement in this type of
cheating is what Graduate Integrity Guide (2005) described as a violation of the integrity of that
examination. Such violation if not properly curbed with appropriate penalties could demoralize the
hard working, honest students and could lead to loss of faith in the results of the affected institution.
The study confirmed that the factors listed on table 4 could induce the students to violate
integrity at examinations: inadequate preparation for examination and too much involvement in non-
academic activities ( x = 3.55). Inadequate provision of halls large enough to comfortably
accommodate students during examination ( x = 3.6); students are of the view that academic
dishonesty can be overlooked ( x =3.5); students have the impression that no severe penalty would be
inflicted on them if caught cheating at examinations ( x =2.66); students are afraid to expose fellow
students for fear of intimidation and threat to life, ( x =4.52); students concern for grades supersedes
their concern for knowledge acquisition, honesty and integrity ( x =4.43); the authorities treat cases of
violation of integrity at examinations with levity ( x =3.67); students are of the view that god fathers
exist that could help them to quench the penalties of dishonesty at examinations ( x =3.8). Another
factor responsible for the violation of integrity at examinations is the issue of over-crowded hall. This
is a very serious situation because most Nigerian universities can hardly boast of any hall large enough
to accommodate about seven hundred students during examinations. Meanwhile, some faculty courses
had more than one thousand students enrolled. There is lack of large halls that can adequately
accommodate large classes during examinations. This could result in ineffective supervision as pointed
out by OBrien (2003) that academic dishonesty might be hard to detect and avoid in an over crowded
sloppy examination hall.
It was revealed on Table 4 that students could be intimidated or risk their lives if they expose
fellow students. The fear of attack of honest students by dishonest ones is a serious problem.
This study also revealed that students concern for grades supercedes their concern for
knowledge acquisition, honesty and integrity. When invigilators confront violators, they quickly remind
invigilators that they have paid huge sums of money which should not go in vain hence strict
invigilators are blackmailed. Similar behaviours are summarized by the University of California (1999)
when it states that cheaters dont learn, they undermine the quality of education we provide, and they
devalue UCDs reputation and the degrees we offer.
To prevent dishonest academic practices in examinations becomes difficult in a society where respect
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for values, reputation and standard means nothing to the majority of the students.
The study confirms that authorities treat cases of violation of integrity at examinations with
levity. When students caught cheating are handed over for disciplinary actions, the case automatically
closes. This finding agrees with the views stated in Teaching at Mizzou (2004) that some of the reasons
students engage in academic dishonesty are that students have the feeling that the faculty support of
integrity policies is low, there is little chance of getting caught and the penalties are not seen as
significant. Most of the reasons given so far have contributed in no small way in encouraging students
to violate the policy. Can it then be said that the examination malpractice committees of the universities
under study are on recess or dormant? If on recess, they should be called back to duty and if dormant
they should be empowered to function because the universities cannot wave aside the fact that
violation of integrity at examinations is very common among Nigerian students and among students
worldwide.
The study confirms that most of the solutions put up could assist to curb dishonest academic
practices were accepted as table 5 has revealed.
The solutions include provision of infrastructural facilities sufficient enough to meet the study and
examination needs of the students; students should have frequent and unrestricted access to library
facilities and internet services at all times; the rules guiding examination conduct should be strictly
enforced; necessary penalties should be meted out to violators; time limit should be given to social
and administrative activities that could impinge on academic activities and the duration should be
strictly kept to; authorities should strictly monitor students compliance with upholding integrity at
examinations; and invigilators should be adequately protected during examinations.
The universities are in urgent need of sufficient facilities especially halls specifically built for
examination and adequately furnished with well spaced seats. A situation where four or five students
occupy a seat meant for two or three students encourages cheating. Such facilities if provided will send
signals to the students that interaction with fellow students is completely ruled out.
The study affirms that library facilities and internet services should be provided at all times.
Students should be allowed to study in the library freely and regularly. Now that some universities
operate the off-campus system, the library should be the most accessible place for students to read and
rest before the school hours are over.
The study reveals that the rules and regulations guiding examination conduct should be strictly
enforced and necessary penalties should be meted out to the violators. When this is done, the weak
students who cannot cope with academics will bolt out of the system and the quality of the degrees
awarded will be improved.
To achieve this, the authorities should make sure that necessary strategies that would make students
comply with the rules are put in place. The monitoring team and the invigilators should be heavily
protected. There are upright people in the system who can make the system function adequately. Such
upright members of staff should be assigned the responsibility of restoring the integrity of the
institutions.

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Recommendations
The following recommendations are being proposed:
1. Awareness campaigns should be embarked upon for the promotion of academic integrity.
That is, a universitywide programme for the teaching of academic integrity should be
designed and incorporated into the General Studies (GES) curriculum.
2. Adequate infrastructural facilities should be provided and effective monitoring/supervision
strategies should be put in place to prevent dishonest academic practices during and after
examinations.
3. Electronic gadgets and cameras that can screen and film offenders should be mounted in
examination halls to expose dishonest behaviors. This will prevent intimidation of
invigilators.
4. The library should be organized to accommodate students of all faculties and students
access and visits to the library should not be restricted. Better still, every faculty should have
its own library spacious enough to accommodate its students and stocked with current
books, journals, relevant materials and internet services to promote reading habit in
students.
5. The university is first and foremost a citadel of learning. Facilities that can promote
learning should be made readily available to the students
6. Examinations committee should be empowered to organize examinations and to try
offenders. Such a committee should be adequately protected and prompt trials of offenders
should be carried out after each examination.

Conclusion:
Academic integrity at examinations is very vital for the promotion of the standard of education and the
quality of the degrees awarded by higher institutions. Strategies should be put in place to propel
students and staff to obey and respect examination rules and regulations, to uphold, promote, preserve,
guard, nurture and practice academic integrity for the sake of the value of the degrees we award and the
reputation of our universities.

References
Brooklyn College (1999) Academic Integrity. Statement on Academic Integrity for Brookyln College
Students. http://academic.brooklyn.cunny.edu/core3/currah/acinteg.htm. Retrieved March 10,
2005
Center for the Advancement of Teaching CAT (n.d). Academic integrity, Faculty Responsibilities.
Rutgers University, New Brunswick Campus. http://cat.rutgers.edu/integrity/faculty.html
Retrieved March 9, 2005.
Donald L. M. C. and Gary P. (1973) Ten Principles of Academic Integrity, College of Administration
Publication. http://www.collegepubs.com/ref/10prinAcaInteg.shtml Retrieved March 9, 2005
George O. B. (2003) Minimizing Cheating on Examinations: Core Issues, Vol. 12 No. 2 pp. 2 - 4
March, 2012.


Page 446
Graduate Integrity Guide (2005) Academic Integrity: A Guide for Graduate Students. University
Students Conduct Code (USC). http://www.USC.edu/student-affair/student-conduct/grad.-
ai.htm Retrieved March 10, 2005
Paul P. (ed.) (1987) Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. England: Longman Group Limited.
Taylor, B. (n.d) Integrity: Academic and Political A Letter to My Students. Oakton Community
College, Des Plainer, IL 60016 http://www.academic.integrity.org. Retrieved March 10, 2005
Teaching at Mizzou (2004) A Guide for New Faculty Graduate Instructors and Teaching Assistants
Academic Integrity http://teachandlearn.missouri.edu/guide/chapters/academicintegrity.htm
Retrieved March 10, 2005.
University of California (1999) Tips to Prevent Cheating, Student Judicial Affairs. University of
California Davis (UCD).
University of Minnesota (2001) University of Minnesota. Office for Student Academic Integrity
http://www.osai.umn.edu/faculty.html Retrieved March 10, 2005.
University of Port Harcourt (2002) Statement of Academic Policies. Port Harcourt: University of Port
Harcourt Press.
University of Saskatchewan (n.d.) Academic Honesty at the University of Saskatchewan
http://www.usask.ca/honesty/aca_honesty.shtml Retrieved March 10, 2005.

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GOVERNMENT INTERFERENCE IN UNIVERSITY AUTONOMY AND
ACADEMIC FREEDOM IN NIGERIA: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE
ACHIEVEMENT OF VISION AND MISSION OF UNIVERSITIES
By
F .I .ETADON, Ph.D
Department of Adult Education
University of Ibadan, Ibadan-Nigeria
(fetadon@yahoo.com)
and
M.A. OYEBAMIJI, Ph.D
Department of Adult and Non-Formal Education
Nigeria
(morufu.oyebamiji@uniport.edu.ng)
Abstract
Universally, the major role of Universities is the creation, storage, and dissemination of knowledge
through research. The knowledge so created or established must be stored to ensure continuity of
thought, reasons and adaptive academic pursuits. The stored knowledge or information must be
recalled at will and disseminated for the benefit of the society at large. This paper examines
government interference in University autonomy and academic freedom, and determine, based on the
facts on ground, the implications of such interference in achieving the vision and mission of
Universities in an emerging nation like Nigeria. The paper concludes that for Nigerian University
system to freely assume its roles to the society, the government should grant the Universities full
academic freedom and autonomy to allow them to carry out proper teaching, research and
community service without undue interference.

Key Words: Government Interference, University Autonomy, Academic Freedom,
Vision and Mission

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Introduction
Universities in Nigeria have been experiencing interference in their autonomy and academic freedom.
Following the incursions on university autonomy and academic freedom, the universities have been
under serious stress, with all forms of conflicts and instability. According to Tamuno (1989), the search
for knowledge is continuous and unlimited. Freedom of enquiry and freedom of expression are
essential tools in scholarship of the highest standard and without these innovations, discovery and
inventions will be extremely difficult to attain.

For this essential purpose, a university of great distinction cherishes its autonomy, especially in
regard to what to teach and how to teach. Research and teaching are, in this respect, complementary
because without scholarly research, the quality of teaching will suffer. As a result, universities
traditionally resent any far-reaching encroachment by government and regimes on their autonomy in
academic matters. The autonomy so claimed has however been progressively eroded by the funding
agency-the government, who is considered the piper who dictates the academic tune (Tamuno, 1989). It
has however been argued that since the universities are the creation of the government, it is natural that
government would want to have a say in their internal administration.

University Autonomy and Academic Freedom
University autonomy and Academic freedom are the reasonable and respectable internalization of the
mechanism of university governance and administration, and the right of any university, through its
Senate, to design and operate its academic programmes. Musa (1983), a former Secretary to the
government of Nigeria defined university autonomy as unrestrained but self-conscious efforts by the
institutions to choose between constrained alternatives to meet their intellectual and academic
responsibilities without prejudice to social needs. The Commission on Post School Certificate and
Higher Education in Nigeria (1960) also recommended that a university has to be insulated from the
hot and cold winds of politics. Consequently, the responsibility for its management must be vested in
an autonomous Council, and the Council must include representatives of the public, but these
representatives must attend as individuals and not as agents for some sectional interest or party lines.
The Thematic Debate organized within the World Conference on Higher Education in (1998)
on Autonomy, Social Responsibility and Academic Freedom starts from the following proposition:
that academic freedom and university autonomy are prior conditions for the unfiltered pursuit and
dissemination of knowledge. Accordingly, they are bestowed upon the academic community not for its
own sake but to enable the university to meet its responsibilities to society. Paragraph 50 of a
publication titled The Nigerian Universities and the Udoji Commission, issued by the Committee of
Vice-Chancellors (1974) states that the autonomy of universities as institutions involves freedom to
teach and examine students undisturbed; freedom on what to teach and how to teach it; freedom of
research; freedom to select students; and freedom to select; appoint; and promote staff.
However, the Cookey report in Adebayo (1999) held the view that the above is a mixture of
academic freedom and university autonomy. The report applied the term university governance to the
power to appoint, dismiss and discipline staff, financial autonomy, and other things necessary for a self-
governing community, while academic freedom refers to those aspects of university life which deals
with academic works; such as freedom to select, teach and examine students; freedom to decide on
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what to teach; freedom to carry out research and to publish the results of such research findings.
Academic freedom may, therefore, be interpreted to mean the liberty of the university to determine the
course content and curricula, what to teach and how to teach; and it must embrace the liberty to do
research, publish and disseminate knowledge freely, without let or hindrance. This freedom is said to be
fundamental and must be defended at all times.
The UNESCO Seminar held in 1965 on The Development of Higher Education in Africa
suggested a narrow view of academic freedom. It held that for African universities to be able to
perform their tasks effectively, they must have the freedom to teach, to advance the frontiers of
knowledge through research and to disseminate as widely as possible the results of their research. In a
correspondence from the Office of the former Minister of Education to Federal Universities on
Government Policy on Autonomy for Universities, autonomy is defined in terms of universitys
freedom to govern themselves, appoint their key officers, determine the condition of service of their
staff, control their finances and generally regulate themselves as independent legal entities, without
undue interference from the Federal Government and its agencies (U. I. Official Bulletin No. 1516 of
July 28, 2000). University autonomy and academic freedom can thus be seen as the government of
scholars by scholars and for scholars.
Interference by Government in University Autonomy and Academic Freedom
University autonomy and academic freedom shapes the relationship between government, society and
the university. Until the early 1970s, the university system enjoyed certain amount of autonomy and
earned the respect of government. The University Council was a powerful body with its authority intact
as a university governing body. Council members were usually able and responsible persons, who strive
to maintain the dignity of the university. Somehow, this rapport between the government and the
university faded away. Hence, Falana (1998) asserted that with the emergence of military rule in Nigeria
in 1966 and the attendant denial of the citizens earlier constitutionally guaranteed rights, the enjoyment
of academic freedom in the universities became curtailed. According to him, by 1970, after a 3-year
disastrous civil war, following the 1967 second military coup in Nigeria, the effects of military rule on
the autonomy and academic freedom of the university system had become glaring.

Alluding to the above, the Tell Magazine of July 9, 2001 reported that the military first took a
frontal attack on the citadel of learning when General Yakubu Gowon, the then Head of the military
juntas, got a powerful weapon from Chief Jerome Udoji, an experienced bureaucrat, who headed the
wages commission. According to the report, Udoji also brought everyone under the control of the
Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. Onyeonoru (1996: 14) put it succinctly that:

The interference in university autonomy that began in 1972 with the Gowon military
administration reached its peak in the late 1980s and early 1990s when instructions on the
governance of tertiary institutions were issued from Lagos and later Abuja, Authoritarian
principles were translated into the governance of tertiary institutions by the loss of power of the
University Councils to appoint Vice-Chancellors, and discipline staff. This had remarkable
effects on morality as university administrators came to give their allegiance to the ruling
military juntas rather than the university community.

He noted that the most pernicious attacks on university autonomy came in the form of decrees. These
decrees include: Decrees 16 and 17 of 1985, on the basis of which some academic staff were dismissed
from their jobs by the military, without recourse to the Governing Councils of the universities
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concerned. Coupled with the above was the usurpation by the government of the power to appoint
Vice-Chancellors that began during the same period of General Gowon in 1972. The Academic Staff
Union of Universities (ASUU), in the report of the Presidential Commission on Salaries and Conditions
of Service of University Staff (1981) viewed the implication of such actions on the management of
affairs in the Universities. ASUU argued that a Vice-Chancellor that is imposed on the academic
community becomes suspect, his loyalty to the institution is doubted and even if he is genuinely loyal,
his ability to lead and managed the affairs (including the various conflicts that negatively affects the
stability) of the university is impaired. This factor terribly impacts on the quality of leadership in the
institutions which the National Universities Commission (NUC) Study Group described as bad and
ineffective while recommending a mechanism for checking the performance of Chief Executives and
Councils in the Universities (NUC, 1994).

Ogunyemi (1992), while commenting on the management of students conflicts during the
Babangida years also observed that some Vice-Chancellors and Governing Councils under the
Babangida administration were only there to do their masters (governments) bidding; and that no
university administrator openly challenged some of governments unpopular policy-decisions as they
affected universities during the period tended to reinforce the widespread allegation of collaboration
between military autocrats and university administrators (who were considerably disabled from properly
managing the various conflicts in the academia).

For instance, a military regime in Nigeria once appointed a retired military officer as Sole
Administrator of a Federal University (Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria) as against the wishes of the
university community. This is clearly one of the very severe interference in university autonomy in
Nigeria. A number of other areas in which the autonomy of universities have been eroded included the
transfer of Vice-Chancellors, dismissal of staff, harmonization of the conditions of service with those
of the civil service, etc. The explanation of government intervention in the administration of
universities is that he who pays the piper dictates the tune. It is argued that since the government
finances the universities, it should have a say in what goes on in the system.

Justification for Governments Interference in University Autonomy and Academic Freedom
Justification for governments interference in university autonomy and academic freedom has been
proffered in some quarters that in the modern society, no university can claim complete autonomy.
Adebayo (1999: 14) states that:

It is evident that in the context of modern society, no university can make a claim to complete
autonomy. It [university] derives its legal existence from an act of some external authority,
usually the state; and its instrument of incorporation prescribes in detail what it may do and
what it may not do, for example, in relation to its property or its dealing with other
institutions or even with its own members

Tamuno (1989: 107) also argued that university campuses are not sacrosanct territories within
the ambit of the law of the land because their respective charters have no meaning except in the
context of State law which, in every known case, has given them birth. Illustrating the extent to
which the campuses operate within the law, he said:

University staff and students who take demonstrations off-campus bring back to the campus
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police or troops at their heels. Where deaths occur or public property is severely destroyed,
judicial and other commissions follow public agitation; agitation by tax payers as well as parents,
guardian and friends of affected staff and students. In all these cases, the overall responsibility for
law and order rests on the national government, though university authorities play a key role in
matters of staff and student discipline.

Oluge (1998) quoted Elliot and Chambers on a court opinion concerning the force of
institutional regulations upon students that every student, upon his admission into an institution of
learning, impliedly promises to submit to, and be governed by, all the necessary and proper rules and
regulations which have been, or may thereafter be adopted for the government of the institution. Such
rules and regulations are however under the law of the State, which is supreme to all university rules
and regulations.

Perhaps the views of Justice S. M. A. Belgore, Chairman of the University of Ife (now Obafemi
Awolowo University) Students Incident Tribunal of Inquiry, on university within the ambit of the
State-nation laws, helped to clarify matters. In a comment addressed to a former Public Relations
Officer of the now Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife Students Union, who appeared before the
Tribunal on August 3, 1981, Justice Belgore observed that:

Whether you believe in this type of Constitution or not, it is still the supreme laws of the land. It
is by virtue of that Constitution that your university exists; in fact, all other laws are really
subject to the provisions of the Constitution. Any provisions of any law which are at variance
with the Constitution are void. So the University of Ife (now Obafemi Awolowo University),
University of Ibadan, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, and
all other universities are creations of the statute So any other law within the university,
whether it is that of the Vice-Chancellor, the Senate or the Congress, [Council], must be subject
to the normal laws of the land. (Federal Republic of Nigeria, University of Ife Students Incident
Tribunal of Inquiry Record of Proceedings, 1981: 11)

In other words, the framework within which the university operates is extremely and externally
determined because it is funded by the State. Furthermore, the invitation from members of the
academic community themselves to the government to intervene is another reason for governments
interference. Having convinced themselves that they could not seek redress to their grievances within
the university, some members of staff prefer to take their grievances to the government or the
President in his capacity as the Visitor to Federal Universities and in some other cases, to the Press.

Tamuno (1989) observed that the known enemies of university autonomy in Nigeria are not
always government officials. According to him, there are several intra-mural and extra-mural advocates
of intervention by government in the internal affairs of the Federal Universities as the print and
electronic media in Nigeria are daily flooded with accusations of corruption, fraud, vindictiveness, mal-
administration, abuse of office, ineffectiveness, injustice and the likes, from aggrieved parties or
advocates of particular causes, academic or otherwise. Hence, petitionssigned and anonymousand
whispering campaigns give university staff grievances a distinct flavour tasted, occasionally, by
interested parties off-campus. He added that time consuming investigations and settlements, merely
serve to entertain the gullible, and that it is not mere theatre arts when litigation extends to the law
courts or when public commissions or inquiry are set up by governments.
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Aminu (1986), in his address delivered at the inauguration of the Governing Councils of Federal
Universities said that the universities belong to the people and held in trust by government.
Government does not interfere; it intervenes, if and when necessary. But those people who worry
about the possibility of this intervention taking place do not always reckon with some factors which
may be too obvious to be noticed Government intervention is nearly always invited by events from
within the institution, overtly or covertly. When this intervention does come, it is labeled a timely one
to save the situation by the side it appears to favour and a flagrant violation of academic freedom and
university autonomy by the side that it appears not to favour.

According to a publication in the Sunday Times of 9 April, 1995) titled Power Struggle Rocks
University of Nigeria, Nsukka, such was the situation when in 1995, the Vice-Chancellor was
embroiled in a two-front battle with the Governing Council and the Registrar of the institution. The
Council of the institution had just been reinstated by a Federal High Court of Appeal after a seven-
month suspension order by an Nsukka High Court and had sought the then Head of States
intervention as Visitor to resolve the crisis of confidence that rocked the administration of the
university. In a memorandum titled Council position on the current crisis in the University of
Nigeria, sent to the then Head of State and Visitor to the institution, the governing body stated that
the atmosphere in the university was not healthy and the. The document was signed by eight
members of the Universitys Governing Council. The Council added that the Vice-Chancellors total
disregard of Council and Council decisions cannot make for progress of the university.

This type of invited intervention shows that members of the academic community are not
homogeneous in terms of their conception of university autonomy. Therefore, any attempt to take the
affairs of the university to the government or the Press is like providing necessary weapon that could be
used to undermine university autonomy and academic freedom. In addition, the behaviours of the
academics themselves leaves much to be desired as most of them had inordinate ambitions for which
they relied and worshiped the military to attain. Cookey (1988:iv) noted that the autonomy of the
university is no more due to the too much interference by the government in university matters, and
the irresponsibility of the academics themselves. He observed that:

Government soon discovered the Archillies heel of the academics; for example, inordinate
ambition for positions of authority, which often lead to demeaning actions, and the pursuit
of wealth by engaging in private business thus giving second place to teaching and research.
In short, the university lost their autonomy largely because they did not prove themselves
ready for it.

He stated further that university autonomy should not be taken for granted; rather, it has to be
fought for. Therefore, to regain its autonomy, each university should prove itself ready for it by doing
two things namely: not being a hundred percent dependent on government grants, and ensuring that
their staffs, especially academic staff are men of ability and integrity. He then hoped that government
will relax its tight control of the universities when university staff proved themselves competent,
hardworking and dedicated, and when the University Councils shows itself capable of directing the
affairs of the university with fairness and firmness.

Since university autonomy and academic freedom does not mean absolute freedom, they should
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be properly guided. Each university should strive to ensure such a degree of openness and participatory
democracy. In other words, the first line of defense should be the cultivation within the institution, by
tradition and by leadership, of an ethos of openness and mutual tolerance of the measured exchange of
opinion in a way that would prevent the average member of the university from wanting to seek redress
to his grievances outside the university.

Colonel Ali, a former Honourable Commissioner for Federal Ministry of Education in 1975, in
an address on the occasion of the first seminar on University Administration in Universities also
stated that the Nigerian government has guaranteed its universities academic freedom. To him, only the
fake academicians conceive of academic freedom as a right to spread foul propaganda, indoctrinate
their students, encourage acts of vandalism and thereby intimidate society.

