Chapter 4 SOILS

Recycling of elements occurs in the soil.

Vegetation influences the development of soil, its chemical and physical properties, and its organic
matter.
DEFINITION OF SOIL
Soil is the product of weathered rock by the action of climate and living organisms. It is made of mineral
and organic matter and is capable supporting plant growth.
Soil is characteried by horions or layers. It is different from the parent material by the addition and
transformation of organic matter.
Soils have five components! inorganic matter derived from parent rock, organic matter added by
organisms, water, air, and organisms.
"he pedon is the basic unit used to study soils. It usually ranges from # to #$$ m
%
, and is three&
dimensional to include all horions.
THE SOIL PROFILE
' soil profile is a vertical cut through a pedon or body of soil. "he layers are called horizons.
(ach horions has its own characteristic features, e.g. color, te)ture, porosity, thickness, and chemical
composition
In general soils have si) horions!
#. *! loose leaves, organic debris and partially decomposed organic matter.
%. '! dark&colored, mineral material mi)ed with organic matter
+. (! is the area of greatest leaching, it has a granular, platelike or crumlike structure. Sometimes is
missing from some soils.
4. -! the one where leached material accumulates, clay material, iron, aluminum silicates and
humus, below the - horion, claypans .clay/ and fragipans .silt and sand/ form and interfere with
root and water penetration.
0. C! weathered material similar or not from that from which the soil formed
1. R! the unweathered bedrock.
PROPERTIES OF SOILS
234SIC'5 2R*2(R"I(S
Color!
It has little influence on the function of a soil.
Is used in the classification of soil.
6ark brown or black color usually indicates a lot of organic matter, volcanic soils are black due to
their origin from basalt, the parent material.
Red and yellow soils contain iron o)ides.
7uart, carbonates of 8g and Ca, gypsum and some compounds of iron give a whitish or grayish
color to the soil.
"he standardied 8unsell color charts are used to determine color of soils.
"e)ture!
"he te)ture of soil is determined by the sie of the particles that make it.
"he particles are derived from the parent material or may be the result of soil&forming processes.
Rock fragments are 9%.$ mm in diameter.
Sand ranges from $.$0 to %.$ mm in diameter.
Silt ranges from $.$$% to $.$0 mm.
Clay is less than $.$$% mm.
Clay controls the plasticity of the soil and e)change of ions.
In ideal soils, particles make 0$: of the soil, and the other 0$: is pore space.
Soil particles are held together in clusters or shapes of various sies called aggregates or peds.
6epth!
"he depth of soils is variable, it depends on the slope, parent material, vegetation, and other
factors.
Soils at the bottom of slopes tend to be deep, and thin on ridges.
8oisture!
"he transition between wet surface soil and dry soil is harp unless the soil clay.
6epending on the amount of water, the downward flow of water stops after two or three days.
"he water stays in the pores.
Field capacity .;C/ is the ma)imum amount of water a soil can hold.
Wilting point .<2/ of soil is reached when plants cannot e)tract any more water from the soil.
"he difference in the amount of water between ;C and <2 is called the aaila!le "ater
capacity .'<C/.
Soil te)ture influences both ;C and <" of soils, e.g. sandy soils have little ;C capacity.
"he topography of the soil affects the soil moisture, e.g. ridges tend to be dry.
"here are seven standard drainage classes.
3ydric soils develop where ponding and flooding occurs fre=uently, and form the wetland
ecosystems.
C3(8IC'5 2R*2(R"I(S
Chemical elements in soil are found in solution, as constituents of organic matter and adsorbed of soil
particles.
Chemical elements travel from soil to plants, then to animals and continue in the biochemical cycle of
nature.
Clay controls the chemical properties of soils. "his is due to its uni=ue chemical structure.
"he three basic elements in clay are al#$in#$ .'l/, silicon .Si/ and o%ygen .*/.
"he basic clay mineral is silica made of one atom of Si and four of * forming a tetrahedron.
"hese tetrahedrons are bound to each other by o)ygen atoms and form a structural cell, .Si%*0/n.
"hese cells form sheets that become part of a more comple) structure.
'luminum forms with *)ygen octahedrons and form sheets similar to those of silica.
Shared bonds hold sheets of silica and aluminum together. "hese are the basic structure of clay colloids
or $icelles.
>nits of clay!
#. ?aolinite, a #!# clay, is made of one sheet of silica and one of aluminum held together by
hydrogen bonds. "he o)ygen atoms on the surface of the silicate layer face the hydro)yl atoms of
the aluminum layer. "hese hydrogen bonds hold the layers tightly together so water and cations
cannot enter the space in between the micelles.
%. 8ontmorillonite, a %!# clay, consists of one sheet of silica sandwiched between two sheets of
aluminum. "hese layers have twice as many Si as 'l, twice as many * and half the *3. "he *
atoms face each other the bond between the layers is weak and water and cations can enter the
interlayer space.
+. Illitite is made of one aluminum sheet with silica sheets on either side with 8g or ? ions holding
together the ad@acent micelles.
In %!# clays, one atom can be replaced by another, e.g. Si
4A
by 'l
+A
, 'l
+A
by 8g
%A
, ;e
+A
by ;e
%A
, and vice
versa. "hese replacements do not change the structure of the micelles. "his is called iso$orpho#s
s#!stit#tion.
"hese structures and substitutions result in a net negative charge on the surface of the micelles that is
balanced by positive ions, cations.
()changeable cations are loosely held on the surface of the micelles and can be replaced by others.
"he total number of negatively charged e)change sites on clay and humus particles that attract cations is
called the cation e)change capacity, C(C.
"he negative charges of the clay particles prevent the leaching of cations.
8g
%A
, Ca
%A
, ?
A
, Ba
A
, B3
A
and 3
A
are some of the cations that cling to the