Government Interference in University Autonomy and Academic Freedom: Implications for
Achievement of Vision and Mission of Universities
Government interference in university autonomy and academic freedom, and the resentment of such
encroachment by the government has always been a source of conflict which often leads to other
conflicts in the university system. Interference in university autonomy and academic freedom by the
government has very negative implications for a sacrosanct university system, which should be
insulated from external forces.
The vision of the University of Ibadan-the Premier University in Nigeria, for example, states
that the university would be a world-class institution for academic excellence geared towards meeting
society needs while its mission, amongst others are:
To expand the frontiers of knowledge through provision of excellent conditionsfor learning
and research. To produce graduates who are worthy in character and sound judgment. To
contribute to the transformation of society through creativity and innovation, and To serve
as a dynamic custodian of societys salutary values and thus sustained its integrity.
(University of Ibadan Annual Report: 2011: ii)

Based on the above vision and mission statements, Faniran and Alagbe (2005) noted that
university autonomy and academic freedom are considered as part of the essential ingredients for
achieving the vision and mission of any university. Therefore, with interference in university autonomy
and academic freedom, the government will be toiling with the cherished roles the university system is
expected to play, particularly in a developing nation like Nigeria. These roles determine the
achievement of the vision and mission of the university. Government, therefore, need to reckon that
the university system need to be accorded a special position to enable it achieve its expected vision and
mission in the society.
Public expectations of the roles of the university system to achieve its vision and mission are
quite high, particularly in a developing nation. Hence, Nyerere (1966: 13), emphasized what is expected
of the universities in a development nation like Nigeria. He noted that:

University in a developing society [like Nigeria] must put emphasis of its work on subjects of
immediate moment to the nation in which it exists, and it must be committed to the people of that
nation and their humanistic goals we in poor societies can only justify expenditure on a
university of any type if it promotes real development of our people The role of a university in a
developing nation is to contribute; to give ideas, manpower; and service for the furthering of
human equality, human dignity and human development.
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It implies from the above that adequate institutional autonomy and academic freedom, if well
granted, will enable universities to contribute significantly to providing meaningful ideas, providing
manpower for the national economy and other services for furthering human equality, human dignity
and human development for the nation. These are the essential ways by which any university can
achieve its visions and missions to the society.

Recommendations
It is very clear that government interference in university autonomy and academic freedom have
attendant negative effects on the vision and mission of any university. Even though all rules and
regulation, in the university system are under the laws of the federation, the university should, not
withstanding, be allowed autonomy and freedom. Taken away autonomy and freedom of the university
is a disaster. Government should therefore:

Grant or restore statutory powers to Governing Council and Senate of universities, to allow for
more institutional autonomy and academic freedom in universities.
Bring about improvement in the socio-economic situation in the country and the restoration of
the moral fibre of the society for there to be full confidence in the university system in the
country.
Increase funding of university education.

The Councils and Senate of universities are capable of discharging their statutory functions if
granted full autonomy. The act establishing any university in Nigeria spelt out the powers of Governing
Council, which would enable it to manage its autonomy effectively. For instance, Section 4 of the
University of Ibadan Calendar (20022007: 65) which is mutatis mutandis similar to all other statutes of
other Universities in the country, states inter alia:

4(1) Subject to the provisions of this Act relating to the Visitor, the Council shall be
the governing body of the university and shall have the general management of the affairs
of the university and in particular the control of the property and expenditure of the
university. (2) Subject to sub-section (6) of this section, the Council shall have the
powers to do anything which in its opinion is calculated to facilitate the carrying on of
the activities of the universities (5) Nothing in sub-section (3) or (4) of this section
shall be construed as preventing the Council from given instructions, in writing or
otherwise, for the purpose of exercising any power conferred on it under sub-section (2) of
this section.

Conclusion
Oyediran (1995), at a conference of the Council for the Development of the Social Science
Research in Africa (CODESRIA), Dakar, Senegal, remarked that universities are always accorded
special positions in human societies the world over, and since medieval times, the universities have
been known as institutions concerned with the cultivation of the mind and spirit, a community of
people who are committed to the search for the truth and who cherish freedom of thought and enquiry
as they seek to widen the horizon of human knowledge.
As a result, public expectation of the roles of any university which must be related to the
unpredictable factors of change inside and outside campus walls can only be achieved if the university
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system is accorded the required and desired autonomy and academic freedom by the government
without any conditions attached to such freedom and autonomy, to enable universities achieve their
visions and missions.

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NIGERIA AND THE AESTHETIC PHENOMENA
By
IKE P. AGHAOSA, Ph.D
Department of Educational Studies and Management,
Faculty of Education,
University of Benin, Benin City

Abstract
This paper takes a critical look at the aesthetic phenomena prevalent in the contemporary Nigerian
society. The paper examines by geographical survey, the natural environmental aesthetic phenomena of
Nigeria; and by ethnographic and documentary methods, contrived traditional and contemporary aesthetic
endeavours in the country. In doing this, the paper notes how these aesthetics endeavours form the basis of
many traditional and contemporary occupations. This was followed by an assessment of the roles of guilds
in the induction of new members into the traditional occupations. The next task was an assessment of the
evolution of aesthetic learning in Nigerias formal education. In conclusion, it was recommended that
given the repertoire of aesthetic phenomena and the paucity of publications, there is the urgent need for
research in this area of knowledge. This is with the overall aim of evolving viable educational programs
for the Nigerian secondary schools.

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Introduction
The aesthetic permeates all facets of human life. These range from the environment to the personal life
of every individual. In the environment abound many phenomena natural and manmade- that evoke
aesthetic pleasure or distaste. They include rivers, ocean, mountains, gardens, forests, grasslands,
flowers, birds, sunsets, etc. In another dimension, many manmade objects ranging from art works
painting, sculpture, ceramic wares, textile apparels and furnishings, hairdos, furniture, photographs,
movies, music, dances, food and even drinks of various types evoke human aesthetic emotions. In
spite of this preponderance of the aesthetic in human life, the subject or concept of aesthetic could be
difficult to define precisely. This is because of the multiple perspectives and dimensions involved in
the issue of aesthetics. More so, when people talk of aesthetics there is often confusion about what is
being referred to. Is it the aesthetic phenomena (tangible or intangible); the impact from the
phenomena; or the emotion emanating from the viewer of the phenomena, or a combination of some
or all aspects of the aesthetic phenomena that is being referred to. It is probably because of this that
aesthetics has assumed a halo of controversy in philosophy, art, and education generally. This
notwithstanding, aesthetics is an interesting field of study and practice.
Nigeria and Aesthetic Phenomena
In the Nigerian society as elsewhere too, the aesthetic is encompassed in the private and collective lives
of her citizens. The Nigerian environment has multifarious natural phenomena rivers, hills, rock
formations, game reserves, forests, animals of various species and colors, lakes, estuaries, dams, etc of
aesthetic value. Dwelling in this environment of natural aesthetic splendor is motley of ethnic groups
with their various cultural beliefs and practices. Nigeria has a very rich cultural heritage. This is
evidenced from the variety of art and artifacts of high aesthetic value produced by the various cultural
groups. These products of aesthetic values range from everyday utilitarian objects such as: farm
implements; home utensils, to decorative items e.g. carvings and religions objects of worship. So also
are items of personal decorations braided hair, cosmetics, and a variety of music and dance in which
the various cultural groups express their unique and authentic identities.
Aesthetic Knowledge in Nigeria
In a strictly traditional setting especially before contact with the whites and subsequent colonization,
the various indigenous groups were to some extent self sufficient with what they produced, and did
some forms of internal trades with their neighbors. Some of the items of trade included the earlier
mentioned utilitarian and decorative items which had aesthetic values. These can be seen as artifacts in
various museums within and outside Nigeria. These items were (and some still) produced by craftsmen
with considerable skills who organized themselves into guilds. The guilds ensured continuous training
and induction of new members into their trades. Trade and cultural contact with the Western world has
altered the hitherto traditional orientation in the production of objects of aesthetic values.
One area replete with the vestiges of colonization in Nigeria is the educational sector. With
respect to aesthetic learning, there has evolved a hybrid of aesthetic learning activities in the formal
education system though at a low level. This hybrid of aesthetic learning attempts to combine
traditional and western (academic) forms of learning in the formal education system. The extent to
which the goal of aesthetic education is being achieved currently in Nigerias formal education system-
especially at the secondary level of schooling is highly speculative. This is given the paucity of
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publications on this aspect of Nigerian education. This is in spite of the huge potential benefits of
aesthetic professional practices; learning and activities for the country. Omatseye (1992) maintains that
this is in terms of the occupational, business and leisure benefits from vibrant aesthetic practices and
learning activities. This is in the sense that this group of activities that permeates all aspects of personal
and social lives requires considerable attention in the formal education system of Nigeria.
The pertinent questions here are what really are the aesthetics phenomena of Nigeria as a
country? What is the nature of these phenomena and how are they produced or practiced? What
prospects do these phenomena hold for aesthetic knowledge and practices in the pursuit of balanced
education epistemologically in the country? In effect, the problem of this paper is to assess the
aesthetic phenomena of Nigeria and their potential for aesthetic knowledge and learning in both the
formal and informal educational sectors in the country.
The purpose of this intellectual venture is to attempt to identify the significant aesthetic
phenomena in Nigeria. This is addition to unravelling their dynamics-nature, methods of production
and how they can be successfully integrated in to the aesthetic learning programs of the country.
The significance of this very endeavour will be determined by the extent it would be able to:
(i) give adequate light and clarifications about the various aesthetic phenomena of Nigeria;
(ii) enable all stake holders to identify and appreciate the unique and abundant aesthetic
phenomena of Nigeria;
(iii) guide social and educational policies in this vital aspects of knowledge and human learning;
(iv) improve the delivery of aesthetic learning for the subsequent benefit of the learners, educational
system and society as a whole; and
(v) help improve the level of professional practices in the various aesthetic based endeavors and
occupations in Nigeria generally.

This is essentially a qualitative based enquiry. It would therefore rely on these theoretical and
philosophical methods of analyses: language and logical analyses; and arguments by analogy. The
survey intends to proceed in this sequence: a survey and the analyses of Nigerias aesthetic
phenomena-environmental and contrived; the aesthetic as bases and guilds of some traditional practices
and occupations; and the aesthetic bases of some contemporary occupations in Nigeria; the evolution
of aesthetic learning and education in Nigerian academia. Finally suggestions would be proffered as to
how the aesthetic learning endeavors can be upgraded for the benefits of all in the Nigerian society.
The Environmental Aesthetic Phenomena of Nigeria
Nigeria is a vast country in West Africa. The country encompasses varied geographical features in terms
of climatic and vegetation zones, topography and various natural and manmade environmental
phenomena of aesthetic value.
1. Rivers: There are many rivers that transverse the Nigerian environment. The notable ones
include the Niger, Benue, Cross river, Ogun, Osun, Hadejia, Anam, Kaduna, Imo, Rima,
Sokoto, Gurara, Kamadugu Yobe, Taraba, and a host of others. These rivers apart from
providing life sustenance to the people along their banks, as well as being viable means of
transportations and economic activities, are also spectacles to be admired aesthetically.
2. Lakes: Some of the prominent lakes in Nigeria include Chad (Borno State), Kainji (Niger State)
Oguyi (Enugu State) Oguta (Imo) Agulu (Anambra).
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3. Islands Lagoons and Estuaries: They include Lagos Island and Lagoon (Lagos State) Lekki
Penisula (Lagos State) Forcados, Escravos (Delta State) Bonny Island (Rivers State etc).
4. Waterfalls: some of the prominent water falls in Nigeria include the followings: - Qua falls
(CRS); - Erin water falls (Ijesha)
Water springs: They include: Ikogosi warm springs (Ondo)
1

- The Yankari warm and cold springs (Bauchi State).
5. Highlands: The prominent highlands in Nigeria include the followings: Oban hills (Cross
Rivers State); Milken Hill (Enugu State); Ososo Hill (Edo State) Apata and Idanre Hills (Ondo
State) Effon Aloge Hills (Ekiti State) Olumo Rock (Ogun State); Zuma Hills (Abuja) the Jos
Plateau comprising the Kutchi, Wadi, Zurumbi Limi etc Hills (Plateau State); Mande Hills
(Nassarawa State) the Obudu cattle Ranch Hills (Cross Rivers State); the Adamawa Highlands
(Adamawa State) the Shebsi, Kutala, Beli, Wady, Wiga Shono Hills, Alamkira Mountains, Biu
Plateau (in Gombe, Taraba and Adamawa States); the Mandara Mountains and Karawa Hill
(Borno State) Mambilla Plateau.

Man Made i.e. contrived environmental aesthetic phenomena in Nigeria
These include the following:
Dams The following dams are prominent in Nigeria: Kainji Lake and dam, Shiroro and Tiga dams
(Niger State).
These enumerated environmental aesthetic phenomena in the Nigerian landscape offer
numerous economic opportunities and benefits to the inhabitants in and around them apart from their
aesthetic values, of wonder and admiration. These factors account for why many states capitals,
important towns and environmental landmarks derive their names (identity) from these aesthetic
phenomena. It is pertinent to mention that these climatic and environmental aesthetic phenomena have
strong bearings on the cultural (contrived) aesthetic products and phenomena of Nigerians. This is in
the sense that the predominant inspirations (Philosophical and religious) are often derived from, and, or
devoted to the veneration awesome or sublime appreciation of these aesthetic phenomena. In another
perspective, the predominant products of each ethnic group of the country are outcomes of the natural
raw materials found in the various climatic and vegetation zones. For example, while wood carving is
predominant in the rain forest zone, leather works is practiced mainly in the Sahelian and savannah
zones of Nigeria. Metal works, ceramics (pottery) and some other arts and crafts are practiced in almost
all parts of the country given the widespread presence of the raw materials metal and clay throughout
Nigeria. These can be discerned in the following.
The Cultural/Contrived Aesthetic Phenomena of Nigeria

Dwelling in these observed different geographical zones with their unique environmental
features are motley of ethnic groups that are largely of the Negro stock of the human race. The exact
number of the different ethnic groups in Nigeria is not precisely known. However, recent estimates by
some scholars like Otite (1990) in Ukpokunu (2002) puts the number of the ethnic groups of Nigeria to

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about three hundred and more. It is also important to state that strictly speaking, most of these ethnic
groups from the perspective of the anthropologists in spite of mutual counter-influences occasioned
largely by trade and cultural contacts do have certain unique traditional core values. This point is
necessary to modify the observation of Ukpokunu (2002) who seems to equate geographical and
cultural zones as synonymous when he asserts:
Simply, a culture area is a geographical region or zone occupied by one or more
than one culture who share certain traits. In Wisslers view, these cultural traits
(nine) include: language, art, war, knowledge, religion, property, government,
society and material implements, physical environment etc. to these traits,
Onwuejeogwu adds: ritual, social organization, economy, political organization
and religion.
In effect, cultural area concept does not always correspond to geographical area concept in the
Nigerian context. This is especially where historical experiences and other geographical and social
factors have put diverse cultural groups into the same geographical areas such as the Niger-Delta,
Middle belt etc where can be found ethnic groups such as: Ijaw, Itsekiri, Tiv and Idoma; with distinct
cultural traits and practices which in some extreme cases hardly influence one another despite long
periods of association. This is speculated to be one of the obvious sources or ethnic tensions in the
Nigerian socio-political landscape.
The most obvious area of convergence and near homogeneity among the various Nigerian
ethnic/cultural groups is in the area of indigenous technology. This can be discerned from the
predominant production methods, processes and end-products common among these people. This
technology is marked mostly by handmade and or simple tools processes. This can be contrasted
sharply with the advanced technological processes of the industrialized western nations, and lately too,
the Asian Tigers of the south east Asian nations. This is much unlike among Nigerian ethnic groups
where the local technologys processes and products are still dominated by the traditional methods
inherited from their ancestors. It is from these processes that many indigenous products ranging from
utilitarian products such as: textile materials, clothing, items, ceramic items - plates, cups cooking and
water pots; metal implements hoes, cutlasses, fruit harvesters; wood works furniture (chair), beds,
shelves doors, windows) and carvings (heads, busts, caryatids, figures, figurines, staff of offices); leather
works bags, puffs, hand and arm bands, amulets, plaques etc; bronze and brass works bowls, bells,
gongs, priestly staffs, shrine objects, regalia etc; t o decorative and commemorative items like wooden
and metal plaques, carved relief doors and mirrors, ancestral and royal figures and figurines; ivory
carvings insignia and figurines etc.
It is instructive to note that it is the above enumerated production methods, processes and
products that form the hub of many indigenous traditional occupations in Nigeria. These occupations
have their various guilds and methods of initiating new members to their fold. It is also pertinent to
recall that the various media, processes and end products of these aesthetic endeavors are to some
extent determined by the predominant geographical features in the environment. In addition, the end
products and unique styles of execution reflect the core values of each group and to some extent, the
relative ranking of the artist or craftsman in such cultural/ ethnic setting.
The Role of Guilds in the Education and Induction of new members into Aesthetic based
Traditional occupations in Nigeria
The aesthetic based traditional occupations in Nigeria have survived into the contemporary times
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essentially through the apprenticeship system. This apprenticeship system entails that intending new
practitioners of the occupations undergo a period of tutelage in training. During this period the
apprentice craftsmen learn the rudiments of the occupation from older apprentices and eventually from
the Master Craftsmen (man). Overseeing the programs of the various traditional occupations are
various guilds. The guilds of the occupation are the equivalents of the modern professional occupations
and their regulatory associations such as: the Nigerian Medical Council and Nigeria Medical
Association; the Nigerian Legal council and the Nigerian Bar Association; the Nigerian Education
Council and the Nigeria Union of Teachers. The various Benin Traditional occupations exemplify the
roles of the guilds of traditional occupations. This is in terms of setting standards of products, and the
period of training of new members the apprentices. Informing on this aspect, Ogumor (1993) writes:
The Benin carvers form themselves in to guilds of craftsmen. The elders of the guilds
judge the quality of the work before it is released. They carve different objects meant
for the decoration of the Obas palace. These include shrine panels, mortars, plates,
dishes drums, staffs and heads. Some of the dishes represent the shapes of natural
creatures such as cocks and leopards.
The apprenticeship system entails intending practitioners- apprentices to train under the guidance
of the master craftsmen of the various occupations for a specified period of time. The guilds also spell
out the envisaged quality of the end products of the various aesthetic based occupations. In this sphere,
the guilds are indirectly ensuring the professional competence of the member- practitioners as well as
the bench-mark of excellence expected from new entrants into the various occupations. In the recent
times, the guilds also play prominent roles in the market forces that determine the cost or prices, of the
end products of their various occupations.
Aesthetic Phenomena and the Academia in Nigeria: the Genesis of Aesthetic learning in
Nigerias Formal Education System
The Guilds of aesthetic based traditional occupations have played vital roles in the induction of new
members to their trade. This is mainly through the apprenticeship system. The crucial task h ere is to
ascertain how the learning of aesthetics has evolved in the Nigerian formal education system the
academia.
The genesis of academic aesthetic learning in Nigeria can be inferred from the observation of
some scholars on the subject. This is especially through the perspective of the influence of European
Art in Africa which can be summarized as thus:
a. African aesthetic objects as the bases of traditional occupations as well as religious beliefs
baffled the European missionaries and colonizers. These Europeans in their naivety dubbed
these objects as fetish objects of heathenism i.e. paganism. Furthermore, these early Europeans
especially the Missionaries launched vigorous campaign of calumny against these Nigeria
traditional aesthetic objects. This very action of the missionaries could be regarded as the
genesis of some of the apathy towards Nigerian art and even other African aesthetic objects by
people including even Nigerians and Africans generally. It has also affected to a certain degree,
the attitudes of educational policy makers, and the general public towards the inclusion of
traditional aesthetic phenomena, products and processes in to the formal schools curricula.
b. Some of the primary and secondary schools established by the missionary and colonial
governments included academic art mainly drawing and painting patterned after the English
Art styles and genre in their curricula.
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c. Meanwhile the traditional aesthetic based occupation practitioners in one perspective began to
include themes derived from the missionary and colonial life styles in their various works and
media of execution. In another perspective some ventured out of their predominant media of
wood, bronze, clay leather work etc to embrace the western aesthetic media of cement and
eventually oil paints.
d. Some of the art students in the missionary and colonial schools excelled well in the academic
art. These students were encouraged to travel to European countries to perfect their art skills
through further professional trainings in the western aesthetic media.

As aptly observed by Ogumor (1993) that:
In the schools, those who excelled in art were encouraged and sent abroad for formal
training in art schools which had been established a long time there. These students
apart from learning the general principles of art, took courses in painting in oils and
sculpture in cement which were not common materials used in Africa art began, its
influence on African art.
It is from the above process that the pioneer Western Artists and Art teachers were produced in
the Nigerian society. These people became the fore- runners of modern Nigerian art.
Historically, the foremost Nigerian artist and teacher among the pioneers is acknowledged to be
Aina Onabolu (1882 1963). Throwing light on his art practice and teaching career, Ogumor writes:
he was initially a self trained artist but later went to England where he acquired the
western style at St. Johns Wood Art School, London and Julien Academy, Paris,
between 1920 and 1922. According to him, before he started painting art was not
taught in schools in West Africa. He was also the first African student to study in
England. When he came back he encouraged the Nigerian government to include Art
in the school curriculum. Later he went abroad to recruit expatriate teachers among
which were Kenneth Murray, H.E. Duckworth, J.D. Clarke, and Dennis Duerden
who came and taught art in selected schools. The result of this was that many young
Nigerians were encouraged by the expatriates to take up Art as a career. These
included Ben Enwonwu, J.B. Akolo, Udo Emma, Uche.Okeke and Bruce
Onobrakpeya. Later, these artists, started to use cement and oil as the media of
expression(Ogumor, 1993).
From the preceding, the humble beginning of Art (aesthetic) learning in Nigerias formal
education system can be appreciated. It is on this note that the contribution of many pioneer artists in
the growth of aesthetic education is acknowledged by this paper. This point is best appreciated when it
is noted that many of these pioneer artist apart from being accomplished artists in different media were
(and are) also accomplished art teachers. Ben Enwonwu, Bruce Onabrakpeya and a host of others
careers reflect this point. This is because subsequent artists and art teachers at the various levels of the
Nigeria education system owe their growth and evolution to these pioneer artists.
It has not been easy to deter mine precisely the growth and spread of Art and aesthetic
education in the Nigerian formal education system. This is surmised to emanate essentially from paucity
of documented studies (a challenge to Nigerian Historians and educationists) in the Nigerian academic
front. This not withstanding Art (aesthetic) education has experienced a relatively modest growth in the
Nigerian society as well as in the formal and informal school system. This is to the extent that Art
(aesthetic) and allied subjects are studied in many primary secondary schools in Nigeria. In addition,
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some tertiary institutions of learnng also offer Art (aesthetic) courses in their schools programs.
The extent to which Art (Aesthetic) learning goals and objectives are being pursued especially at
the secondary level of education is an issue that is highly speculative. This is given the paucity of
publications specifically on Nigerian education. It calls for urgent critical assessment. However, it is
necessary at this point, to purview some contemporary practices and occupations that have their roots
in both traditional and academic aesthetic learning endeavors in Nigeria.
Aesthetic Bases (Media) of Some Contemporary Occupations in Nigeria
i. Metal Designers and Fabricators: etching; welding, joinery; gold, silver, brass etc.
smiting; and jewelleries and sculpting.
ii. Textiles: Textile: technologists; weavers; dye technologists; fabric designers; clothing and
fabric designers; tailors of various fabrics clothing, curtain, furniture covers etc.
iii. Ceramic/Pottery :domestic utensils plates, cups, bowls, cutlery, pots, water filters and
storage; and decorative/commemorative items- flower vases and pots, plaques, statues and
statuettes;
iv. Sculpture: wood; metal; cement; fiber glass; rock; sand; and found objects.
v. Graphic Arts: designers; producers; print-makers and lithographic printers; advertisers; bill
boards and vans- display men, etc.
vi. Painting: portrait painters; landscape and scenic painters; and stage designers.
vii. Beauticians: hair and skin specialists; facial experts and cosmetologists; and physiologist
(including tummy tuck) and even nutritionists.
viii. Music: composers; instrumentalists; singers; dancers; choreographers; band leaders;
producers; and marketers etc.
ix. Drama/Film/Movie/Television Industries: playwrights; drama directors; drama
producers; drama managers; drama distributors/marketers; and actors/actresses.
x. Prose-Fiction/Poetry-Literary Works: Authors; Publishers; distributors, etc.

Summary
Nigeria is a vast West African country. Encompassed in this country is a variety of physical features-
hills, mountains, rivers, lakes and some waterfalls. So also has the country various vegetations from the
Sahel through the Savannah grassland to the Mangrove rain forest. All theses reflect the climate of the
country which is tropical. It is in these varieties of physical features in these spaces that constitutes
essentially the environmental aesthetic vehicles of Nigeria. This is because they not only promote
economic opportunities to their various dwellers but offer beautiful as well as sublime sceneries to
every visitor. This holds great tourist potential for the country.
Dwelling in this vast landscape are citizens of various ethnic, linguistic groups and religious
persuasions. It is the indigenous economic, religious and aesthetic activities of these dwellers that the
contrived aesthetic phenomena of Nigeria e.g. farm and fishing implements, clothing materials and
items; wooden furniture and sculptures, metal implements, utensils and sculpture etc. emanate
essentially from. So also are the various songs, dances and musical instruments used for various rites of
passages in the country. All these depict the rich environmental and cultural heritage of Nigeria.

Conclusion
Given this array of environmental and contrived aesthetic phenomena, Nigeria is a repository of
numerous aesthetic products material or otherwise. In a strictly traditional set-up aesthetic learning of
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the contrived aesthetic phenomena was done through induction of new members by old and seasoned-
master craftsmen. This has continued to the contemporary times though one cannot ascertain the
volume or number of new entrants into the various professions.
With the advent of colonization by the Brtiish and with it also the formal education system
formal aesthetic education has evolved. But this seems to be at a very slow pace in comparison to other
subjects in the schools curricula. All these coupled with the likely benefits, pose serious challenges for
aesthetic education in both the formal and informal sectors of education in Nigeria.

Recommendations
In t he light of the preceding, this paper recommends thus.
1. The need to audit the various aesthetic phenomena in Nigeria and ascertain their social and
educational statuses and values.
2. The need for synergy between and among the ministries of: Culture, Museums and
monuments, Education, Universities and other allied bodies to help promote awareness of the
economic, educational and tourist potentials of Nigerias vast aesthetic phenomena.
3. The need to assess the epistemological and academic statuses of aesthetic endeavors and
knowledge at the secondary level of Nigerias formal education system.

References
Balogun, O. (2005) Atlas. Senior Secondary Atlas. 2
nd
edition. Lagos: Longman Nigeria Plc.
Gross, W.S. (2002) The Neglected Programme of Aesthetics British Journal of Aesthetics 4(4). Pg. 403-
414.
Marchiano, G. What to learn from Eastern Aesthetics The Journal of Aesthetics Education 2:10: 1-7.
Ogumor (1993), Certificate Art for Junior and Senior Secondary Schools. Ibadan: university Press.
Omatseye, J. N. (1992) Educational Philosophy and the African School. Benin City: Ilupeju Press Ltd,.
Otite, O. (1990) Ethnic Plurality and Ethnicity in Nigeria. Ibadan : Shaneson Ltd..
Ukpokunu, E. (2002) Major Culture Areas of Nigeria in A.D. Nzemeke, and E.O. Erhagbe,(eds.)
Nigerian Peoples and Culture 2
nd
edition. Benin City: Mindex Publishing Co. Ltd..
Vandenabeele, B. (2003) Schopenhauer, Nietzsche and the Aesthetically Sublime The Journal of
Aesthetic Education 37; 1: 90=106.
The Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy (2000) S.v. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) Theory of
Aesthetics and Teleology (The Critique of Judgment).

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PROBLEMS IN THE UTILIZATION OF CONTINUING EDUCATION
PROGRAMMES FOR IMPROVED ACCESS TO EDUCATION IN THE
NIGER DELTA REGION OF NIGERIA
By
DR. J.C. IHEJIRIKA
Senior Lecturer
Adult and Non-Formal Education
e-mail: ihejirikajohn@yahoo.com

Abstract
This Study surveyed the perception of 300 stakeholders and adult education practitioners on the
problems that restrict continuing education from providing wider access to education in the Niger Delta
Region of Nigeria. The 300 respondents were selected from continuing education centers in five out of
nine states that constitute Niger Delta Region, using systematic and simple random sampling techniques.
Two research questions were answered and two hypotheses tested in the course of the investigation. A 24-
item structured questionnaire was used in collecting data. The data were analyzed using descriptive
statistics and a t-test for independent variables. The results revealed that the most outstanding problems
include inconsistent government policies, inadequate finance, poor organization and management,
inadequate facilities and materials, and poor supervision and monitoring practice. The most favoured
strategies for making continuing education more functional as identified by the study are recruitment of
well qualified teachers, institution of strong organization and administrative machinery, improved
funding through budgetary allocations, effective monitoring and supervisory framework, and maintenance
of congenial learning atmosphere. Based on the findings, it was recommended among other things that the
private sector initiative in the execution of continuing education programmes should be regulated by a
statutory body to maintain standard and curb the problem of proliferation, and that external sources of
funding be explored by the government to improve service delivery of continuing education programmes in
the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria.

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Introduction
Most African nations, on attainment of independence, pledged to develop their economies, to
democratize their political systems, and to promote social justice among their peoples. These aims
require among other things, the broadening of educational opportunities for their fulfilment. So far,
African governments have largely depended upon the formal education system for attainment of these
goals, and have devoted increasing amount of the national wealth towards that end. As adumbrated by
Ansere (1982), the returns from these efforts have not been commensurable with the level of resource
allocation made. In utter dismay, some scholars like Coombs (1986), Jolly (1969) and AAeth (1975)
have described the situation as an educational dilemma and have advocated the adoption of alternative
approaches such as Adult and Non-Formal Education which continuing education is a constituent
component. Others like Illich (1970) and Reimer (1972), have gone even further to suggest the
abolition of the formal school system due to its low absorptive capacity, low cost effectiveness and low
capacity to develop the countrys human and material resources.
Corroborating this view, Bock and Bock (1989) observed that in recent years, there has been
increasing disenchantment with formal education as the only principal institutional vehicle for national
development, and went further to postulate that the rising cost of education and population growth
have resulted in far less access to school and educational opportunities especially for the disadvantage
segment of the society. Realistically, everywhere in developing countries, there has tended to be a
considerable discrepancy between planned labour force needs and the economy and basic learners
needs on the one hand, and what the schools have actually provided on the other.
It is important to observe that the Nigerian education system has adopted an exclusive
approach which focuses on a few rather than many due to limited educational opportunities. This
implies that Nigerian formal education system concentrate mostly on children and youths. In line with
global trend, Nigeria needs an educational approach that can accommodate young and old adults, male
and female, the poor and the rich and serve as empowerment tool for livelihood. In this wise,
continuing education with its plethora of programmes some of which are life saving and skill
acquisition oriented, becomes more admissible in the nations education system.
Conceptual Clarification
Continuing education, as a concept, connotes an education that is added to initial education to
complete, improve, remedy and adapt to meet new challenges. In a similar vein, Egunyomi (2001)
conceived continuing education as lasting, enduring, permanent, persisting and prolonged education. In
this sense, education goes beyond what could be provided by formal education alone. It goes on in a
recurring manner in the face of change and so is lifelong or co-terminal with life since it continues to
solve the problems of individuals throughout their life span by means of training and experience.
Continuing education covers the entire range of educational activities which are provided for all
categories of learners who have successfully or unsuccessfully completed one level of education but
would want to continue the pursuit of education from where they had stopped carlier. In tandem with
the above view, Imhabekhai (2009:22) equated continuing education to a la carte system, where
everyone is free to take the dosage of education as he wants and when he wants it, and is free to come
back at a later date for another dose. With regards to venue, Adiseshiah (1981) explained that
continuing education can be acquired in any and many places; in the schools and colleges, in work
places, in play, in a church or mosque, in cultural manifestations and centers. Continuing education can
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come in the form of remedial education which gives extended opportunities for learners to make up
inadequacies in their previous school experiences. As to the options, Egunyomi, Ekom, Okora and
Ewa (2008) classified the forms of continuing education programmes as academic, e.g. extra-mural,
basic studies and professional courses; aesthetic, such as fashion designing and other skills training
programmes, and vocational technical, like secretarial/computer literacy programmes including
automobile, carpentry and electrical electronics skill development training. In its widest sense,
continuing education encompasses distance education, independent study, extension programmmes,
workshops, seminars, home-study or on-line courses, conferences or hands-on training (Piontkowski,
2010).
All the above educational activities of continuing education are open to universities, colleges of
education, the polytechnics and the organized private sector. The point is that continuing education
offers participants the opportunity to continue their education in less rigid and formal style thereby
making educational opportunities widely available to all categories of people in the community. Thus, in
Nigeria, continuing education offers a wide range of education and training aimed at meeting the needs
of all shades of people thereby complementing the formal education system in the task of providing
wider education opportunities for the masses. In this wise, it provides access to education for both
quantity and equality thereby eliminating male/female accessibility irrespective of age, social or cultural
affiliations, and of course, sex.
Problem Statement
As a signatory to the Dakar 2000 forum on Education for ALL where a framework of action was
agreed upon following the 1990 Jomtien Conference, Nigeria is committed to achieving a 50 percent
improvement in the level of adult literacy by 2015, especially for women, and equitable access to basic
and continuing education for all adults (UNESCO, 2000).
By implication of the countrys basic education programme launched in 1999, all forms of
education including available alternatives means of learning such as continuing education is implied to
ensure that more access to education than that provided by formal education is not only diversified but
also guaranteed. Unfortunately, providers of continuing education programmes in Nigeria-government
agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), institutions, individuals etc. operate at different
wave lengths and therefore encounter problems of varying magnitude in the utilization of continuing
education programmes for unrestricted access to education. The problem of this study, therefore, was
to identify those problems that affect the operation and functionality of continuing education
programmes in the task of providing wider access to education in the Niger Delta Region.
In order to achieve the purpose, two research questions and two hypotheses guided the study.
The research questions are:
1. What are the problems that affected the effective implementation of continuing education
programmes in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria?
2. What strategies can be adopted to improve service delivery of continuing education programmes in
the Niger Delta Region?

The null hypotheses are:
1. There is no significant difference in the mean rating of male and female respondents on the
problems that besiege successful implementation of continuing education programmes in the
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Niger Delta Region of Nigeria.
2. There is no significant difference in the mean rating of male and female respondents on strategies
to improve service delivery of continuing education programmes in the Niger Delta Region of
Nigeria.
Methodology
The study was limited to Niger Delta Region of Nigeria which comprises nine states that are adjacent to
the River Niger Basin. The states are Delta, Cross River, Bayelsa, Rivers, Ondo, Edo, Akwa-Ibom, Abia
and Imo. The descriptive survey design was adopted for this work. The choice of survey design was
predicated on its acknowledged efficiency and dependability in fact finding as adumbrated by scholars
like Nworgu (2006), Nwana (1981) and Kerlinger (1976). All perceive descriptive survey research as the
most reliable means of describing the occurrence and frequency of a phenomenon based on peoples
opinion and ideas.
The target population for the study comprised the entire stakeholders and practitioners
(directors, supervisors, facilitators and participants in adult and non-formal education programmes in
the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria, totaling 608 as extracted from available records. A sample size of
300 respondents (160 males and 140 females) was selected from adult educational organizations and
literacy centers in five states of Delta, Rivers, Cross Rivers, Bayelsa and Imo using systematic and
simple random sampling technique.
The instrument for data collection was a 24-item structured questionnaire titled Continuing
Education Problems and Solutions Strategies (CEPSS). The content and face validity of the
instrument were established by two senior colleagues in the area of Adult and Non-Formal education
who scrutinized the items to ensure their relevance. Their inputs were incorporated into the final copy
of the instrument used for the study. The pilot study conducted to determine the level of stability of the
instrument in generating the required data yielded a reliability coefficient of 0.87 using Pearson Product
Moment Correlation Coefficient.
Procedure for Data Analysis
Responses from the respondents were analyzed using frequency counts and weighted means for
research questions 1 and 2; while a t-test at 0.05 level of significant was used to test the hypotheses. To
obtain the calculated mean response for each item on the questionnaire, the modified Likert Scale was
assigned numerical values thus:
Strongly Agree (SA) = 4 points
Agree (A) = 3 points
Disagree (D) = 2 points
Strongly Disagree (SD) = 1 point

Criterion mean =
4
(SD) (D) (A) (SA)
1 2 3 4
+ + +

=
4
10

= 2.5

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To this effect, a minimum mean of 2.5 and above was used to determine importance or acceptance for
any item on the four points scale instrument while any mean below 2.5 was rejected as not accepted
Results
The results of the study are presented as follows:
Research Question One
What are the problems that affect the effective implementation of continuing education programmes in
the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria?
Table 1: Distribution of Responses on the Problems that affect the effective implementation of
Continuing Education Programmes in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria
No: 300
S/
N
Perceived problems (variables) SA
(4)
A
(3)
D
(2)
SD
(1)
Sum
x
Remarks
1. Non-regulation of fees charged 79(316) 88(264) 65(130) 68(68) 778 2.6 Accepted
2. Poor quality of teaching staff 83(332) 94(282) 60(120) 61(61) 795 2.7 Accepted
3. Poor organization and
management
123(492) 87(261) 48(96) 42(42) 891 3.0 Accepted
4. High rate of disengagement by
staff
71(284) 64(192) 96(129) 60(60) 737 2.4 Rejected
5. Poor facilities and materials 115(460) 99(297) 56(112) 30(30) 899 3.0 Accepted
6. Poor supervision and monitoring 130(520) 112(336) 28(56) 30(30) 942 3.1 Accepted
7. Transportation difficulties to C.E.
centers
100(400) 95(285) 55(110) 50(50) 845 2.8 Accepted
8. Poor remuneration of staff 95(380) 87(261) 60(120) 58(58) 819 2.7 Accepted
9. Inconsistent government policies 131(524) 117(351) 31(62) 21(21) 958 3.2 Accepted
10. Poor students performance in
examination
89(356) 73(219) 66(132) 72(72) 779 2.6 Accepted
11. Inadequate funding 117(468) 132(396) 31(62) 20(20) 946 3.2 Accepted
12. Ineffective programme
coordination
97(388) 87(261) 64(128) 52(52) 829 2.8 Accepted
13. Low patronage of continuing
education programmes
63(252) 60(180) 87(261) 90(90) 696 2.3 Rejected
Grand mean 2.8

The results in table 1 revealed that with the exception of item numbers 4 and 13 which weighted means
of 2.4 and 2.3 respectively fall below the criterion mean of 2.5 and therefore are rejected as being
problems, the respondents perceived all other issues as problems affecting usage of continuing
education programmes in the Niger Delta Region. Such problems and their weighted mean scores are
non-regulation of fees, 2.6; poor quality of teachers, 2.7; poor organization and management, 3.0; poor
facilities and materials, 3.0; poor supervision and monitoring, 3.1; transport difficulties, 2.8; poor
remuneration of staff, 2.7; inconsistent government policies, 3.2; students poor performance in
examinations, 2.6; inadequate funding, 3.2; and poor programme coordination, 2.8. Item number 9, 11,
6, 5 and 3 constitute major problems as evidenced by their weighted means being above the criterion
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and grand mean of 2.5 and 2.8 respectively.
Research Question Two
What strategies can be used to improve service delivery of continuing education programmes in the
Niger Delta Region of Nigeria?
Table 2: Distribution of Responses on Strategies for Improving Service Delivery of Continuing
Education Programmes in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria
S
/
N
Strategies (measures) /variables SA
(4)
A
(3)
D
(2)
SD
(1)
Sum x Remarks
1 Improved funding through budgetary
allocation
124(496) 86(258) 40(80) 50(50) 884 2.9 Accepted
2 Recruitment of well trained and
qualified teachers
128(512) 104(309) 47(94) 21(21) 936 3.1 Accepted
3 Establishment of effective
supervision/ monitoring framework
134(536) 87(261) 43(86) 36(36) 919 3.0 Accepted
4 Provision of a strong organizational/
administrative structure
130(520) 83(249) 48(96) 39(36) 904 3.0 Accepted
5 Ensuring stability in policy
formulation
95(380) 100(300) 65(130) 40 850 2.8 Accepted
6 Extension of open distance learning
programmes to rural areas
84(336) 99(297) 62(124) 55(55) 812 2.7 Accepted
7 Provision of improved facilities and
instructional resources
100(400) 127(381) 28(56) 25(25) 862 2.9 Accepted
8 Proper regulation of private initiative
by a statutory body
130(520) 82(246) 63(126) 25(25) 917 3.0 Accepted
9 Shutting down all privately operated
continuing education centers
48(192) 50(150) 120(240
)
82(82) 664 2.2 Rejected
10 Ensuring congenial learning
atmosphere
126(504) 82(246) 46(92) 46(46) 888 2.9 Accepted
11 Provision of relevant knowledge to
meet learners needs
95(380) 115(345) 49(98) 41(41) 864 2.9 Accepted
Grand mean 2.8

Table 2 shows the mean scores of the proffered strategies or measures to improve service delivery of
continuing education programmes as follows: improved funding (2.9), recruitment of well trained and
qualified teachers (3.1), effective supervisory/monitoring framework (3.0), a strong
organizational/administrative structure (3.0), ensuring stability in policy formulation (2.8), extension of
open distance learning programmes to rural areas (2.7), improved facilities and instructional recourses
(2.9), regulation of private initiatives by a statutory body (3.0), ensuring congenital learning atmosphere
(2.9) and provision of relevant knowledge to meet learners needs (2.9). These strategies / measures
have weighted means of 2.9, 3.1, 3.0, 3.0, 2.8, 2.7, 2.9, 3.0, 2.9 and 2.9 respectively, all of which are
above the decision level of 2.5. Shutting down of privately operated continuing education centre has a
weighted mean of 2.2 and was not accepted as an important strategy.
HO
1;
There is no significant difference in the mean rating of male and female respondents on the
problems that affect the effective implementation of continuing education programmes in the Niger
Delta Region of Nigeria.
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Table 3: T-test of significant difference in the mean rating of male and female respondents on
the problems affecting the effective implementation of Continuing Education programmes in
the Niger Delta Region.
Sex/variables No Mean (
-
x) SD Calculated
t- value
Critical
t-value
Remark
Male

Female
160

140
42.17

39.46
13.38

16.24

1.62

2.11

Not
Significant
Not significant at P>0.05
Table 3 above shows the t-test result of male and female respondents on what constitutes problems
besieging continuing education programmes from providing unrestricted access to education in the
Niger Delta Region. The calculated t-value of 1.62 is less than the critical t-value of 2.11 alpha level.
Since this is so, the tested null hypothesis is accepted, which means that there is no significant
difference in the views of the male and female respondents on the problems militating against provision
of full access to education using continuing education programmes in the Niger Delta Region of
Nigeria.
Ho
2
: There is no significant difference in the mean rating of male and female respondents on the
strategies to improve service delivery of continuing education programmes in the Niger Delta Region.
Table 4: T-test of significance difference in the mean rating of male and female respondent on
Strategies to Improve Service Delivery of Continuing Education Programme in the Niger Delta
Region of Nigeria
Sex/variables No Mean (
-
x) SD Calculated t-
value
Critical t-
value
Remark
Male

Female
160

140
52.27

44.33
12.67

15.11

1.51

2.05

Not
Significant
Not significant at P>0.05
Table 4 presents the t-test analysis of male and female respondents on the strategies/measures
to improve service delivery of continuing education programmes in the Niger Delta Region. From the
table, it is observed that the calculated t-value is 1.51 which is less than the critical value of 2.05 alpha
level. Since the calculated value is less than the critical value the tested null hypothesis is accepted;
meaning that there is no significant difference in the opinion of male and female respondents on the
strategies for improving the service delivery of continuing education programmes based on gender.
From the analysis of data, a lot of problems which affect the delivery of continuing education
programmes in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria are identified. The most outstanding of the problems
are inconsistent government policies which have restrictive impact on continuing education
programmes; poor organization and management of programmes, poor funding, poor supervision and
monitoring practices, improper coordination, low quality of teaching staff, poor learning
facilities/materials, transportation difficulties and non-regulation of fees charged particularly among
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private providers of continuing education programmes. These results agree with earlier findings by
Osuji (2001), Egunyomi (2001), Abiona and Abu (2000). To Osuji (2001), the problems of continuing
education revolve around non-regulation of fees charged and non-control of continuing education
activities, while Egunyomi (2000) anchored the problems on poor organization/administration,
ineffective supervision, poor finance and facilities. Abiona and Abu (2000) traced the problems of
continuing education to poor quality teaching, lack of dynamic leadership, poor
organization/administration, poor coordination and lack of effective government policies. A closer
analysis of the identified problems revealed that finance was the root of most of the problems
associated with continuing education. It is not in doubt that inadequate funding was responsible for
engagement of low quality teaching staff, poor staff remuneration, provision of poor learning facilities
and materials. Perhaps these sub-standard provisions including indiscriminate charging of fees
particularly among private providers of continuing education programmes, were deliberately put in
place to meet the exigencies of running private institutions where there is scarcity of fund.
The results also pinpointed transportation difficulties as a striking problem. This is not
surprising because during the long period of rainy season in the tropical forest region of Nigeria, rivers
and rivulets over flow their banks due to large volume of water discharged by the River Niger into its
delta basin. During such period, river transport becomes not only hazardous and risky but the fare
becomes exorbitantly unreasonable and restricts movement of both facilitators and learners to and
from the learning centers. The movement of the supervisors is equally restricted. All these place heavy
restrictions on the usage and ability of continuing education programmes to provide wide access to
education in the Niger Delta Region.
For the strategies/measures that can improve service delivery of continuing education
programmes, the result revealed the following as paramount: institution of a strong
organizational/administrative structure, appropriate supervisory and monitoring framework, increased
funding through budgetary allocation or other means of sourcing funds, maintenance of stability in
policy, provision of relevant knowledge to meet learners needs, proper regulation of fees charged by
private providers of the programme, recruitment of qualified teaching staff, extension of continuing
education services to rural areas and ensuring conductive learning environments. There is no doubt that
implementation of these measures will go a long way in providing unlimited education opportunities
using continuing education programmes in the Niger Delta Region.
The findings of no significant difference among the sexes on the strategies for improving
service delivery of continuing education programmes as well as on the problems militating against its
use and openness is surprising because one would have thought that given the low status of women,
their perception on the problems and strategies would have differed significantly from those of men.
That women have lower literacy level is generally acknowledged in the work of Ramdos (1990). They
also have unequal access to information and their sex roles differ from those of men (Osuala, 1995).
However, the similarities in the backgrounds of the respondents which consisted of major stakeholders,
majority of who were practitioners in adult and non-formal education) and consequent similarities in
environmental conditions might have outweighed all the other factors. This must have been responsible
for the position taken or opinions expressed in relation to the issues.

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Recommendations
Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made:
1. The private sector initiative in the execution of continuing education programmes in the Niger
Delta Region should be regulated by a statutory body to maintain standard and curb the problem of
proliferation
2. Government should ensure that all continuing education centers in the Niger Delta Region are
subjected to periodic monitoring and evaluation to ensure content the relation with the needs of
participants.
3. To cushion the effects of inadequate funding, governments should seek financial from international
agencies for implementing continuing education within the framework of partnership.
4. Continuing education programmes in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria should be targeted to meet
the educational demands of all categories of learners as a deliberate measure to extend access to
both qualitative education and education for meeting basic learning needs of the youth and the
adult population.

Conclusion
The need to strengthen continuing education programmes in view of the desire to attain the
millennium development goal of equal access to democratization of education not only in the Niger
Delta Region but in Nigeria as a whole, must be given the seriousness it deserves. As Nigerias
population grows by leaps and bounds, an educational approach that has both high absorptive capacity
and high propensity to develop the countrys human and material resource is called for to supplement
the formal education system which has for long adopted exclusive instead of inclusive approach.
Continuing education with its diverse options can largely and effectively be used to extend educational
access/opportunity to the masses. This could meet their basic learning needs for survival and
adaptation to the world constantly invaded by the wind of change. However, the operation of
continuing education programmes has a lot of obstacles on its way, and until governments and other
programme providers dismantle such obstacles as identified in this study, the advantages accruing from
continuing education (particularly widening access to education) will remain non-holistic and limited.

References
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Abiona, A.I. & Abu P.B. (2000), New Dimension in the Challenge of Continuing Education.
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Adiseshiah, M.S.(1981). Thoughts in Continuing Education, Status and Future Direction. In C.I.
Imhabekhai. Programme Development and Management in Adult and Non-Formal Education (revised
edition), Okota Isolo: Amfitop Books.
Anseer, J.K. (1982). The Relevance of Distance Education to the Socio-Economic Development of Africa: A Case
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Bock, J.C. & Bock, C.M. (1989). Non-Formal Education Policy: Development Countries: In M.
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Boucouvalas and R. Aderinoye (Eds.). Education for Millennium Development: Essays in Honour of
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drives for attaining Education for all in Nigeria. In M. Boucouvalas & R. Aderinoye (Eds.).
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Kerlinger, F.N. (1976). Foundation of Behavioral Research (2
nd
Ed), New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
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Nwanna, O.C. (1981). Introduction to Educational Research. Ibadan: Heinemann Education Books.
Nwizu, S.C. (2002). The problem of using Distance Education Media in Conscientizing Rural Adult for
Community Development. Journal of Adult Education and Development. 1, (1), 101-108.
Nworgu, B.G. (2006). Educational Research: Basic Issues and Mythology. Ibadan: Wisdom Publishers.
Osuala, J.D.C. (1995). Media for Development. Lagos ACENA Publishers.
Osuji, S.N. (2001). Principle and Practice of Continuing Education in Nigeria. In F.E.O. Omoruyi &
S.E. Omiunu. Strategies for Strengthen Continuing Education programmes for the attainment
of Equal Access to Education by 2015, Journal of Adult Education in Nigeria. 6, 116-123.
Ramdos, L. (1990). Women and Literacy: A quest for justice. Convergence, 1 (28), 27-41
Reimer, E. (1972). School is Dead: Alternative in Education. New York: Doubleday.
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TRENDS IN ADMINISTRATION OF PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN
NIGERIA
By
DR. G. G. KPEE
gospelkpee@yahoo.com
+234(0)803 675 8923 & +234(0)703 440 5533
DR. O. G. AGABI
&
MRS. L. N. NWOKO
University of Port Harcourt Nigeria

Abstract
The history of primary school education dates back to the colonial era when the missionaries in course of
their scramble and partition for West Africa brought their Bible and pen and recruited and trained
interpreters for their missionary expedition. Since then, primary school education has metamorphosed
through different stages changing nomenclature as deemed fit by any government in power. There had been
several attempts to universalize primary education. In recent political Nigeria, attempts have been made
at making such education free and compulsory. Government has therefore made huge investments into
education with the hope that the common man may reap literacy as a dividend of democratic investments.
It is against this background the paper examines the trend of primary education in Nigeria from the pre-
colonial era to the present when at last primary education had been righty referred to as Universal Basic
Education and made free and compulsory to the extent that even nomads and migrant fisher folk are to
benefit from.

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Introduction
It is a well known fact that basic education remains the bedrock of a sound secondary education. The
Christian missions and voluntary agencies were the pioneers of formal education and in fact, primary
education in Nigeria. It was the church missionaries that introduced primary education into Nigeria,
using the Bible and pen in their hands as tools of evangelism and means to an end as anticipated.
History had it that the first primary school was established in Badagry in present day Lagos
State in 1842 by the Wesleyan Methodist Church. Subsequent efforts led to the establishment of
schools in other notable cities where the missions had their initial contact with the people. Such cities
included Lokoja, Calabar, Onitsha, Bonny, Brass and other coastal towns that were linked with deep
waterways. These missions established schools to serve primarily their quest for evangelism. The
responsibility of designing the curriculum, funding the schools and management rested squarely on
those who owned the schools (i.e. the Christian missions and voluntary agencies).
Initially and at take off, the colonial masters did not get involved in school administration
matters. However, in 1877, a considerable interest was shown by the colonial administrators in school
provisions in the form of grants-in-aid to the voluntary agencies and missionaries. The actual
involvement of colonial government was recorded at about 1892 when Sir Henry Carr was appointed
the first Inspector of Schools. This notable landmark in government involvement in the provision of
primary education was the establishment of the first government-owned primary school in Lagos in
1899 for the Muslim following their agitation in 1895, the provision of free primary education by the
Western Regional Government in 1955 and 1957 in the Eastern Region and the introduction of the
Universal Primary Education (UPE) in the whole of Nigeria in 1976. Since then, it has remained the
responsibility of the State Government with the Local Government to provide primary schools for its
citizenry. The private sector has substantially been augmenting this effort since government alone has
not been able to meet up with the societys demand both from the qualitative and quantitative
perspectives.
According to the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004), primary education refers to that
education given in an institution of formal learning for children aged normally 6 to 11 plus. Literally,
the word primary implies first, start, beginning, or basic. However, today, since many children are
exposed to pre-primary or nursery education before primary, it looks erroneous to accept the literal
meaning of primary or basic to imply first except where we associate first to the first time the child is
being exposed to a formal classroom where he is expected to be involved totally in reflective thinking.
Since the rest of the education system is built on it, primary education has been recognized as the key
to the success or failure of the whole educational system of the country. Based on this generalization,
FRN (2004:14) projected the following as the purpose of primary education:
the inculcation of permanent literacy and numeracy, and the ability to communicate
effectively
the laying of a sound basis for scientific and reflective thinking
citizenship education as a basis for effective participation in and contribution to the life of
the society
moulding of character and developing sound attitudes and morals in the child
developing in the child the ability to adapt to his changing environment
giving the child opportunities for developing manipulative skills that will enable him to
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function effectively in the society within the limits of his capacity.
providing the child with basic tools for educational advancement including preparation for
trades and crafts of the locality.

In pursuance of the goals above, the FRN (2004) maintains that:
(a) primary education shall be tuition free, universal and compulsory
(b) curriculum for primary education shall include
(i) Languages
a) Language of the environment
b) English
c) French
d) Arabic
(ii) Mathematics
(iii) Science
(iv) Physical and Health Education
(v) Religious Knowledge
(vi) Agriculture/Home Economics
(vii) Social Studies and Citizenship Education
(viii) Cultural and Creative Arts (Drawing, Handicraft, Music and Cultural activities)
(ix) Computer Education

Beside the strategies stated above government has put in place several measures aimed at
ensuring the realization of the stated goals of primary education. Government has also accepted to
welcome the contribution of voluntary agencies, communities and private individuals in the
establishment and management of primary school. Government has also stated that it shall provide
basic infrastructure and training for the realization of the goal of education at the primary school level.
The effort of government as enunciated above is commendable. However, some problems that
had bedeviled primary education even from the missionary era included school space, inadequate
funding poor infrastructures, lack of political will and the politicizing of appointment of teachers to
positions of responsibility in the education industry. The Federal Government has tried several
measures to address these problems but such efforts tend to yield little or no impact. These include the
takeover of schools, the establishment of the National Primary Education Commission (NPEC) now
Universal Basic Education Commission (UBEC) and the continuous adjustment of the power sharing
arrangement between the various agencies in the management of primary schools. These agencies are
the Federal Government through the National Primary Education Commission now Universal Basic
Education Commission, the State Government through the State Primary Education Board (SPEB)
now State Universal Basic Education Board (SUBEB) and the Local Government through the Local
Government Education Authority (LGEA). With all manner of experimentation, the best that is
happening to the primary school system in recent time is that salaries are more paid more regularly than
before.

Privatization of Primary Schools: Implication for quality education
Government has stated unequivocally that it welcomes the contributions of voluntary agencies,
communities and private individuals in the establishment and management of primary schools
alongside those provided by the state and local governments as long as they meet the minimum
standards laid down by the Federal Government (FRN, 2004:17). Taking due advantage of this policy,
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in recent times, there has been an emerging upsurge in private sector dominance in primary school
proprietorship, provision and management. This is simply because of the failure of government schools
to provide the right learning environment for children in government schools. Individuals and the
nouveau riche have recently emerged with model nursery and preprimary schools with fantastic, state-
of-the-art and beautiful structures, attractive enough to the eyes of vulnerable parents and pupils. These
preprimary schools metamorphose by design and proprietors trick and wisdom into primary schools
and later on secondary schools and now universities. These flamboyant proprietors justify their claim
for this metamorphorical process on the premise that they are out for the total development of the
child.
Private Sector Dominance in Primary Education: Implications for Quality
The quality implication of private sector dominance in primary school provision and management is
two-fold. Firstly, in a bid to maximize profit, most private schools may be recruiting substandard, ill-
experienced and less qualified teachers and though they have gigantic buildings, provide learning
environment which is not the best for the children. This is because a better environment for learning is
determined always by the quality of teachers manipulating such environment and not merely a
showcase of flashy buildings with inscriptions dotted here and there. Proprietors of these schools may
just emphasize profit motives to the detriment of quality. They may invest little or nothing in their staff
(teachers) in terms of remuneration and staff development programmes yet expect bumper harvest at
the end. They may charge higher fees in deception to imply the higher the fees, the better the quality
probably because the average African man is ostentatious in demand. Higher fees besides being
deceptive also deter availability of such opportunity for education to the less privileged majority in the
society. In response, staff may put in their best in the circumstance to commensurate with their paltry
pay, render very effective eye service passing through and delivering lesson without being seriously
committed to the pedagogical task of teaching and child upbringing.
It is therefore a very difficult task to draw a dividing line between the government owned
primary schools with qualified and well paid staff (who always abandon their duty posts for private
business and expose children under their care to wander and loiter about until end of school day) and
the private primary schools with very underpaid staff who come to school as early as 7.00am, starting
official school lessons by 8.00am and closing by 12.30pm, and commencing extramural classes by
1.00pm and ending by 5.00pm before returning home at 6.00pm. one would be forced to believe that
children in the later school where staff spent all day and children are engaged in all-work-and-no-play
are well taught than those in the former school with laissez-faire teachers. This may be far from the
truth.
The ugly news may be that most of the proprietors who have gone into school ownership as a
business venture are not professional educationists nor do they have training in school administration.
Hence their commitment to quality educational provision may remain in doubt, no matter their claim.
However, it is believed that with the growing number of existing private schools, parents now have a
large pool of schools to choose from and consequently, these schools will begin to compete for
patronage by ensuring and enhancing quality of their products as perceived by the labour market.
Secondly, the non-patronage of public schools by the ruling class (because they have a private
alternative) could worsen the quality of primary school provision at the public level. The absence of
children of the ruling class from the schools funded by them may constitute even greater problems than
the absence of seats and teaching aids in existing primary schools where buildings exist if not in the
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utmost, the absence of classrooms. It is therefore not very strange seeing school pupils gathered under
one shade tree or the other, hanging a blackboard before them for them to have their lesson. It might
be unrealistic to mention that in this computer age, most of our government-owned primary schools
had started even an introduction to computer programming not to mention introducing computer
classes or owning a computer. In contrast to this, the private schools have computers and computer
lessons even at the preprimary level. It is difficult to guess the time that government has set aside to
implement the various strategies spelt out as tenets of the National Policy on primary Education if not
now.
The fate of government-owned primary schools tend to be uncertain and bleak in the nearest
future unless government changes its perception and political will towards this sector of education
which it claims serves as the bedrock for all other forms of education. It might therefore remain an
illusion to curse a tree of not bringing forth fruits when its roots are deprived of the necessary nutrients
to make it grow.
Organisation of Primary Schools in Nigeria
Primary school in Nigeria is organised under two subheadings: internal organisation and external
organisation.
Internal Organisation
The administrative set up of a primary school is headed by a head teacher usually called headmaster or
headmistress. The head teacher occupies a very important position as primus interpares in his school
since there is at least one primary school in every village throughout the country. Sometimes the way
the head teacher handles and controls the school his headship may be the only criterion the villagers
will use in assessing the effectiveness, seriousness, relevance or otherwise of education at the primary
level. In every locality, the school headmaster is always very popular. He dictates all the tone of the
school he heads in the community, as all the staff and pupils are answerable to him. In the past, the
school headmaster combined teaching with school administration but today, administering primary
school has become so enormous that the head teacher needs more time to devote to administration as
to meet up with the ever rising demands of the office.
Roles of Primary School Headmaster
The list of the roles of the headmaster is endless. He organises the school timetable, allocates teachers
to classes and sees to the day-to-day operation of the school. He manages and maintains the school
plant, grounds, equipment, gardens and facilities. He ensures the school has a farm and supervises the
planting of crops and fruits. He ensures that on very hot labour days, teachers and students pluck and
eat the school coconut, orange and other fruits. Some headmasters have been applauded for ensuring
that prominent indigenes in the village including the head chief and his council are given proceeds from
the school farm including birds during school farm harvest time.
The headmaster coordinates the activities of teachers and parents. The village has praised a
headmaster who besides mending leaking roofs in the school building, cooked and provided pounded
yam to parents and staff at the end of the schools Parent Teacher Association meeting and merely
nicknamed that head teacher community friendly head teacher. The headmaster serves as the
instructional leader of the school as he goes round with his cane from class to class, sometimes sitting
down in some classes and at times perching at the window monitoring effective teaching and learning.
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Beside effectively utilizing the funds invested into the school, some head teachers had been
commended for going outside the comfort of their office sourcing for additional funds for effective
school administration. The head teacher is usually assisted by the assistant head teacher. Other
functionaries in the primary school include sports master, assembly master, labour teacher and uniform
teacher.
External Organisation
Each primary school in the educational system is linked by a chain of command. At the grassroots level,
primary school in Nigeria is supervised by the Local Government Education Authority (LGEA) headed
by an Education Secretary (who was supposed to be an educationist not a politician). The LGEA
monitors and supervises the day-to-day affairs of the primary schools in his constituency. He sees to
the opening of new primary schools at the recommendation of the Local Government Council and the
approval of the State Ministry of Education. In turn, the activities of the LGEA are co-ordinated and
monitored by the State Ministry of Education through the State Universal Basic Education Board
(SUBEB). The SUBEB recruits and promotes staff of the primary schools especially senior staff. They
further ensure that the welfare of primary school teachers in the state is properly taken care of. They
organise seminars, workshops and on-the-job trainings to improve upon the quality of teachers as they
supervise the payment of staff emoluments. The SUBEB with all its functions in turn is co-ordinated
and supervised by the Universal Basic Education Commission (UBEC) under an Executive Secretary.
Committees & Boards of the Universal Basic Education
Kpee (2006) had earlier recommended sundry committees and boards projecting possible compositions
and functions for an effective implementation of the Universal Basic Education Programme. These
committees include the School UBE Committee or SUBEC the primary and most important
subcommittee for the UBE, the Local Government UBE Board (LUBEB), the Zonal UBE Committee
(ZUBEC), the State UBE Board (SUBEB) and finally the Universal Basic Education Commission
(UBEC). According to Kpee (2006), the SUBEC is the most important subcommittee for the success
of the UBE Programme because it is the committee that can provide accurate information and data on
(i) existing classrooms (ii) classrooms in effective use (iii) pupil class enrolment (iv) classroom sitting
plan (v) anticipated number of classrooms (vi) available office space/conveniences (vii) school map and
plan (viii) school intake for the past five years as to ascertain trend in enrolment and or attrition rate (ix)
actual number of teaching and non-teaching staff (x) subject allocation for teachers and subject without
teachers and finally (xi) teacher-pupil ration and all other functions and responsibilities it is charged
with.
Before the advent of the civilian government in Nigeria, monthly allocations for staff salaries
and other overhead for primary school management was routed through the Local Government
Councils. This policy had to be modified when it was noticed that most of the Local Government
Authorities diverted funds meant for payment of teachers salaries and allowances to other pressing
projects. The current trend is the deduction of allocations for primary schools from Local Government
Allocation at source, and this experiment is already yielding fruit.
Conclusion
Whatever organisational arrangements are devised in the management of primary educational system in
Nigeria, the central focus must be to achieve the followings:
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(1) Ensure the regular and prompt payment of salaries and allowances of staff in primary schools
(2) Ensure that both the state and local governments provide their own share of counterpart
funding for primary schools, so that facilities provision and maintenance can be enhanced.
(3) Adequately equip the supervisory organ of the ministry and the UBEC to regularly carry out
regular inspection of both public and private schools to maintain standard.
(4) Set up a program training and retraining primary school teachers on a regular and continuous
basis to ensure that they remain relevant to the needs of the school system.
(5) Provide grants to assist creditable private primary schools to boot their resource base for quality
education and hence make such education affordable to a larger section of the Nigerian society.
To achieve the above feats requires the cooperation of every interest group in education. This is
because achieving quality education is a collective effort.

References
Aiyepeku, T.F (1989). 6-3-3-4 System of Education in Nigeria. Ibadan. NPS Educational Publishers Ltd.
Enaohwo, J.O. (2000). Educational Futurology Praxis, Problems and the way forward. Inaugural Lecture
series. Choba. University of Port Harcourt Press.
FRN (2001). Implementation Guideline for the Universal Basic Education Journal 1(1) Abuja. Federal Ministry
of Education Press.
FRN (2004) National Policy on Education, 4
th
edition Lagos. NERDC Press.
Kpee, G.G. in Maduagwu, S.N. (2006). Administration of Universal Basic Education. The Basic Facts.
Owerri. Springfield Publishers.
Lunenburg, F.C., Ornstein, A.C. (1991). Educational Administration: Concepts and Practice. California.
Wadsworth Inc.
Nwagwu, N.A. (1981). Primary School Administration in Nigeria. Ibadan. Macmillan
Williams, J.C., Huber, G.P. (1986). Human Behaviours in Organisations (Third edition). Ohio. South-West
Publishing Co.

March, 2012.


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STUDENTS ACCESS TO INFRASTRUCTURAL FACILITIES AS A
CORRELATE OF QUALITY OUTPUT: THE PLANNING OPTION
By
OBASI, KENNETH K., Ph.D
&
OHIA, ADANMA N., Ph.D

Abstract
The main thrust of this study was to x-ray the infrastructural facilities accessible to public secondary
school students in Abia State, Nigeria as a correlate of quality output. It was a descriptive survey
research. Two research questions and one hypothesis guided the study. Data were collected using personal
observation and a 12 item structured questionnaire. Proportionate stratified random sampling technique
was used to select 98 principals/vice principal (50%) and 594 sectional head teachers (50%) in
99(50%) public secondary schools. Simple percentage and access index were used to answer the research
questions. Hypothesis was analyzed using mean and t-test at 0.05 level of significance. The findings
revealed that students access to quality classroom and laboratory facilities (considered in this study) is
poor. The researchers recommended effective planning and provision of learning facilities in good quality
and quantity to guarantee the production of quality output from this level of education.

Keywords: Students Access, Infrastructural Facilities, Quality Output, Planning Option.

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Introduction
The development of any nation is an illusion, and keeping pace with global trends a
mirage without a well-fortified educational system. In Nigeria, secondary education plays
the consumer and producer roles by absorbing the products of primary schools and
supplying students to the different categories of tertiary education system respectively.
This is of paramount importance because it is expected that a child, who on completion
of secondary education and cannot proceed to the tertiary level, would have acquired
enough skills and knowledge to enable him be useful to himself and contribute
meaningfully to the economic growth of his society. In the National Policy on Education,
(FRN, 2004), it is stipulated that secondary education should equip students to live
effectively in this modern age of science and technology.
In the bid to increase access to education, various national and international
agencies launch different programmes, for instance, the Universal Basic Education
(UBE) that Nigeria passed into law in May 2004 as the UBE Act 2004 and Education for
All (EFA) which is a global movement led by UNESCO that aims at meeting the learning
needs of all children, youths and adults by 2015. To ensure that quality of educational
delivery is not sacrificed at the expense of quantity, the Federal Ministry of Education, in
its statutory responsibility, (FRN, 2004) in the National Policy on Education formulated
minimum standards for the provision of education at the different levels. As is often the
case, well formulated polices are poorly or not implemented at all.
UNESCO (2002) sees the issue of quality as being multi-dimensional and therefore
recognizes input-process-output framework in its assessment. This is predicated on the
input-output production function in education propounded by Coombs (1968) and Cobb-
Douglas theory of production function that represents the relationship between inputs
and outputs. It then follows that expecting quality output from the secondary system is
contingent on planning for, providing and making accessible to the students quality
infrastructural facilities that will enhance teaching and learning.
There is still a general dissatisfaction about the performance of the products of the
nations educational system in general. Most worrisome is the growing discontent and
distrust about the quality of public secondary school products. Nwafor (2005) observed
that the achievement level of public secondary school levers is very low.
Accessibility of students to good and adequate learning facilities like classroom
and laboratories among others will engender the production of functional graduates from
the secondary education system. Njoku (2009) corroborated this by asserting that that
classroom accommodation is an integral aspect of an indispensable input which must be
provided for students. Access to quality classroom resources in public secondary schools
has to do with the opportunity students have to make use of quality classroom space,
furniture and other instructional resources within the classroom set up. Ene (2007)
asserted that access to education is not just seeing a school to attend, but having a vital
classroom resources to work in. Access to quality classroom resources means making
the resources to be within the reach of every school child. Every child is expected to have
his own desk, chair in a well built classroom with enough space and ventilation.
UNICEF (2000) recognizes adequate classroom instructional resources as the first
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ingredient in defining quality in the educational process. In fact, to this organization,
providing adequate and quality classroom instructional resources that are relevant to
the childrens learning experiences and curriculum must be the first pre-requisite in the
pursuit of quality delivery of education. This according to UNICEF (2000) is one of the
many parameters that most African countries have failed in meeting the millennium
goals for education. In reality, what is actually observed in many public secondary
schools in Nigeria portends lack of basic infrastructure (Akpan 2005, Aigboje 2007) of
which classrooms are the most conspicuous. Undie, Udida and Sale (2005) opined that
wellequipped laboratories for practical exercises are some of the facilities school
principals see as the first index of quality schools. But they conclude that many schools
including science schools, do not have quality laboratories. Ilomade (2000) in Fularinso
(2002) asserted that equipped laboratories not only facilitate effective teaching, but also
enhance teachers morale, particularly in state schools that lack facilities and laboratory
equipment. The researchers in this study assert that access without quality is
meaningless and quality without accessibility is not beneficial, therefore quality and
access are in a nexus.
The Problem
Governments laudable policies show their willingness to make quality education
accessible to all but the sincerity in the implementation of the policies is questionable.
There seem to be a tilt towards producing secondary school graduates in good quantity
rather than in good quality.
It is a truism that a nation requires quality educational system to boast of
producing quality output. From the public outcry about the poor performance of
graduates from the secondary level of the education system, it is expedient to establish
empirically the quality of learning resources like classroom and laboratory facilities
accessible to the students to guarantee quality output.
Generally the purpose of this study is to ascertain the infrastructural facilities accessible
to Abia State secondary school students. Specifically it sought to identify the:
1. classroom instructional materials accessible to the students
2. extent to which students have access to well-equipped laboratories.

Research Questions
1. What classroom instructional materials are accessible to the students?
2. To what extent do the students have access to well-equipped laboratories?

Hypothesis
Ho1: There is no significant difference in the opinions of principals and teachers in the
level of access students have to good classroom facilities.
Methodology
The descriptive survey technique was used in this study. The accessible population
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comprised of 98 principals and 594 teachers; giving a total of 692. The sample size was
348 got by proportionate stratified random sampling technique.
Data were collected by direct observation and the use of a 12-item questionnaire
structured using modified Likert four-point scale of strongly agree (4), agree(3), disagree
(2) and strongly disagree (1). Test-retest method was used to validate the instrument. An
internal consistency reliability coefficient of 0.8 was got using the Pearson Product
Moment Correlation Coefficient.
Results and Discussion
Research question 1: What classroom instructional equipment are accessible to the
students?
Table 1: Mean, Frequency and quality index of students' access to classroom equipment in
schools
Classroom Resources Capacity/
availability
Number in good
condition
% in good
condition
Access index
for good ones
1. Classroom Spaces 12421 4223 34.00 0.44
2. Classroom Furniture 6327 2245 35.48 0.23
3 Chalkboards 1188 165 13.90 0.18
4. Teacher offices 233 172 73.84 0.28
5. Teacher office furniture 198 170 85.86 0.28
6. Charts 5277 250 0.047 -
Mean 4274 .1204 33.4 .097
Source: Research Survey data, 2010

As clearly shown in table 1, the proportion of facilities in good condition that students
have access to is 33% of available ones for the 6 classroom materials examined. This
proportion is worst for charts and chalkboards and better for teacher offices and teacher
office furniture. A look at the access index however gives a better picture only for
classroom spaces. The ratios for the remaining 5 materials are poorer than the
proportion of good ones. Hence the mean access index is .097 (i.e. less than 10%). This
means that even the total available facility is far short of the number required to provide
adequate quality access.
This evidence is supported by figure 1, where classrooms are dilapidated, seats are
scanty and space over crowded with students beyond the standard specification.
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Figure 1: Dilapidated classroom structures, scanty of classroom furniture but crowded with
students.
Research question 2
To what extent do the students have access to well-equipped laboratories?
Table 2: Mean Frequency and quality index of students' access to laboratory resources in
schools
Laboratory Capacity/
Availability
No. in Good
Condition
% in Good
Condition
Access Index
for Good ones
1 Physics Laboratory 68 68 100 0.348
2 Chemistry Laboratory 45 45 100 0.243
3 Biology Laboratory 218 218 100 0.172
4 Trained Lab. attendant 20 20 100 0.216
5 Computer Laboratory Nil Nil Na Na
Mean 100 0.245
Source: Research Survey Data, 2010
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Table 2 shows that students' access to subject laboratory resources is very poor. Though
very few students offer the basic sciences, the few who do, have no adequate access to
equipped laboratory resources. For the 99 sampled schools, there were only 68
laboratory spaces for physics practical, 45 chemistry laboratory spaces, 218 biology
laboratory spaces and 20 trained laboratory attendants. This clearly shows that very few
of the schools visited have some facilities that can be called usable laboratory spaces. No
single computer laboratory was found in schools visited.
Figure 2 shows a clip of some laboratory spaces in schools visited, most of them not built
to specifications. In most places, ordinary tables are used without sink and other
associated laboratory apparatus.

Figure 2: Public school laboratories in the state, some in uncompleted structures, most of
them utilizing common low tables as laboratory benches without sinks and other
apparatus.
Hypothesis
Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference in the opinions of principals and teachers
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in the level of access students have to good classroom facilities.
Table 3: Mean and test of differences between principals and teachers
classroom
resources access
index
mean t-value 2-tailed sig.
value
remarks
Principals Teachers
N 98 594
% in good
condition
28 37.11 -1.41 0.159 Not
significant
Access index 0.0215 0.0270 -0.698 0.498
P < 0.05

As is clearly shown in table 3, the calculated t-value on students access to quality
classroom resources is1.41 for % in good condition and -0.698 for access index. These
values are not significant at 0.159 and 0.498 respectively being more than 0.05 level of
significance.

Conclusion
Table 1 shows a mean access index of 0.97 (less than 10%). That is, the students do not
have good access to classroom learning resources. In line with UNESCO (2002) input
process-output framework, expecting quality output from the secondary system is
contingent on providing input one of which is classroom facilities in good quality and
quantity. Classroom accommodation is an integral aspect of an indispensable input
(Njoku, 2009). The results also confirm UNICEF (2000) assertion that many African
countries have failed in providing quality classroom instructional resources relevant to
childrens learning, experiences and curriculum as a requisite in the pursuit of quality
educational delivery.
Planning Implications
The outcome of this study has implications to education generally and in particular the
trained planners in the system. Consulting and employing the services of professionally
trained educational planners is very vital. Since the current trend in Nigeria is in favour of
free, compulsory basic education, the planners may opt for the Social Demand Approach
in planning the development of the system at this level. The planners need to constantly
keep in touch with the primary school board of the state to know the number of pupils
likely to be admitted into the secondary schools and also follow their successive promotion
from JSS1. Also important is the fact that the planners need to estimate the resources,
both personnel and finance for the students and bring pressure to bear on the relevant
government agency for the provision.

March, 2012.


Page 490

References
Aigboje, C.D. (2007). Head teachers perception of adequacy of the facilities provided for
the implementation of UBE in Nigerian primary schools. Journal of applied
research in education 5(1), 58-66.
Akpan, J.R. (2005). Administrative strategies to promote quality assurance in both public
and private secondary schools in Nigeria. A paper presented at the national
association of educational administration and planning (NAEAP) University of
Calabar11
th
-13
th
.
Ene, A.C. (2007). Access to and equity in university education in Nigeria: issues and
trends (eds) J.B. Babaola, G.O. Akpan, A.O. Ayeni and S.O. Adedeji. access, equity
and quality in higher education. National Association for Educational
Administration and Planning (NAEAP) publication.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education, 4
th
ed.,
Abuja: NERDC.
Njoku, A.C. (2009) Rural-Urban disparities in Nigerian schools enrolments, classrooms
and teachers in 2005: implications for quality access and cost management.
Proceedings of the 23
rd
annual congress of the Nigerian academy of education 128-
140. Abuja: NERDC.
Nwafor, S.O. (2005) Managing and utilizing physical facilities for quality assurance in
sports development in Rivers State secondary schools. African journal of education
and developmental studies. 1(2), 31-38.
Undie, J.A., Udidia, L.A. & Sule, M.A. (2005) Principals perception of educational quality
in private and public secondary schools in Cross Rivers State senatorial district. A
paper delivered at the National Association for Educational Administration and
Planning (NAEAP) University of Calabar
11
th
-13
th
.
UNESCO (2000). The EFA Movement (Education) Retrieved September 7, 2010 from
http:www.unesco.org/en/efa/the-efa-movement.
UNICEF (2000). Defining quality in Education, Working Paper Series, Educational
section Programme Division Retrieved November 5, 2011 from http://www.unicef.org.

March, 2012.


Page 491


TEACHERS WELFARE PROGRAMME AS A TIME MANAGEMENT
STRATEGY IN RIVERS STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

By

CHINYERE O. AGABI
E-mail: chinyereagabi@yahoo.com
Tel: +2348055169126

&

WORLU I. WALI

Dept. of Educational Foundations and Management
Ignatius Ajuru University of Education, Rumuolumeni,
Port Harcourt, Rivers State..

Abstract
This descriptive survey aims at highlighting teacher welfare programmes that facilitate the elimination of
time wastage in the provision of secondary school education in River State, Nigeria. For the purpose of
data generation, a questionnaire was developed and administered on 140 public school principals and 40
private school principals randomly sampled from a population of 243 public secondary schools and 61
private secondary schools respectively. The study was guided by one research question and one hypothesis.
The result of data analysis shows that the provision of free medical services and access to soft loans will
greatly facilitate the elimination of time wastage in the provision of secondary school education in the
state. The study concludes that if these welfare programmes are provided and properly managed, they will
also go a long way in minimizing the frequency of labour conflicts between teachers and their employers. It
recommends that welfare programmes preferred by teachers should be adopted to improve on their attitude
to work and to productivity in secondary school education.

Key words: Time management, welfare, maintenance, wastage, education, teachers.

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Introduction
The provision of education and the sustenance of best practices in teaching are often tied to the
provision of infrastructure, instructional materials and qualified teachers. It is for this reason that
quality of education is often assumed to be high in schools that have adequate and well furnished
classrooms, libraries, laboratories and workshops. This quality is also assumed to be well complemented
by the presence of professionally trained teachers and the maintenance of the statutory pupil-teacher
ratio in such schools.
It is not surprising that our newspapers are rife with reports on educational developments that
are based on the provision of new educational facilities, or the renovation of dilapidated structures in
public schools. For instance, at an education summit in Edo State, Nigeria, Governor Oshiomhole of
Edo State announced a policy that will ensure that 80% of capital projects in local government areas are
directed at addressing the problem of infrastructure decay in the education sector. Specifically, the
governor advised local government chairmen to direct such projects at providing primary schools of
high quality, with all the infrastructural complements such as conveniences staff rooms, head teachers
office, sporting facilities, regular water supply, among others (Osauzo, 2010). On a related issue,
Alechenu (2010) reported the reiteration of the commitment of the federal government of Nigeria to
the sustenance of reading culture shown by the provision of libraries in all primary and junior
secondary schools in the country. The libraries were provided through the Universal Basic Education
Commission (UBEC). According to the report, this library project is hinged on the effort of the
Ministry of Education at re-engineering the entire education system. This high commitment to
information provision services and knowledge management is also directed at improving access and
enhancing the quality of education. In another report based on student academic performance,
Nwaoguji (2010) provides the background to the above government zeal for infrastructural
development in education. The report indicates a steady decline and decay in Nigerias educational
system as manifested in the November/December 2009 Senior Secondary School Certificate
Examination, SSSCE, released by the National Examination Council, NECO. According to this report,
NECO recorded a mass failure of 97% in 2008 and 95% in 2009. These figures represent the number
of candidates who could not achieve credit passes in English and Mathematics in the SSSCE organized
by NECO.
The above reports indicate that the provision of quality education requires much more than the
provision of infrastructure and the employment of professionally trained teachers. Obviously the
provision of quality education also requires the recognition and satisfaction of the needs of teachers,
not just as professionals but also as human beings with socio-economic needs and aspirations which
must be met for the sustenance of positive work attitude. The purpose of this paper is to highlight
welfare programmes that can be explored to facilitate the effective use of time in secondary schools in
River State.
What do teachers really want?
The efforts of government at developing educational infrastructure do not seem to yield the
desired result in the improvement of student academic performance; neither has it stopped teachers
from getting confrontational with their employers. More time than is necessary is spent on labour
conflicts and conflict management in the education sector than in any other sector of the Nigerian
economy. Hardly a year passes by without a teachers strike reported at one level of education or
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another over conditions of service. What do teachers really want?
In an investigation of the influence of teachers self-esteem on students performance in
Mathematics, Amini (2004) discovered that a teachers self-esteem has significant influence on students
academic performance. The investigation also showed that students who studied Mathematics under
teachers with high self-esteem performed significantly better than students who studied the same
subject with the same curriculum under teachers with low self-esteem. It identified factors that give rise
to low self-esteem to include low job satisfaction, inferior standing in the society and relatively poor
salary. It concluded that a reversal of this situation will enhance teachers self-esteem and ultimately, job
performance. It therefore recommended an enhancement of teachers remuneration with adequate
consideration for factors that enhance teachers self-esteem and positive job-disposition.
In a related study, Maduagwu and Wali (2004) investigated the administration of employee
welfare programmes in post-primary education institutions in River State. Their study revealed that
welfare package for post-primary school teachers in the state consists of allowances that take care of
housing, transportation, annual leave, meal subsidy and Christmas bonus. With the exception of annual
leave allowance and Christmas bonus, other items listed in the welfare package constitute part of the
monthly pay package for teachers. Result of data analysis for the work also revealed that teachers in
post primary schools will be happier with a welfare package that includes loans, salary advances, and
financial grants. The study concluded that the present welfare package for post primary school teachers
in River State is not satisfactory; and that an appropriate and satisfactory welfare package for teachers at
this level of education should be such that enables the teacher to meet his basic socio-economic needs
in any prevailing economic situation in the society in which he/she lives.
Nwora (2009) compared the poor condition of the teaching profession in Nigeria to the
contrasting situation in the United Kingdom in which teaching is highly regarded and teachers are
classified as key workers by the UK government. His comparative analysis of education issues in
Nigeria and the UK shows that teachers in Nigeria are worse off than their counterparts in the United
Kingdom. The treatise of education issues reports that teachers in the United Kingdom are classified
as key workers, and they benefit from the Key Workers Living Scheme (KWLS) which was introduced
by the UK government around 2002/2003. By this scheme, teachers were given priority social housing
along side other professionals included in the scheme (such as the police, nurses and other allied health
workers). The KWLS ensured that teachers enjoyed an upward and comprehensive review of their
salaries to a point that made teaching very attractive. In Nworas (2009) analysis, the low wage given to
professionals in core fields is responsible for the poor self-worth and the shoddy practices that some of
them exhibit in the course of performing their duties. He advised that skilled and semi-skilled workers
whose services are recognized should be appreciated and rewarded accordingly.
The problem in the education sector in Nigeria and the school system in particular is summarized by
Osagie-Jacobs (2010). In the treatise of the issues in the Nigerian school system, he described the
development of education in Nigeria as progressively retrogressive. In his opinion, the money so far
spent on workshops and seminars is wasted because such efforts have not addressed the root cause of
the problem of infrastructural decay, inadequate supply of qualified teachers, poor academic
performance by students, and poor quality of graduates from Nigerian schools. Osagie-Jacobs (2010)
work identified the root cause of the problem in the education sector as consisting of bad leadership,
corruption, frequent change of policy, and poor planning. In his opinion, it is not possible to carry out
a useful assessment on students in schools that are ill-equipped. The treatise recommends a correction
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measure that includes adequate remuneration and motivation of teachers in order to attract the best
hands and maintain best practices.
The above reviewed works indicate that a teachers self-worth, job satisfaction, and economic
well-being will be greatly enhanced with an employee welfare package that enables him/her to meet
basic socio-economic needs. Such welfare package should also be such that strengthens the teachers
ability to exercise fundamental rights without inhibition. For instance, a teacher has the right (like every
other citizen) to own movable and immovable property any where in Nigeria, as provided in section 43
of the 1999 constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN, 2008). The teacher also has social
responsibilities that include sending his children to school and meeting other basic needs of his family
(which includes housing, feeding, clothing and health). Any condition of service that makes it difficult
for a teacher to meet these basic needs is likely to affect his self-esteem and ultimately his attitude to
work.
Teachers want a condition of service that enhances their economic prospects and advancement because
the teacher, as a professional, constitutes a key element in the constitution of the human capital in any
society. The teacher therefore expects to have easy access to all the social and economic benefits that
accrue to professionals of equal standing in the society, by virtue of their education, training and
employment.
Research Question
This study was guided by the following research question:
What are the measures that could be taken to enhance the economic condition of teachers in
secondary schools in River State, Nigeria?
Hypothesis
There is no significant difference between administrators in public and private secondary schools on
the economic measures adopted to improve the welfare of teachers in River State, Nigeria.
Theoretical Framework
This study is premised on Adam Smiths human capital theory which asserts that human resource
becomes capital when it acquires advanced education and training because of the higher level of
initiative and production that accrues there from. The human capital so generated and valued for its
high level of productivity and income earning capacity, as aptly stated by Black (2004), cannot be used
as collateral for loans, neither can the education so painstakingly acquired be inherited by any one; the
sustenance of the intellectual and professional skills that constitute capital for the employer therefore
lies in the ability of the employer to create and maintain employment conditions that
(a) encourage the use of professional initiative;
(b) enhance optimal economic benefit for the employer and the employee; and
(c) ensure job satisfaction and job security.
These three keys to optimal human capital utilization ensure the maintenance of an employer
employee equilibrium in productivity.

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Time wastage in education
Researchers have shown that the employment conditions of teachers in Nigeria generally fall short of
the three keys to optimal employment of human capital in the school system, compared to their
contemporaries in other fields (Amini, 2004; Nwora, 2009). In a study by Ohia (2008), the career
preference of 363 students of Education in the University of Port Harcourt, randomly sampled from a
population of 1450 students, was investigated. The result of data analysis revealed that 75% of the
students were studying Education just to have a university degree, but with no intention of teaching.
They generally preferred careers with high economic prospects. Teaching was given the least
consideration by the students, while working in a finance house had the highest consideration. Other
career variables considered in the study included self-employment, civil service and work in a company.
These variables were all ranked higher than teaching in terms of preference by the students. The study
concluded that the production of teachers who are not interested in teaching is responsible for the
brain drain from the teaching profession. It recommended that the teaching profession should be made
more attractive through the improvement of conditions of service. Ohias (2008) work is a reflection
of the wastage of time and other vital resources in education, in the production of teachers who have
neither the intention of teaching nor of being employed in the school system.
The wastage of time and other key resources in education is further highlighted by Igwe (2008)
in a study of causes of industrial actions among teachers. The study attributed observed fluctuations in
school system productivity level to incessant industrial actions that arise from job insecurity, poor
conditions of service, financial deprivation of workers (poor and insufficient wage), and a welfare
package that is not responsive to emerging trends. Igwes (2008) study involved the analysis of data
generated from 200 secondary school principals randomly sampled from a population of 239 public
school principals in River State. The study recommended more financial incentives including loans for
teachers.
Ultimately, human capital is developed and employed to guarantee systemic growth and
productivity. Poor management can render it counterproductive. In which case it ceases to function as
capital and becomes a source of wastage. As much as the employer strives for optimal productivity, the
employee who possesses the desired professional skills and expertise also strives to achieve optimal
economic benefit from his or her employment. The employer and the employee need to strike a
balance that is favourable to both parties. In the school system, the ability of education managers to
identify the point of equilibrium between the demands of the education sector and the economic
expectations of teachers is vital in the elimination of time wastage from labour conflicts and shoddy
practices, thereby improving productivity. To this end, it is important that education managers explore
all factors that can enhance teacher productivity, and fully employ them for the goodness of the school
system.
Time management in the school system
Formal education is time based. It is so much so that the assessment of a students rate of learning is
measured by the length of time used by the student to acquire knowledge from formal instruction. Slow
learners, average learners and fast learners (also known as gifted) are identified and classified according
to the speed of learning. The various levels of education, (primary, secondary and tertiary) have their
programmes planned on a fixed time. By the age of six, an average Nigerian child is expected to be in
primary one and to spend the next five or six years of life in primary school (FRN, 2004). Between ages
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eleven and eighteen, the Nigeria child is expected to be in a secondary school. The duration of tertiary
education depends on the type of institution and the course of study. Classroom activities are also
organized on a fixed schedule. This arrangement of education programmes and activities is not peculiar
to Nigeria; it is the general standard for formal education. Slight variations in the duration of any
particular level of education may exist between countries.
The recent introduction of e-learning enables learners to study and learn at their convenience.
The e-learning is a new dimension in organized education which enables the learner to study through
the use of the internet and other computer-related electronic devices. E-learning education programmes
are also organized on a relatively stable time schedule that ensures that a learner completes the
programme for one level of education before he/she is introduced a higher level of instruction and
learning. In this way, the amount of information given to a learner at any point in time is carefully
controlled. E-learning is unique because it allows the learner to study at his/her own pace with CDs,
DVDs and other electronic devices. The problem is that in e-learning, it is difficult to control the
learning audience by age definition, especially when teaching is done through the internet. This is
because in the present age and time, the internet has been made generally and easily accessible to all
with the proliferation of cyber cafs; desk tops, lap tops and even GSM handsets that can be bought at
very low price. At very little cost, one can access almost any website (some at no cost) in search of
knowledge in almost all areas of human activity.
In all countries, whether developed or developing, the age range for each level of education is
predetermined. It is for this reason that a learner may be considered too young or too old for any
particular level or type of education. This is why labour conflicts in education, and all other issues that
result in wastage of education time should be avoided so that optimal use of time can be achieved,
especially in the school system where education is age-specific.
Importance of time in education
Longman (2005) defines the word time as the thing that is measured in minutes, hours, days,
years, etc on a clock; an occasion when something happens or someone does something. It is a point at
which something happens. Time is often used in relation to a plan or an activity. Although time is
generally measured on the face of a clock, education time is measured on a calendar in terms of weeks,
months and years. A disruption of education time scheduled on a calendar often results in the
elongation of the period of schooling, because certain activities must be carried out before education at
any particular level can be described as complete. Such activities include completion of planned
curriculum, administration of tests and examinations.
The elongation of the period of education may arise from labour conflicts, civil unrest, military
upheaval or a natural disaster of uncontrollable magnitude. In Nigeria, the most frequent cause of
disruptions in the school calendar is labour conflict between teachers and their employers. This conflict
often arises as a result of delay in salary payment, poor conditions of service, poor remuneration and
non payment of allowances [Maduagwu & Wali (2004); Amini (2004); Ohia (2008); and Igwe (2008)].
The length of time employed by managers of education to resolve these conflicts greatly influences the
extent of elongation that reflects in the school calendar.
It is important at this point to re-assert the opinion of Akinwumiju and Agabi (2008) that time
is the only resource that cannot be stored because it fizzles away if not properly utilized. The school
manager needs proper time tabling in both curricular and co-curricular activities; precise schedule of
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duties and adequate delegation of functions to effectively utilize the limited time available to the school.
Although, time cannot be stored but the use of time as an education resource may be conserved if
adequate and conscious plan is made to guard against conflicts and other issues that may result in the
wastage of education time. All the research works reviewed in this paper agree that teachers welfare
plan may include the participation of teachers in major decisions that affect the school; the
improvement of the welfare package of teachers; and a general improvement in teachers condition of
service.
Methodology
Research design
This is a descriptive survey of the welfare package considered most favourable by secondary school
teachers in River State Nigeria.
Sample and sampling technique
A total of 140 public school principals and 40 private school principals were randomly sampled from a
population of 243 public schools and 61 private schools respectively.
Research instrument
Data for the study was collected with a Teacher Welfare Programme Questionnaire, TWPQ.
The instrument had two parts, the first part required respondents to provide information on
demographic variables concerning the school and the respondent. The second part required the
respondents to rank each of a 30 item welfare programme on a 4 point Likert scale with responses
ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree and based on the following arrangement:
Strongly agree = 4 points
Agree = 3 points
Disagree = 2 points
Strongly disagree = 1 points
Validity and Reliability
The validity of the research instrument, TWPQ, was ascertained by experts in Educational
Management whose observations and suggestions led to necessary modifications before it was
administered. Reliability of the TWPQ was established by a test retest method. The instrument was
administered to 10 randomly selected secondary school administrators in Obio/Akpor Local
Government Area. Two weeks after that, a second test was also administered on the same group of
administrators. The Pearson Product Moment correlation co-efficient of 0.80 ensured a high reliability.
Administration of instrument
The TWPQ was personally administered to principals of public and private schools. This was to
ensure that questions and issues that may arise in the course of responding to the questionnaire may be
directly addressed. Administration of instrument yielded a 90% response rate.
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Statistical procedure
Responses to the questionnaire items were graded on a Likert scale that ranged from 4 to1 with
4.0 as the highest score. Data generated from the survey was analysed using mean score, rank order,
and z-test. The statistical analysis was tested at 0.05 level of significance and z critical value of 1.96.
Presentation and Discussion of Findings
Research question
What measures could be taken to enhance the welfare condition of teachers in River State
secondary schools?
The answer to the above research question is presented in table 1.
Table 1
Mean scores of measures to improve the welfare of teachers in River State secondary schools
Bulk payment of housing allowance per annum 3.00
Provision of subsidized rental accommodation for teachers 3.06
Weekly payment of transport allowance 2.33
Free transportation 2.50
Free medical services for teachers and their family members 3.39
Provision of soft loans/salary advance 3.17
Introduction of a savings scheme 2.72
Introduction of annual lottery for teachers 2.50

Table 1 shows welfare programmes that are preferred by teachers and the extent of their
preferences. From the table, the provision of free medical services is the most preferred, with a mean
score of 3.39. This is followed by the provision of soft loans/salary advance with a mean score of 3.17.
The provision of staff accommodation within the school premises at a subsidized rate is ranked higher
than the bulk payment of housing allowance at the beginning of every year. This is not surprising,
considering the difficult terrain of River State and the poor road network in the state. With a subsidized
housing scheme for teachers in the school premises, teachers will be protected from the hassles of
travelling long distances everyday on a bad road, to get to work. The preference for free medical
services and soft loans reflect the humble position of teachers on the socio-economic ladder. Teachers
are among the least paid professionals in Nigeria and primary and secondary school teachers are worse
off in terms of remuneration. Although the remuneration of teachers in River State is relatively higher
than what obtains in some other states in Nigeria, it is still very poor compared to what is given to their
contemporaries in the banks and multi-national establishments.
Welfare programmes given the least consideration by teachers as shown in table 1 include the
introduction of savings scheme; provision of fare-free transportation by road and by water; annual
lottery for teachers; and weekly payment of transport allowance (presented in order of preference). This
is also not surprising because the provision of subsidized housing preferred by most teachers would
eliminate the desperate need for a convenient and cheap means of transportation. The soft loan
preferred by most teachers, if granted, will also take care of the need for a savings scheme.
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Null Hypothesis
There is no significant difference between administrators in public and private secondary
schools on the economic measures adopted to improve on the welfare of teachers. The result of the
test of this null hypothesis is presented in Table 2.
Table 2
Z-test of measures adopted by administrators of public and private secondary schools to
improve on teachers welfare.
Secondary school administrators N P PP Z-Cal CRV Decision
Public schools 140 .043 .045 -
.13
1.96 Not
Sign.
Private schools 40 .054

Where
N = Number of respondents
P = Mean score
PP = Weighted mean
Table 2 shows that the calculated z value of -.13 is less than the z critical value of 1.96 at
0.05 level of significance. The hypothesis is therefore accepted and we state that there is no significant
difference between administrators of public and private secondary schools on measures adopted to
improve on the economic welfare of teachers. This is an indication that teachers, as professionals, have
similar expectations with regards to the socio-economic benefits from their employment.
Conclusion The
economic welfare of teachers in public and private secondary schools in River State, Nigeria will be
greatly enhanced if certain welfare programmes are adopted for teachers. Such programmes include (in
order of preference):
(1) The provision of free medical services;
(2) The provision of access to soft loans and salary advance;
(3) The provision of staff accommodation within school premises;
(4) The provision of housing allowance as a lump sum at the beginning of every year.
Much more time would be used by teachers for classroom teaching and less time would be lost
in the guise of such common issues as difficulty in getting transportation to work, and travelling far
distances in quest cheap medical help. It will also be morally justified to seriously sanction any teacher
found using school time for any private money making venture. If these welfare programmes are
provided and properly managed, they will also help to minimize the frequency of labour conflicts
between teachers and their employers. In the long run, formal education will be provided on a fixed
and stable education calendar. Although there is no significant difference in the welfare programmes
preferred by school principals in public and private schools, it is a well known fact that teachers in
private schools in Nigeria do not participate in trade union activities and rarely get confrontational with
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their employers. This does not make them lower in professional ranking than their counterparts in
public schools. The recognition and provision of the welfare programmes that they find desirable will
facilitate the enhancement of efficiency in Nigerian private schools.
Recommendations
In addition to the recommendation of authors reviewed in the course of this work, that teachers should
be paid a living wage and treated like key professionals, this paper recommends as follows:
1. Welfare programmes preferred by secondary school teachers be adopted to enhance their
productivity and to improve on their attitude to work. This will ensure that less time is spent on
conflicts and other issues that amount to a diversion and wastage of education time.
2. Teachers found guilty of shoddy activities such as extorting money from parents, students or
visitors to the school; buying and selling goods in the classroom in the course school activities;
falsifying school system information for monetary or social gains; or any other unprofessional
activity, should be punished according to the rules of the school.
3. School principals found guilty of aiding activities that are contrary to teachers professional
ethics should be punished in accordance with the provisions of the Teachers code of conduct
as provided by the Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria (TRCN, 2004).
When all these have been done, managers of education in River State would have succeeded in
eliminating, or curtailing to the barest minimum, unwholesome behaviour by teachers, and the
frequency of school system conflicts. More time will ultimately be spent on teaching and learning than
in the management of conflicts.
Suggestions for further research
Allowances and other on-the job benefits for teachers constitute one fraction of issues that bring
teachers, state / federal government and education interest groups in Nigeria into frequent
confrontation that often results in the closure of schools and the wastage of education time. Other
issues include poor maintenance of school system infrastructure, delay in the provision of instructional
materials, and inadequate material support for research. There is a need to highlight the present
situation in public and private schools in relation to these issues and to proffer suggestions for
improvement, where necessary.

References
Akinwumiju, J.A. and Agabi, C.O. (2008). Foundations of school management. Port Harcourt,
University of Port Harcourt Press.
Alechenu, J. (2010, July, 22). FG renews commitment to reading culture. The Punch; 17 (20658), 9
Amini, C.M. (2004). Influence of teachers self-esteem on students academic performance in secondary
schools. Nigerian Journal of Empirical Studies in Psychology and Education; 1 (9), 61-63.
Black J. (2003). Dictionary of Economics (3
rd
edition), Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Federal Republic of Nigeria, FRN (2004). National Policy on Education (4
th
edition). Lagos, NERDC
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Press.
---------- (2008). Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and Fundamental Rights: Enforcement
procedures & rules (Three-in-one edition). Abuja, Federal Government Press.
Igwe, R.U. (2008). Factors responsible for the regular industrial actions among teachers in Rivers State.
Journal of the School of Education. River State College of Education; 1(2), 162 168.
Longman (2005). Dictionary of Contemporary English (4
th
edition). England); Pearson Education Ltd.
Maduagwu, S.N. and Wali, W.I. (2004). Administration of employee welfare programmes in post
primary institutions in River State. Nigerian Journal of Empirical Studies in Psychology and
Education; 1(9), 200 207.
Nwaoguji, C. (2010). NACCIMA decries mass failure in NECO. Daily Sun; 6 (1825), 12; July 23rd
Nwora, U. (2009), Dignifying labour in Nigeria. http//www.nigeriavillage.square.com/articles/uche-
nwora/dignifying-labour-in-nigeria-11.html (13
th
July 2009).
Ohia, A.N. (2008), Career preference among Education under-graduates in University of Port
Harcourt: Implications for teaching manpower development. African Journal of Educational
Research and Development; 2(1), 8 16.
Osagie-Jacobs, O. (2010), The collapse of Nigerian schools. http://focusnigeria.com/nigerian-
schools.htm (5
th
October, 2010).
Osauzo, T. (2010, October 12) Devote 80% of capital projects to education Oshiomhole urges LGS.
Daily Sun 6(1897), 11.
Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria, TRCN (2004), Teachers code of conduct. Abuja, TRCN.

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ENHANCING RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA: FUNCTIONAL
LITERACY EDUCATION OPTION
By
AKANDE JOSHUA OLUSOLA, Ph.D
Department of Continuing Education,
Obafemi Awolowo University,
Ile-Ife, Nigeria.
E-mail: jsoakande@yahoo.co.uk
Abstract
This article explores the role of functional literacy in enhancing rural dwellers' participation in the
rural development process. The study provides a review of a wide range of literature on rural
development, literacy and functional literacy. This is then considered within the case study
experience of University Village Association (UNIVA) Nigeria as an example of the initiative
to promote functional literacy for rural development. Findings reveal that functional literacy
remains an option to empower rural dwellers to participate meaningfully in the rural development
process in Nigeria. Accordingly, functional literacy is to be promoted to enhance rural development
in Nigeria.
KeyWords: Rural Development, Literacy, Functional Literacy and Rural
Communities

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Introduction
According to UNESCO statistics, nearly one billion adults cannot read and write (UNESCO,
2008). From the Executive summary of righting the wrongs, the real figure of illiterate people is
probably nearer to two billion and still more if numeracy and the actual use of these skills are
taken into account (Adult Education and Development, 2008, p. 13). Although the phenomenon
of illiteracy is on the decline throughout the word, it is still of such magnitude as to challenge the
efforts of all who believe in the wide diffusion of the arts of written communication among
people living in modern society (Smyth, 2006). In this wise, the problem of illiteracy has gradually
become perennial and has almost acquired a continuous resistance to all prescribed solution
(Omolewa, 1992). It is for this reason the international organizations UNESCO, UNICEF,
World Bank and WHO are working round the clock to ensure eradication of illiteracy.
According to Akande (2006), illiteracy, poverty and HIV/AIDS are the triad scourges ravaging
peoples life all over the world. These triad scourges are so contiguous that it is almost
impracticable to separate one from the other. High illiteracy rate has been a contributing factor to
disease, high level dependency, underdevelopment and other social ills. Moreover, in Nigeria, the
problem of illiteracy has persistently remained intractable to the extent that Nigeria is regarded as
one of the nine countries with high illiteracy. Others include Bangladesh, Brazil, China, Egypt,
India, Indonesia, Mexico and Pakistan. It is disheartening to note that up till now the problem of
illiteracy lingers on in Nigeria. For example, Table 1 below shows the low percentage rate of
literacy in English Language in some geo-political zones of Nigeria. Proficiency in English
Language as the official language of communication in Nigeria is considered vital to all forms of
functionalities to attain self-fulfillment and national development.
Table 1: Adult Literacy Rate in English Language by Geo Political Zone
Geo Political Literacy in English
Zone Male Female Both Sexes
North Central 65.1 47.3 56.4
North East 49.8 33.4 42.0
North West 39.7 23.2 31.7
South East 80.7 67.5 73.8
South South 81.1 66.7 74.0
South West 75.5 62.6 69.1
Source: National Bureau of Statistics, 2010.
Table 1 reveals the literacy rate in English Language by geo-political zone: North Central,
56.4% for both male and female; North East, 42.0%; North West 31.7%, South East 73.8%;
South South 74.0% and South-West 89.1%.

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Table 2: Adult Literacy Rate In Any Language By Geo-Political Zone
Geo Political Literacy in English
Zone Male Female Both Sexes
North-Central 70.4 52.8 61.9
North-East 73.1 51.4 62.8
North-West 79.4 60.2 70.1
South-East 81.6 69.3 75.1
South-South 82.3 68.2 75.4
South-West 83.7 72.1 77.9
Table 2 reveals the literacy rate in any language by geo-political zone North Central
61.9%; North East 62.8%, North West 70.1; South East 75.1%, South South 75.4%, South West
77.9%.
Findings in Table 1 and Table 2 suggest a mass illiteracy rate in Nigeria. To this effect,
development process has been slowed down. Therefore, for meaningful development to take
place there is the urgent need to arouse the consciousness and awareness of the entire population
to the execution of mass literacy programmes in Nigeria. This assertion corroborates the views of
Barton (1994), Jones (1999) Schaffner (2005) and Payne (2006) that literacy is pivotal to
development in all ramifications. It is also essential for achieving the goals of eradicating poverty,
reducing child mortality, curbing population growth, achieving gender equality and ensuring
sustainable development, peace and democracy (International Literacy Statistics, 2008).
The objective of this paper is to examine the role of functional literacy in enhancing rural
dwellers participation in rural development process. For the purpose of this study,
a person is functionally literate who can engage in all those activities in
which literacy is required for effective functioning of his (her) group and
community and also for enabling him (her) to continue to use reading,
writing and calculation for his(her) own and the communitys development
(and vice versa (UNESCO, 1975).
It is from the above perspective that the experience of University Village Association
(UNIVA) Nigeria is examined.
Concept of Rural Development
The term rural development enjoys a variety of definitions among scholars, professionals,
researchers, and various academic associations. To this end, the word rural development defies
unimodal definition. However, to put rural development into proper perspective, the two
terms rural and development are to be properly analyzed.

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Rural
The word rural means many things to different people. According to Imhabekhai (2009), the
term rural has so many connotations. Some of these connotations he contended are negative
and derogatory. Sharing identified view with Ekong (2003), Adisa, (2008) highlights some
characteristics of a rural community. These include:
- high level of poverty, especially among those in women headed households;
- endemically low productivity;
- smallness of cultivable land owned by a farmer;
- technical inefficiency of agriculture due to poor production methods;
- low per capital income of the average rural dwellers.

Social infrastructural including educational facilities, health facilities, water supply, electricity
supply and communication facilities are poor relative to the level in the urban sector and physical
infrastructure including transportation facilities, storage facilities, processing facilities and
irrigation facilities are generally poor.
On the basis of the above, rurality in developing countries depicts an environment or community
with less than 20,000 people. It also shows lack of many social infrastructures such as housing,
education, transport and cottage industries are conspicuously. Rural dwellers in most of the
developing countries are therefore of low status, down-trodden, subordinated, ignored, illiterate,
poor and oppressed (Opeke and Okwilagwe, 2000). The quality of life in rural areas is therefore
very low. Rural dwellers are ignorant, malnourished and disease-trodden.
Indabawa and Mpofu (2006) submit that rural community is found in remote or rural
setting. The people in these types of communities exhibit the following tendencies:
Live mainly off the land, often on a seasonal basis.
Closely knit, usually through kinship networks and relationships.
Lower expectations and demands on services from government or its agencies.
More likely to undertake community development projects to help solve local problems and
issues.

In the light of the above, the success of rural development programmes ultimately depends
on the degree of effective participation and commitment by the rural population. Hence,
functional literacy for adults, vocational training schemes for youths, small-scales cottage
industries and craft activities, health, nutrition and welfare schemes, integrated rural development
projects, community self-help development schemes and population education should be
formulated and executed with full involvement of the rural population (Adepoju, 1982). It is by
so doing the rural dwellers can be integrated into developmental schemes.

Development
Literature is replete with definitions of development (Kamla, 1991; Openjurum 2004 Ezimma,
2004). It is commonly held that development is not a cluster of benefits given to people in need
but rather a process by which a population acquires a greater mastery over its own testing. It is in
this context that most development experts now view development as a dynamic integrated and
multidimensional process of change which involves economic, political, social, cultural and
ethical factors. This process requires the active involvement and participation of target
populations and their empowerment to take measures to solve the problems of under-
development.
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In view of the above, development has to do with changing attitudes of rural poor people about
themselves and about their abilities to induce change. Launching the process of sustainable
development in this wise, according to Ritchey-Vance (1994) requires building a sense of self
worth and awakening the hope of the poor, marginalized rural dwellers, creating the space and
the fora for them to debate their problems, opening access to information, fostering rural
community organizations capable of making their voices heard. This brings the inevitability of
functional literacy among the rural dwellers to fore.
Inferred from the concepts of rural and development, rural development, according to
Imhabekhai (2009), entails efforts directed toward initiating policies, programs and projects
meant for the improvement of the standard of living of people in rural communities. However,
the target beneficiaries, the rural dwellers, must be actively involved in need identification,
designing, implementing and evaluating the programmes or projects. In this case, for rural
development programmes to be sustainable, they must be all-embracing and participatory using
functional literacy as a tool box.

Functional Literacy

The term literacy originally focused on the ability to read, write and calculate with
understanding in any given language (Fasokun, 2002). However, in recent years there are varieties
of literacy to describe competence in various fields of knowledge varieties of literacy in African
context, include traditional literacy or basic literacy, functional literacy and post literacy. The
focus of this paper is on functional literacy as a tool for rural transformation and development in
Nigeria.
According to National Commission for Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-formal Education
(NMEC) in conjunction with UNICEF in Nigeria (2008), functional literacy is linked with
learners skill of reading, writing, and computing with jobs, skills, and attitudes for better
economic productivity. Hence, we talk of vocational literacy, scientific literacy, technological
literacy, public literacy, visual literacy and information literacy. Functional literacy from this
perspective is geared towards the development of active citizenship, improved health and
livelihoods and gender equality. Functional literacy therefore is the practical use of literacy in
finding solutions to problems. In this way, functional literacy is not merely better as strategy to
induce desirable changes in rural communities, but it is a necessity if the MDGs are to be
achieved by the year 2015.

Profile of Rural Communities in Nigeria
Evidence abound that Nigerias rural communities are not attractive to live in (Ekong, 2003,
Ezimah, 2004, Imhabekhai 2009). There is inadequate or poor modern amenities, high illiteracy
rate resulting in various social ills such as high mortality rate, poor sanitation, poor-housing, poor
nutrition and diseases (Ezimah, 2004). The quality of life in Nigerias rural areas is therefore very
low. This implies that there is a high level of underdevelopment in rural communities of Nigeria.
According to the National Bureau of Statistics report on National Literacy survey, 2010,
adult literacy rate is low nation-wide (about 57.9%) the rates are higher in Urban than in the rural
areas. Also, adult literacy rates for males are higher than those of females.
Table 3: National Adult Literacy Rates by Residence
Adult Literacy Urban Rural Overall
English 73.6 49.5 57.9
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Any Language 83.0 65.5 71.6
Source: National Bureau of Statistics 2010.

Table 3. above shows that literacy rate in English is higher in urban (73.6%) than in rural areas
(49.5%). Also, literacy rate in any language is higher in urban (83.0%) than rural (65.5%).

Table 4: National Adult Literacy Rates by Sex
Adult Literacy Male Female Both Sexes
English 65.1 50.6 57.9
Any Language 79.3 63.7 71.6

Table 4 reveals that literacy rates in English for males (65.1%) are higher than those of females
(50.6%). Also, literacy rates in any language for males (79.3%) are higher than those of females
(63.7%).

In view of the survey findings, low literacy remains a real counter development factor in
rural areas in Nigeria. However, efforts have been made to raise the literacy levels of rural
communities as well as employment skills. In this regard, the following efforts have been made to
improve literacy in rural areas in Nigeria. These efforts include:
The introduction of the Universal Basic Education (UBE)
Construction and renovation of primary schools
Establishment of adult literacy centres
Introduction of nomadic education
Establishment of vocational skills acquisition centres
Introduction of free mid-day meals in schools in some parts of the country among others.
These programmes were established in the hope of reducing high rate of illiteracy in
Nigerian rural communities. It is worthy of note that rural development connotes a
comprehensive mode of social transformation which must involve all elements of the population
including the rural populace. The past efforts of the Governments in Nigeria to develop rural
areas have not yielded remarkable results. They have only exposed further the areas of learning
needs of the rural dwellers. Until these learning needs are met through functional literacy, rural
socio economic development may remain a mirage.

University Village Association (UNIVA)
University Village Association (UNIVA) is an NGO founded by Professor Michael Omolewa -
Ambassador, permanent Delegate to UNESCO. The NGO started its literacy drive in 1989 as
part of a movement towards achieving the realization of the declaration of Jomtien Forum of
1990. This drive has brought a lot of improvement in literacy rate in Nigeria. Over the years more
than seven thousand male and female adult learners across ninety seven communities in Nigeria
have been empowered (UNIVA, 2006).
At the home front, UNIVA works with Universities, Federal and Local Agencies of mass
education. At the international level UNIVA has among its partners, Pro-literacy, UNESCO,
UNICEF, IFESH and the British Council. All these agencies at one time or the other worked in
the areas of material development, innovative approaches to literacy promotion, capacity
building, community development and provision of resources to reach the un-reached.
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UNIVA Objectives

The broad objectives of UNIVA are to:
- influence government policy and effect changes in government attitude to the realization of
Education for All (EFA) goals, the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the activities of
the United Nations Literacy Decade 20032012 and the UNESCOs Literacy Initiative for
Empowerment (LIFE);
- develop literacy programmes with special attention to the disadvantaged groups such as
women, the marginalized groups, rural dwellers, the National Union of Road Transport
Workers and HIV/AIDS victims;
- promote functional literacy education for skills development.

To attain its objectives, UNIVA adopts Real Literacy Material (RLM) approach. Through
this approach, adult learners are being mobilized to generate public interest as well as get people
involved in mass literacy activities.

Impact Assessment of UNIVA Functional Literacy Education on Rural Development
UNIVA has contributed immensely to governments effort of using functional literacy for rural
development in Nigeria. Rural dwellers through functional literacy programmes have acquired
basic skills that enabled them to get involved actively in rural development. Some of the skills so
acquired in functional literacy programmes include:
- Farm planning and management;
- Skill in farm maintenance and improvement;
- Applications of new inputs, varieties and improved farm practices;
- Storage, food processing and preservation;
- Leadership skills for generating community enthusiasm and collective action;
- New improved technical skill applicable to particular goods and services;
- General skills for administration, planning, implementation, information flows and
promotional activities;
- Knowledge of government services, policies, family improvement in health nutrition, child
care, family planning and home economics;
- Entrepreneurial skills;
- Logistics of revenue collection and management;
- Accidents reduction on roads.

In this wise, findings reveal that functional literacy remains an option to empowering
rural dwellers to participate meaningfully in the rural development process in Nigeria.

Functional Literacy and Implications for Enhancing Rural Dwellers Participation in the
Development Process
Functional Literacy is pivotal to rural dwellers participation in the rural development process.
According to Egenti (2001), there is a significant relationship between the level of rural dwellers
functional literacy and their participation in rural development activities. This is premised on the
notion that functional literacy education, if fostered in the rural communities, can be an effective
March, 2012.


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weapon by which the rural dwellers can deal with problems besetting them. The basic argument
in favour of functional literacy education is that in terms of developmental decision-making, the
rural dwellers are in a better position to appreciate the type of rural community programmes that
may best satisfy their needs.
Also, functional literacy education enhances self-growth, self-reliance, self-direction and
self-help among the rural dwellers. Functional literacy education, in this regard, equips rural
dwellers to learn to work together and organize themselves as a body for the progress of their
rural community. Functional literacy education makes rural dwellers to identify their problems,
plan solution, put their plan into action and evaluate the success by themselves.
Moreover, functional literacy education and rural development are joint mechanisms for the
mobilization of the rural dwellers young and old to induce desirable changes in rural
communities. Functional literacy education enhances cooperation, team work, group dynamics,
growth and development in rural communities.
Functional literacy education is a weapon against poverty. As rural dwellers become
functionally literate, they are economically empowered to develop their rural communities. They
also utilize their skills to promote innovations geared towards developing rural communities. In
view of the above, it is necessary to give an accelerated impetus to functional literacy education as
a strategy to foster rural development in Nigeria. Emphasis should not be placed only on formal
education but on informal/non-formal functional literacy education. Government of Nigeria in
collaboration with international organizations should demonstrate genuine commitment
financially, politically and morally to the promotion of functional literacy for rural development.
It is by so doing the MDGs could be realized in Nigeria by 2015.

Conclusion
This paper has discussed the role of functional literacy education in fostering rural development
in Nigeria. Past efforts to develop rural communities have failed simply because they are state-
centered and not people-centered. For developmental programmes to be productive and meet
the needs of the beneficiaries, it is important that the people concerned be involved in such
developmental process. However, for rural dwellers to participate in the development of their
rural areas, it is essential that they be functionally literate. The paper highlights the success story
of UNIVA as an example of the relevance of functional literacy education to rural development.
The implication for the government of Nigeria and policy makers is to harness all resources to
promote functional literacy education for rural development in Nigeria.

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INCULCATING GOOD STUDY HABITS FOR SUCCESSFUL
ADJUSTMENT OF STUDENTS IN THE U.B.E. PROGRAMME
By
DR. (MRS.) IJEOMA .M. OPARA
Ijeomaopara64@yahoo.com (08035475322)
and
OVENSEHI HENRY IMWENOGHOMWEN
Department of Educational Psychology
Guidance and Counselling
Rivers State
henry.ovensehi@uniport.edu.ng (07030413395)

Abstract
The study investigated inculcating good study habits for successful adjustment of students in the U.B.E.
programme. Four (4) research questions and four (4) null hypotheses tested at 0.05 Alpha level guided
the study. The study adopted a descriptive survey design. A sample of 580 J.S.3. Upper Basic class was
drawn from the population through stratified random sampling technique involving 262 males and 318
females from Obio-Akpor Local Government Area. An instrument titled Study Habit Inventory
(SHI) which was adopted from Bakare (1977) was used for data collection. The reliability of the
instrument (SHI) was established using Cronbach Alpha technique for internal consistency of the
instrument. The reliability coefficients of the eight (8) sections of A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H are 0.65, 0.72,
0.68, 0.81, 0.66, 0.70, 0.86 and 0.62 respectively. SHI had a reliability coefficient of 0.77. Data
collected were analyzed using mean, standard deviation and t-test. The result revealed that apart from
homework and assignments, reading and note taking and concentration; students have problems in other
areas such as allocation of time to their studies, study period procedures, written works, examination and
consultation of their teachers. These results and their implications were discussed. Among other things it
was recommended that government should include study habits as one of their objectives for successful
adjustment of learners in the U.B.E. programme.

March, 2012.


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Introduction
The U.B.E. programme was launched to achieve certain educational objectives. Three out of the five
objectives of this educational programme are:
To develop in the entire citizens a strong consciousness for educational and a strong
commitment to its vigorous promotion.
Reduce drastically drop-out rates from the formal school system through improved relevance
and efficiency.
Ensure the acquisition of the appropriate levels of literacy, numeracy, manipulative and life
skills as well as the ethical, moral and civic values needed for laying the foundation for lifelong
learning. (Federal Republic of Nigeria 2004).
The achievement of these objectives demands successful adjustment of the learners to the
school system. Successful adjustment of the learner to the school means the process of bringing an
individuals behaviours in conformity with the norms of the school setting. It is a continuous or on-
going activity and it is geared towards adaptation of the individual to school life and culture
(Agbakwuru, 2009). Gates and Jersild in Mangal (2008) defined adjustment as a continual process in
which a person varies his behaviour to produce a more harmonious relationship between himself and
his environment. The definition sees adjustment as a continual process and it may last until the students
are able to show they can cope by making appropriate responses to the demands of the school.
One cordial factor that influences the learners school adjustment is study habits. Research
report by Onyejiaku (1987) revealed that study habits alone contribute as much as 33-45% to ones
academic success. Since the repeated experience of success influences positively school adjustment, the
role of good study habits in students adjustment in the U.B.E. programme cannot therefore be
overemphasized. A habit is something that is done on a scheduled, regular and planned basis that is not
relegated to a second place or optimal place in ones life. To study is to buy out the time and dedicate
self to the application and the task of study which is to become engrossed in a process of learning,
practice, enlightenment education of ones self. Therefore, study habits are the ways that one study
the habits that he/she has formed during ones school years. Asagwara and George (1996) defined
study habits as those strategies which a learner applies in the process of acquiring knowledge, ideas and
skills. It also means the process of buying out a dedicated scheduled and un-interrupted time to apply
ones self to the task of learning. That is the learners stable, regular and acquired patterns of acquiring
knowledge, ideas and skills. Umezuruike (2006) defined study habits as the techniques a student
employs to go about his or her studies which are consistent and have become stereotyped as a result of
long application and practice. It logically follows then that the kind of study habits one adopts will
certainly influence ones outcome in learning since academic performance is, to a large extent, a function
of ones study habits. Ones study habits can be good or bad. Good study habits include being
organized keeping good notes, reading your textbooks, listening in class and working everyday while
bad study habits include skipping class, not doing your work, watching television or playing video
games instead of studying.
Research reports (Onyejiaku, 1987, Kemjika 1998, and Bakare 1977) have identified a number
of components of study habits. These include homework and assignments; time allocation; reading and
note taking; study period procedures; concentration, written work; examinations and teacher
consultation. Ones habits in each of these areas can be good or bad. While good study habits make the
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acquisition of knowledge, ideas and skills easy and thus facilitates successful school adjustment, bad
study habits do the opposite. Viewed in this way, it is logical to state that the level of achievement of
the noble objectives of the U.B.E. programme significantly depends on the degree of school
adjustment of the learners. The degree of school adjustment of the learners in a related way depends on
the students study habits.
Sadly, the U.B.E. programme was launched without any conscious effort to determine the study
habits of Nigerians, for whom the programme is targeted. The results of this situation have been that
besides partial achievement of the noble goals of the U.B.E. programme, educationists knew nothing
regarding the study habits of learners in the U.B.E. programme. This state of affair has made it
impossible for them to device appropriate ways of manipulating students study habits to bring them in
harmony with the objectives of the U.B.E. programme. In the present circumstance therefore, the
problem of this study posed as a research question is what are the components or areas of study habits
that students are encountering problems in?.
The main purpose of the study is to find out the components or areas of study habits that
students are encountering problems in. Specifically, the study seeks to:
1) Find out the extent male and female students do their home work and assignments and allocate
time for their studies.
2) Investigate the extent male and female students do their reading and note taking and involve
themselves in study period procedures.
3) Determine the extent male and female students concentrate while studying and do their written
work.
4) Find out the extent male and female students perform in their examination and consult their
teachers on their study.

To guide the study, four null hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 level of
significance.
1) There is no significant difference between mean responses of male and female students with
regards to their home work and assignments and allocation of time to their studies.
regards to their reading and note taking and their involvement in study procedures.
regards to their concentration while studying and their written work.
4) There is no significant difference between mean responses of male and female students in their
examination and consultation of their teacher in their study.

Methods
The study adopted a descriptive survey design. A descriptive survey is the study in which the researcher
collects data usually from a large sample drawn from a given population. It describes certain attributes
or features of the sample as they are and as required by the study at the particular time without
manipulating any independent variables of the study (Nwankwo 2011). It sought to study the opinions
of the JS3 male and female students on the components or areas of study habits that they encounter
problems in. The target population was all the JS3 upper basic class in Obio-Akpor Local Government
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Area. As at the time of the study, there were 3,156 JS3 students, (source: Obio/Akpor Basic Education
Unit). A sample of 580 JS3 Upper Basic class was drawn from the population through stratified random
sampling technique of which 262 were males and 318 females. The instrument used for data collection
was a questionnaire titled Study Habits Inventory (SHI) adopted from Bakare (1977). The instrument
is a 45 item Likert type instrument scored on a 5-point scale of Almost Never (AN), less than Half of
the Time (LHT), About Half of the Time (AHT), More than Half of the Time (MHT) and Almost
Always (AA). The instrument has eight (8) sections namely: Homework and Assignment, Time
Allocation, Reading and Note Taking, Study Period Procedures; Concentration, Written Works,
Examinations and Teacher Consultation. The researchers administered the instrument directly and
retrieved same from the respondents. Data collected was analyzed using mean scores, standard
deviations and t-test statistic tested at 0.05 level of significance.

Results
The results presented in line with null hypotheses that guided the study are presented in the tables
below.
Table 1: T-test analysis showing differences in mean responses of male and female students with
regards to their home work and assignments and allocation of time to their study.
Areas of
study habit
Group N
X
SD df t-cal t-crit Result
Home work
and
assignment
Male 262 15.65 7.11
578

-3.05*

1.96

Significant Female 318 17.34 6.05
Allocation of
time
Male 262 19.15 6.65
578

-0.92*

1.96
Not
significant
Female 318 19.68 7.19
* Significant at 0.05 level.
Table 1 showed that the mean scores of the group of male and female were 15.65 and 17.34
respectively for home work and assignment. Mere looking at the two mean scores there were slight
difference between them in favour of female students. When these mean scores were statistically
compared using t-test a calculated t-value of -3.05 was obtained against a critical t-value of 1.96 at
degree of freedom of 578 and 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis of no significant
difference was rejected, indicating that there is a difference in mean responses of male and female
students with regards to their home works and assignments. Also, the mean scores of 19.15 and 19.68
for the male and female students respectively showed that the two groups differ slightly in their mean
ratings of responses regarding allocation of time to their studies. The result in the table also showed
that at 0.05 alpha level and 578 degrees of freedom, the t-calculated of -0.92 is less than the t-critical of
1.96. This result means that male and female students do not differ significantly in their responses
regarding allocation of time to their studies.

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Page 515
regards to their reading and note taking and involvement in study period procedure.
Areas of
study habit
Group N
X
Reading and
note taking
Male 262 11.18 3.67
578

2.53*

1.96

Involvement
in study period
procedures
Male 262 12.58 4.12
578

-0.40*

1.96
Not
significant
Female 318 12.72 4.36
* Significant at 0.05 level
Table 2 revealed that the mean scores of the group of male and female students were 11.18 and
10.44 respectively for reading and note taking. At critical look, there are not much differences between
the two mean scores. When t-test analysis was employed to compare these mean scores a calculated t-
value of 2.53 was obtained. This calculated t-value (2.53) was more than t-critical of 1.96, that is t-cal >
t-critical at 0.05 level of significance. The null hypothesis was rejected. Therefore, there is a significant
difference between mean responses of male and female students with regards to their reading and note
taking. Also the mean scores of 12.58 for the males and 12.72 for the females revealed that the two
groups differ slightly in their mean rating responses with regards to their involvement in study period
procedures. The result in the table further showed that at 0.05 alpha level and 578 degree of freedom,
the t-calculated of 0.92 is less than the t-critical of 1.96 to make for significant difference. Based on this,
the null hypothesis was retained.
regards to their concentration while studying and their written work.
Areas of
study habit
Group N
X
Concentration Male 262 13.05 2.78
578

-5.08*

1.96

Written work Male 262 10.78 3.15
578

1.78*

1.96
Not
significant
Female 318 10.32 3.01
Considering the mean scores of 13.05 and 14.30 for the males and females respectively in table
3, it is evident that males and females differ in their mean rating responses with regards to their
concentration while studying. The result in the table also showed that the t-calculated (-5.08) is greater
than the t-critical of 1.96 at 578 degree of freedom and 0.05 alpha level. In light of this, the null
hypothesis was rejected. The conclusion which is drawn from the result is that male and female
students differ significantly in their concentration while studying. Also the result indicated that the
mean scores of the group of male and female students were 10.78 and 10.32 respectively for written
work. At critical look there are not much differences between the two mean scores. When t-test
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Page 516
analysis was employed to compare these mean scores a calculated t-value of 1.78 was obtained. This
calculated t-value (1.78) was less than t-critical of 1.96 at 578 degree of freedom and 0.05 alpha level. In
light of this, the null hypothesis was accepted. The conclusion which is drawn from the result is that
male and female students do not differ significantly in their written works.
regards to their examination and consultation of their teachers.
Areas of
study habit
Group N
X

Examination
Male 262 15.62 5.72
578

0.37*

1.96

Not
significant
Female 318 15.45 5.12
Consultation
of their
teachers
Male 262 9.56 3.10
578

-0.93*

1.96
Not
significant
Female 318 9.82 3.66
Table 4 revealed that the mean scores of the group of male and female students were 15.62 and
15.45 respectively. Mere looking at the two mean scores there were slight difference between them in
favour of male students. When these mean scores were statistically compared using t-test a calculated t-
value of 0.37 was obtained which was less than a t-critical value of 1.96 at degree of freedom of 578 and
0.05 alpha level. Hence, the null hypothesis of no significant differences was accepted indicating that
male and female students do not differ significantly in their examination. Also the mean scores of 9.56
for the males and 9.82 for the females in table 4 showed that the two groups differ slightly in the mean
rating responses with regards to the consultation of their teachers in their study. The result in the table
further showed that at 0.05 alpha level and 578 degree of freedom, the t-calculated of -0.93 is less than
the t-critical of 1.96 to make for significant difference. Based on this, the null hypothesis was retained.
Discussion
The result of statistical investigation of hypothesis one showed that there is a significant difference in
mean responses of male and female students with regards to their homeworks and assignments. The
result notwithstanding, a closer observation of the mean scores of the two groups showed that female
students have higher mean score than male students. This means that female students do their
homework and assignment more than the male students. This is in agreement with Onuoha (2008) who
found out that there is a significant difference in the study habits of male and female secondary school
students in Imo State as a result of peer group influence. The disagreement was He also asserted that
male students had more effective study habits than their female counterparts. On the other hand, the
same research question one and hypothesis one investigated the extent male and female students
allocate time for their studies. The mean scores of 19.15 and 19.68 for the male and female students
respectively showed that the two groups differ slightly in their mean ratings of responses regarding
allocation of time to their studies. The hypothesis was tested with t-test of independent means and the
result showed that male and female students do not differ significantly in their responses regarding
allocation of time to their studies. Onuoha (2008) opined that students who place studies in its proper
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Page 517
perspective are likely to have little difficulties disregarding the many distracting influences which
compete with their study time.
In a related way, the second research question and hypothesis sought to find out the extent
male and female students do their reading and note taking and involvement in study period procedure.
The research question revealed that the mean scores of the males is slightly higher than that of the
females in the reading and note taking. When t-test analysis was employed, there was a significant
difference between mean responses of male and female students with regards to their reading and note
taking. Ipaye in Onuoha (2008) opined that an hour is a suitable work unit as a general rule for reading,
note taking and learning from text books. The same research question two and its corresponding
hypothesis investigated the extent male and female students involve themselves in study period
procedure. The result revealed that the mean scores of the females was slightly higher than that of the
males. When t-test analysis was employed, there was no significant difference between mean responses
of male and female students with regards to their study period procedure. The slight difference in the
mean scores of the two groups may be unconnected with their study period procedure but amount of
counselling derived. Okadele (1987) viewed that counselling influences students to cultivate effective
study habits.
The result of research question three and its corresponding hypothesis showed that male and
female students differ significantly in their concentration while studying. However, keen observation of
the mean scores of the two groups showed that the female scored slightly higher than the males. This is
also an indication of the fact that female students concentration while studying was higher than that of
the males. This situation equally buttresses the fact that male students are more distracted than the
female students. Also research question three and its corresponding hypothesis investigated the extent
male and female students do their written work. The result revealed that the mean scores of the males
was slightly higher than that of the females. When t-test analysis was employed, there was no significant
difference between mean responses of male and female students with regards to their written work.
On the other hand, research question four and its corresponding hypothesis examined the
extent male and female students perform in their examination. A closer observation of the mean scores
of the two groups revealed that male students have higher mean score than female students. This
means that male students perform well in their examination than the female students. When t-test
analysis was employed, there was no significant difference between mean responses of male and female
students with regards to their examination. Olayinka (1999) in recommending ways to study effectively
and pass examination said: participation in group discussions when students also have similar objectives
meet to discuss their problems and find solutions to them is a functional approach to effective study.
Also research question four and its corresponding hypothesis verified the extent male and female
students consult their teacher in their study. The result revealed that the mean scores of the females was
slightly more than that of the males. When t-test analysis was employed, there was no significant
difference between mean responses of male and female student with regards to the consultation of their
teachers in their study. This is in agreement with Dansereau (1979) who posited that one of the
problems of students was lack of consultation of teacher with their academic problems.

Conclusion
The result of this study revealed that both male and female students do their home work and
assignment, reading and note taking and also concentrated while reading. But have problems with
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allocation of time to their studies, study period procedures, written works, examinations and
consultation of their teachers. All these problems may have arised because of inadequate counselling of
students concerning their study habits.
Recommendations
In the light of the results of this study, the following recommendations are hereby made:
1) Government should include study habits as one of their objectives for successful adjustment of
learners in the U.B.E. programme.
2) Counsellors and teachers should adequately advice and guide the students in their study habits
especially in the areas they encounter problems.
3) Students should endeavour to form good study habits and consult their teachers and counsellor
in their academic problems.

References
Agbakwuru, C. (2009). School Adjustment. Owerri: Joe Mankpa Publishers.

Asagwara, C.G. & George, I.N. (1996). School adjustment and academic success. Calaboar: Bon Universal Ltd.

Bakare, C.G.M. (1977). Study habits inventory. Ibadan: University Press.

Dansereau, D.F. (1979). Development and evaluation of a learning strategy training programme. Journal
of Educational Psychologist 22, 248-254.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education Yaba Lagos: NERDC Press.

Kemjika, O.G. (1998). Relationship between study habits and students achievement among secondary
school students in Rivers State. Nigerian Journal of Professional studies.

Mangal, S.K. (2008). Advanced educational psychology. New Delhi Rajkamal Electric Press.

Nwankwo, O.C. (2011). A Practical guide to research writing. Port Harcourt: Pam Unique Publishers Co.
Ltd.

Okadele, F.C. (1987). Improve your study skills. Ogun; Nigeria: Adeniyi Printing Press.

Olayinka, M.S. (1999). How to study effectively and pass examination. The Prime Counsellor 1(2) 1-8.

Onuoha, J.A. (2008). Socio-psychological factors influencing study habits among secondary school students in Imo State.
Unpublished (Ph.D) Dissertation. University of Port Harcourt.

Onyejiaku, F.O. (1987). Techniques of effective study. Calabar: Wusen Press Ltd.

Umezuruike, O.G. (2009). Tips for effective learning. Owerri: Assumpta Press.

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OBAFEMI AWOLOWOS PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION:
AN ANALYTICAL INTERPRETATION.
By
PROFESSOR J. D. OKOH
and
DR. CHIDI OMORDU
University of Port Harcourt.

Abstract
This work attempts to establish Obafemi Awolowo as an African Philosopher of education. The work
sets up criteria for selecting an African Philosopher of education. Awolowo satisfies most of the criteria.
He wrote about man, the society, values and knowledge, and attempted to link all of them with
education. Furthermore, the research highlighted Awolowos Philosophical ideas and their implications
for the Nigerian system of education. Finally, it was the view of the writers that Africans should do their
best to recognize their good leaders in all walks of life and uphold their lives and shinning qualities for
the youth to emulate.

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Page 520

Introduction
Since the advent of Western education in Nigeria in 1843, the Nigerian educational system has in one
way or the other been influenced by the idea of foreign educational philosophers such as John Amos
Comenius (1592-1670), John Locke (1632-1704), John Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), John Pestalozzi
(1746-1827), J.F. Herbert (1776-1841), Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852), John Dewey (1859-1952). Some
of these foreign educational philosophies have been found to be irrelevant to the educational aims and
objectives of the post-independent Nigerian society. It is imperative at this time to think of indigenous
philosophers and the implications of their philosophy to the Nigerian system of education.
Moreso, about a decade ago, one of the vibrant topics of debate among African and non-
African scholars centred on the existence of African philosophy. This debate in recent years has
become unnecessary. What is necessary now is, does African philosophy exist? If it does, it should be
shown, done and written rather than being debated. According to Okoh (2003:25), the works of Plato
and John Dewey are the models and to the extent that any philosophizing about education resembles
these models. They may be regarded as technical philosophy of Education. In what way or ways can
we compare the works of Obafemi Awolowo to those of Plato or Dewey?
The Nigerianization process of our aims of education must be aligned towards the goals and
aspirations of the Nigerian society. In agreement with this, Okoh (2005:31) affirms that, it is better for
us to adopt our past to the present, than to barter our heritage for alien and foreign experience. It is
on this basis that this work attempts to explicate Obafemi Awolowos philosophy of education and to
align it with the Nigerian National Policy on Education.
Who is a Philosopher of Education?
From the traditional perspective philosophy has an ideal model often referred to as Technical
Philosophy of Educaiton. All other philosophies of education as expressed through ideological,
religious belief systems, nationalism and so on, are classified as Non- technical philosophies of
Education. According to Okoh (2003:25), a technical philosopher of education constructs theories
about metaphysics, epistemology and axiology, then he develops a positive conception of what
education ought to be in the light of his philosophical theories.
In the contemporary period, Africa has witnessed the emergence of the two strands of
philosophers mentioned above. As Omordu (2009:2) puts it, it is relatively easy to classify many
African philosophers under the category of non-technical philosophers viz: Nnamdi Azikiwe,
Kwame Nkurumah, Leopold Sengor and so on. These set of African philosophers are undoubtedly
powerful political thinkers and ideologues whose philosophies on a variety of subjects have greatly
influenced the people of their countries, Africa and beyond. But following the established definition of
a technical philosophy of education, this research is designed to project and establish Obafemi
Awolowo as a technical philosopher of education and to show the implications of his philosophy to the
Nigerian education.
Criteria for Selecting an African Philosopher of Education
Okoh (1998:28) sets down five criteria for selecting an African philosopher of education. These are:
1. Development of a philosophic position: Has the person attempted to develop a philosophic
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position?
2. Demonstration of expertise in education matters: Has the person demonstrated a measure of
expertise in the exposition of his thought concerning education?
3. Capacity of message to change human affairs: Could the person be regarded as an influential
thinker whose educational message has changed the course of human affairs?
4. Contribution of new ideas to the existing theories or criticism of old theories.
5. Emergence from theory to practice: Has the work of the person emerged effectively in practice
anywhere in Nigeria. Has his work continued to be effective for notable period of time?
If there is any Nigerian thinker whose ideas have influenced the lives of millions of people it is
Obafemi Awolowo. As a politician he has been very progressive and pragmatic. As a philosopher, and
thinker, he has been most successful in influencing the lives of people. Indeed, he is more of a thinker,
a philosopher than a politician. As a philosopher, Omoregbe (1990:52) describes Awolowo as an
eminent thinker with deep prophetic insight.
Awolowo wrote about man, the society, value and knowledge and attempted to link all of them
through education. He formulated a philosophic position which he called Democratic Socialism. Like
Julius Nyerere of Tanzania, Awolowo showed the relationship between the world of thinking and
doing, theory and practice. Convinced that thought without practice is empty and practice without
thought is blind, Awolowo successfully transformed his ideas into practice by introducing the free
Universal Primary Education in the Western Region in 1955. Although he could not have the full
opportunity to demonstrate his educational ideas, nevertheless with the limited time and resources he
had his free education programme touched the lives of millions of Nigerians.
Highlights of Awolowos Philosophy of Education
Awolowos tools of philosophy was put to work on problems of man. He translated the theoretical
findings of philosophy into some kinds of intellectual and workable theme for practical process of
education. He constructed theories about metaphysics, epistemology and axiology, and then developed
a positive conception of what education ought to be in the light of his philosophical theories. This can
be seen in the following highlights.
Education For All-Round Development of Man
Man in Awolowos philosophy is a composite of both spiritual and physical elements. His education is
geared towards the development of all the composite parts in order to achieve whole being. Taking his
metaphysics for granted, the only way by which an individual can realize his human potentials to the
fullest is to nurture his thought (mind). This implies that education is a necessary condition for
becoming human. In his opinion, if thought is left to itself, it will be dominated by the body and
ultimately, corrupted, debased and its growth stunted. The power of thinking in man is therefore to be
developed by education.
Awolowo believes that what nature intends is that the various parts of man should work
harmoniously. For him, a man who only has his physical part educated has only been trained to carry
out specific operations; Such a person might be very obedient but left to himself. Conversely, if it is
ones intellect that is developed, one might be a genius of theory but when it comes to actualizing
oneself such a person will be found wanting. In order to satisfy the physical aspect of educational
development, Awolowo built an international standard stadium sited at Ibadan, which is said to be the
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first stadium in Africa.
Community Education Based on Indigenous Practice
Awolowo considered African style of education as being guided by foreign concepts and ideology and
called for the type of education that will reflect African ideology of socialism. He shunned colonial
mentality and advocated for indigenization of education. One way in which he demonstrated his love
for indigenous education was the introduction of mother-tongue in nursery and the early stage of
primary education. He taught that any education to be given must be such that prepares the recipient to
realize himself and contribute positively to the growth of the society. He favoured the inculcation of
certain skills and values to the student. Social, political responsibilities, job orientation, spiritual and
moral values are as far as Awolowo is concerned, worthwhile and should be employed to equip the
child in preparation for the realities of the environment in which he finds him/herself.
Education for Community Spirit as Against Individual Spirit.
Like the traditional African society, Awolowo wanted to achieve a society where the interest of the
community is priced over and above the interest of a single individual. In the process he is convinced
that the only way to achieve this is by enthroning socialism as against capitalism. He believed that the
capitalists have thwarted the design of nature by greedily and selfishly appropriating to themselves
alone natures free gifts to all men.
Awolowo advocated in the principle of welfarism. For him capitalism breeds competition and
militates against the spirit of cooperation which every community should be known for. According to
Awolowo (1968:166) for every single entrepreneur who succeeds or survives, there are probably more
than a thousand or ten thousand that have gone completely under, never to rise again. In the capitalist
ruthless struggle the casualties always outnumber the survivors by far. He espoused in the satisfaction
of the greatest number and not a single individual:
Whatever good and beneficial ideals are held in minds of men, especially in the
mind of the vast majority of the people, and cherished by them, will materialize
sooner or later, provided the people concern remain constant and faithful in
cherishing the ideals and in devising constructive means for achievement
(Awolowo, 1969:200).
By implication, Awolowo is saying that since the majority of Nigerians cannot finance their own
education (majority interest) it becomes imperative that government provides education free of charge.
Education should not be left to the dictates and interest of the wealthy few, who consequently, will use
same for further exploitation and domination of the poor majority.
Awolowos Educational Ladder
Like Plato, Marcus Fabric Quintilian, John Amos Camenius, and Jean Jacques Rousseau, Awolowo
worked out an educational ladder that should serve as a guide for the education of the child. His stages
of education are as follows:
(i) Primary education: 6years
(ii) Secondary education: 3 years (Modern school, an equivalent of todays junior secondary)
(iii) Higher School Certificate (H.S.C):2 years
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(iv) University education: 3years
It is important to note that Awolowo was able to transform his educational theories to practice.
Although he had a limited scale of opportunity, yet, he demonstrated what he preached in practice. The
point to note here is that not all educational ideas can effectively emerge in practice. The practice need
not be implemented by the educator himself. For example, Platos education ideas was not put into
practice in Greece. Rousseau did not also implement his ideas himself. But in the case of Awolowo, his
thoughts and actions have brought about a change in behaviour of millions of people.
Education and Welfarism
The central theme and objective of Awolowos socio-political philosophy is the welfare of man in the
society. We discover that since social class and inequality negate this objective, Awolowo decided to
evolve and create the ideal political condition for its realization. His target is to create a society where
the natural resources of the land are equitably distributed without fear or favour. A society where
equality becomes the bench mark for the distribution of goods and services. And finally, a society
where social services such as health and education will become inalienable right of the people to be
given free of charge.
Nigeria can be said to have benefited from Awolowos philosophy. Awolowos dream has
invariably, translated into:
(i) A free and democratic society
(ii) A just and egalitarian society
(iii) A United strong and self-reliance nation
(iv) A great dynamic economy, and
(v) A land of bright and full opportunities for all citizens. (NPE 2004:6)

Education for Democratic Socialism
The well-being of the individual in Awolowos point of view is, from each according to his ability and
to each according to his needs. Consequently, he maintained that man is entitled to maximum care so
that he can be useful to himself and to the society. The duty of the state therefore is to ensure an
atmosphere that is conducive to a full development of all the potentialities in man, while ensuring that
the principles of equality are observed.
Awolowo recognized and advocated for a policy of free education at all levels since early fifties.
For him it is the duty of the state to provide free education for all her citizens. He explained that since
all citizens are not equally endowed financially, thus causing class inequality in the acquisition of
education by all citizens; the government therefore owes it as a duty to provide education for all
citizens.
On the issue of making education free, vis--vis the limited financial resources, Awolowo
proffered a solution. According to him in Awolowo (1968:76), a substantial amount of money can be
realized if all fringe benefits being enjoyed by government functionaries are abolished. As a social
good, education should be made available to all who desire it. It should not be provided on the basis of
creed, colour, race or social status. It will be an unfair treatment for any government to provide good
education to the rich and powerful at the expense of the poor. Social opportunities should be available
on the basis of free access.
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Education and the Dignity of man
Awolowo devotes his work, The Peoples Republic (1968) to his philosophy of man. The sole object
of our discourse in this work is man (Awolowo 1968:211). His concern is that man, especially in the
underdeveloped nations of the world, is suffering and sad with himself and others in the society. In
fact, economic poverty, ignorance, disease and political dominion have dehumanized him and made
him a shadow of his true being and person. But this situation can be changed for better if we have
recourse to Socratic advice: Man know thyself. Following his metaphysics, the only way by which an
individual can realize human potentials to the fullest is to nurture his thoughts. It implies that education
is a necessary condition for becoming really human. This follows that the development of human
person through education is a natural goal, worthy of pursuit for itself.
Equality of Education Opportunity
Although Awolowo postulated that all human beings are equal and are created in Gods own image, he
is no doubt, aware of individual differences as well. He recognizes difference in innate talents or talent
ability. He never claimed equality of talents for all men nor has he ever demanded that it is possible to
make all men equal as to their respective abilities. He spelt out in the following three terms, his
socialism and the basis for equality.
All men have innate talents or ability. What those talents are, and how many they are, we do
not know until all of them are given equal opportunity to develop.
Even when all the talents have been developed to the fullest limit possible, each one must be
given equal opportunity to contribute to social development.
When all talents in the society are not fully developed it is not the individuals that are
adversely affected alone who suffer; the society and political development of the society
itself is absolutely a function of the aggregate efforts of the members of the society
(Awolowo, 1966: 64).
Thus, the most prominent and practical of Awolowos social theory could be said to be the
emphasis on social mobility and stratification. He does not advocate equalization of men because men
have different natural or innate endowments and talents, and are born and influenced by different
geographical climate and cultural factors. But his welfare programme provides equal chance for all to
develop. It is in line with this that he became the first in Nigeria to advocate a free education policy and
to implement it as leader of government in Western Nigeria in 1955. He did not stop there; Awolowo
campaigned consistently and vigorously to the extent that in 1966, he was the first to suggest that free
education be included in the Nigerian Constitution.
Education and Enthroning Federalism
One of the key areas of interest in Awolowos socio-political philosophy is his choice of federalist
constitution for Nigeria. Since the early nineteen thirties, Awolowo has been a convinced federalist. He
states that.
In 1951 when the controversy on the form of Nigerias constitution began, I
had already been for more than eighteen years a convinced federalist. In the
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early thirties, I was a fanatical admirer of the Indian National Congress (a
federalist state), and of the three of its illustrious leaders (Awolowo,
1960:160).
Awolowo criticizes the policy of quota system of admission into the Federal institutions of
learning. He agrees that between the various ethnic groups, there were differing standards of civilization
as well as uneven stages in the adoption of Western Education and the emulation of Western
civilization. A Unitary constitution with only one central government for him,
would only result in frustration to the more pushful and more dynamic ethnic
groups, whereas, the division of the country into regions along ethnic line would
enable each linguistic group not only to develop its own peculiar culture and
institutions but to move forward at its pace, without being unnecessarily pushed
or annoyingly slowed down by others (Awolowo, 1960:164).
It is however, his conviction that while some groups are more developed, especially in terms of
acquiring Western Education, others are not. It would then be stupid of any government according to
him, to think that all ethnic groups will develop at the same rate. He suggested that it is the duty of the
government in this regard to create equal opportunities for all the groups to realize their potentials
rather than trying to give more opportunities to some at the expense of the others.

Implications for Nigeria Educational System
The telnets of Awolowos philosophy of education can be translated into the Nigerian educational
system in the realization that:
Education is an inalienable right of every citizen of the society.
The essence of education is to develop the whole man so as to realize himself and to
contribute to the development of the society at large.
The individual that is to be educated is a complex being and has a lot to do for himself if he is
to achieve self realization.
It is the responsibility of the state to ensure individual development.
Education should be properly funded by the government, as it is a social responsibility.
Proper education must be all-round: Physical, mental and moral. Thus, the curriculum must be
designed as to give room for a balanced development.
Equal educational opportunities should be created for all citizens so that they can develop
maximally.
Education should not be discriminatory. All citizens should be left to compete freely among
themselves.
The various states of the federation should be encouraged to develop at their pace without
unnecessarily pushing or pully down one another by any policy of government aimed at
equalization of education.
Finally, that education should be made to respond to the needs/problems of the Nigerian
Society.

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Conclusion
This research was carried out in an attempt to establish an indigenous philosopher of education in the
post- independent Nigeria, and the implications of his educational ideas to the new realities. The work
also attempts to show the challenges facing the present day Nigerian leaders who have the available
resources, time and scope to emulate Chief Awolowos quality of sincerity, focus, and devotion to duty.
The paper recommends that we must do our best to recognize good leaders in all walks of life in our
society and uphold their lives and shining examples for the youths to emulate.
References
Awo (1960). The autobiography of chief obafemi awolowo, London: Cambridge University press.
Awolowo, O. (1966). Thoughts on the Nigerian Constitution, Ibadan: Oxford University Press.
Awolowo, O. (1969). The strategy and tactics of the peoples republic of Nigeria, Ibadan: Macmillan Nigeria
Publishers Ltd.
Awolowo, O. (1968). The peoples republic. Ibadan: Oxford University Press.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education (4
th
edition), Lagos: NERDC Press.
Okoh J. D (1998). Educational ideas of outstanding Nigerian educators, Owerri: Corporate Impressions.
Okoh, J. D (2003). Philosophy of education: the basics, Port Harcourt: Pearl Publishers.
Okoh, J. D. (2005). The risk of an education system without a philosophical base. An Inaugural Lecture
series No. 38 Presented to the University of Port Harcourt.
Omordu, C. (2009). Obafemi Awolowo As a Philosopher of Education: An Analytical Interpretation. An
Unpublished Ph.D Dissertation, Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt.
Omoregbe, J. I. (1990). Knowing Philosophy, Ikeja: Joja press Limited.

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INFLUENCE OF COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION ON TOURISM
DEVELOPMENT IN OSUN STATE, NIGERIA

By

O. E. OLAJIDE, Ph.D

and

G. A. NWOGU
Department of Adult Education
University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria

Abstract
The extent to which tourism contributes to the socio-economic and political development of any country is
still a subject of debate. Therefore, this study examined the influence of community participation on
tourism development in Osun State, Nigeria using Osun/Osogbo groove as a case study. The study
adopted the survey research design of ex-post facto .250 respondents were selected through purposive and
simple random sampling techniques. An instrument tagged Community Participation on Tourism
Development Questionnaire (CPTDQ) (r = 0.81) was used for data collection. Two hypotheses were
tested. Data were analysed using chi-square. Results showed that community participation in the tourism
development correlated significantly with decision making process (X
2
cal. = 25.308, X
2
crit. =
11.070, df = 5, p < .05). Similarly, tourism businesses correlated significantly with benefit sharing
schemes (X
2
cal. = 61.28, X
2
crit. = 3.182, df = 3, P<.05). Based on the results, the study
recommended that there is need for benefit-sharing schemes that will provide opportunities for local people
and alleviate poverty while contributing to achieving sustainability in tourism development.

Keywords: Community, Participation, Tourism, Development, Benefit-Sharing.

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Introduction
Tourism is the worlds largest industry and one of the fastest growing industries worldwide (UNCTAD,
2007). In many countries, tourism has become one of the main contributors of their Gross Domestic
Product (GDP). It is the worlds largest employer and one among the major sources of substantial
foreign exchange earnings (Richards, 2003; Mwandosya, 2007). It is through this observation that many
people believe that the industry is well placed as one of the major means through which development
of local communities can be achieved (Scheyvens, 2002; Beeton, 2006). One approach to enhance this
development through tourism is to involve local communities and ensure that their potential role is
tagged and maintained through active participation in the industry (Beeton, 2006).
However, it is imperative to note that participation of these communities is central to the
sustainable development of the industry not only because tourism has had a close connection with the
local communities, particularly as hosts and guides (Scheyvens, 2002), but also because the
destinations of tourists are communities and it is in the community that tourism happens (Mbaiwa,
2005). In this context, participation is a process through which stakeholders among the local
communities who are often the intended beneficiaries of community tourism, influence and share
control over development initiatives and the decisions and resources which affect them (Havel, 1996).
Participation, therefore, seeks collaboration or partnerships and the commitment necessary to ensure
sustainability of tourism development (Wolfensohn, 1996).
Paradoxically, the outcomes of participation are usually a reflection of a certain level of
involvement of relevant stakeholders in the decision-making process which in turn enables people to
make informed commitments to a particular tourism project (Havel, 1996). Manyara and Jones (2007)
citing Akama (1999) posited that local communities are hardly involved in tourism development and
they are usually without a voice in the development process (Havel, 1996). To Mbaiwa (2005), this
situation is contrary to the principles of sustainable tourism development which, among other things
emphasize the participation of local communities. Moreover, many scholars have argued that
community participation in tourism activities not only lead to getting local community support for the
industry but also acts as a crucial component to achieving sustainable development of the industry
(Kibicho, 2003; Cole, 2006).
Nevertheless, Nigeria offers a wide variety of tourist attractions such as extended and roomy
river and ocean beaches ideal for swimming and other water sports, unique wildlife, vast tracts of
unspoiled nature ranging from tropical forest, magnificent waterfalls, some new rapidly growing cities
and climatic conditions in some parts particularly conducive to holidaying (Okeyi, 2003). Other
attractions include traditional ways of life preserved in local customs; rich and varied handicrafts and
other colourful products depicting or illustrative of native arts and lifestyle, and the authentic
unsophisticated but friendly attitude of many in the Nigerian population. However, many of these
attractions are still largely untapped and even at their raw states. They are still being enjoyed by few
outsiders, either very rich visitors in quest of exoticism or adventurous people in search of new
challenges and experiences.
Therefore, the lack of required modern infrastructural facilities and in some parts of the country
acute conditions of under-development and poverty can be seen which many potential Nigeria bound
tourist may not like to be confronted with. It is as a result of the aforementioned that this study tends
to examine the influence of community participation on tourism development in Osun State, Nigeria.
Tourism development is one area that needs government attention in her quest for job creation.
While oil and gas sector has taken much of the government concentration, other sectors of the
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economy have recorded dwindling fortune which has made it difficult for investors to look in this
direction. Consequently, the absence of tourism infrastructural facilities and not been part of benefit-
sharing has also made the people in the community to exhibit a lukewarm attitude to participate in
tourism, thereby creating an apathy on the development of tourism in Nigeria.
Objectives of the Study
The objectives of this study are
(i) to access the extent of local peoples participation in the tourism development decision-
making process; and
(ii) to access if tourism business in the area have developed benefit-sharing schemes.
Hypotheses
The following hypotheses will be tested:
H
1
: There will be no significant relationship between community participation in the tourism
development and decision-making process.
H
2
: There will be no significant relationship between tourism businesses and benefit-sharing
schemes.
Community Participation and Development Initiatives
Community participation has become a common element in many development initiatives, such
as community-based programmes, which assume participatory methods and has been promoted by
development organizations, notably the World Bank, to address the inefficiency of highly centralized
development approaches particularly in the developing world (Baral and Heinen, 2007). Today, many
development initiatives solicit the participation of all concerned stakeholders, at the relevant level, not
only for the sake of efficiency and equity of the programmes, leverage of donors and demands of local
communities, but also for sustainability of these initiatives (Ribot, 2004). Consequently, the real
outcome of soliciting such community participation is to create and produce an enabling environment
needed by these stakeholders, especially local communities who have been vulnerable to negative
impacts of tourism attributed partly to the fact that many tourism resources occur in their areas, to have
a real stake in development activities (Havel, 1996; Songorwa, 1999). This requires involving local
communities in decision-making and strengthening their ability to act for themselves. One approach to
achieve this is "through investments in human capital, such as education and health, investments in
social capital such as local-level institutions and participatory processes, and support for community
based development efforts planned and implemented from bottom up" (Havel, 1996). However, given
the fact that the central point underlying people's participation may be the degree of power distribution,
these efforts are less likely to succeed unless responsive institutions and the legal and policy framework
that facilitate and support local participation are in place (Havel. 1996: Tosun. 2004: Wang and Wall,
2005).

Tourism Benefits-Sharing Schemes
Sharing tourism benefits with local communities has always been seen as one of the various modes of
community participation in the industry. In other words, participation of local communities through
sharing the benefits of tourism is one of the major viewpoints for community participation in tourism
(Timothy. 1999: Tosun. 2000: Li, 2005; Li, 2004). Various studies and numerous different international
development agencies have established that tourism is one of the powerful tools for poverty alleviation,
especially due to its associated potential economic gains and due to the fact that tourism is a significant
or growing economic sector in most countries with high levels of widespread poverty (Wilkerson, 1996;
Chok and Macbeth, 2007; Zhao and Ritchie, 2007; Scheyvens, 2007). Although there is no standard
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method for assessing the adequacy of community participation levels (Li, 2005), the way benefits from
the tourism industry are shared has been argued to be the focus of community participation This,
however simply implies that communities can be involved or attracted to participate in the tourism
industry through sharing with them the benefits obtained from the industry, and one precondition for
a successful community tourism programme, according to Songorwa (1999), is that equitable benefits
of tourism must remain in the hands of the majority community members in an open and easily
understood manner.

Methodology
The study employed the survey research design of ex-post facto type as this helps in describing the
various manifestations of variables as it occurs without manipulations.

Population
The population for this study comprises of the stakeholders, community members and staff of
Osun/Osogbo groove in Osun State, Nigeria.

Sample and Sampling Procedure
The sample for this study was made up of 250 respondents. However, purposive and simple random
sampling techniques were used to select all the respondents for this study.

Research Instrument
The major instrument used for this study was Community Participation on Tourism Development
Questionnaire (CPTDQ). The questionnaire was a close-ended likert type technique of summated
ratings, and the responses were on a four point rating of Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Strongly
Disagree (SD) and Disagree (D). This was supported by oral interview for content analysis.

Data Analysis
The data collected were coded and inferential statistics of chi-square (X
2
) was used to test the
hypotheses at significant of 0.05 alpha level.

Findings and Discussion
The results of the data analysed are presented in this section.
Hypothesis 1: There will be no significant relationship between community participation in the
tourism development and decision-making process.

Table 1: Chi-square Contingency Table Showing Relationship between Community
Participation in the Tourism Development and Decision-Making Process in
Osun/Osogbo Groove, Osun State, Nigeria.

N X
2
Calculated Value X
2
Critical Value

DF P Remark
250 25.308 11.070 5 0.05 Sig.

It could be observed from the table above that there was a significant relationship between community
participation in the tourism development and decision-making process (X
2
cal. = 25.308, X
2
crit. =
11.070, df = 5, p < .05). The table showed that the X
2
critical value was less than the X
2
calculated
value, hence tourism development was a good factor for community participation in decision-making
process.
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Page 531
Hypothesis 2: There will be no significant relationship between tourism business and benefit-sharing
schemes.

Table 2: Chi-Square Contingency Table showing Relationship between Tourism Businesses
and Benefit-Sharing Schemes in Osun/Osogbo Groove, Osun State, Nigeria.

N X
2
Calculated Value X
2
Critical Value

DF P Remark
250 61.28 3.182 3 0.05 Sig.

The above table showed that there was a significant relationship between tourism businesses and
benefit-sharing schemes (X
2
cal. = 61.28, X
2
crit. = 3.182, df = 3, p < .05). It was observed that the X
2

critical value was less than the X
2
calculated value, hence benefit-sharing schemes were good factors for
tourism businesses.

The findings of the first hypothesis revealed that there was a significant relationship between
community participation in the tourism development and decision-making process. This finding
corroborates Ribot (2004) who reported that many development initiatives solicit the participation of
all concern stakeholders at the relevant level, not only for the sake of efficiency and equity of the
programmes, leverage of donors and demands of local communities, but also for sustainability of these
initiatives. In addition, Havel (1996) and Songorwa (1999) said that the real outcome of soliciting such
community participation is to create and produce an enabling environment needed by these
stakeholders, especially local communities who have been vulnerable to negative impacts of tourism
attributed partly to the fact that many tourism resources occur in their areas, to have a real stake in
development activities. However, this requires involving local communities in decision-making and
strengthening their ability to act for themselves.
The second hypothesis revealed that there was a significant relationship between tourism businesses
and benefit-sharing schemes. The finding of this study agrees with Timothy (1999), Tosun (2000), Li
(2004) and Li (2005) who reported that participation of local communities through sharing the benefits
of tourism is one of the major viewpoints for community participation in tourism. Also, the finding
corroborates Wilkerson (1996), Chok and Macbeth (2007), Zhao and Ritchie (2007) and Scheyvens
(2007) who reported that various studies and numerous different international development agencies
have established that tourism is one of the powerful tools for poverty alleviation, especially due to its
associated potential economic gains and due to the fact that tourism is a significant or growing
economic sector in most countries with high levels of widespread poverty. In addition to this,
Songorwa (1999) said to have a successful community tourism programme, equitable benefits of
tourism must remain in the hands of the majority community members in an open and easily
understood manner.

Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are thereby made:
(i) There should be benefit-sharing schemes that will create opportunities for local people and
alleviate poverty while contributing to achieving sustainability in tourism development.
(ii) There is the need to raise peoples awareness of the importance of village general meetings
as important avenues through which public opinion can be collected and feedback from
leaders can be communicated.

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Conclusion
Community participation has become a key element in many development projects. However, it has
underlined that tourism is a well placed poverty reduction tool that if used properly can contribute
significantly in efforts towards poverty alleviation, especially in developing countries. Taking into
consideration that participation in the tourism decision-making process and sharing the benefit of
tourism development are central to community participation, it is therefore, imperative to say that
community participation in this context is a situation whereby a member of the community who lives in
a particular area directly or indirectly participates in tourism decision-making and/or operates a
tourism-related business or works in tourism as an individual or in a group.

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JEDA - Volume 20, Number 1. - March, 2012.

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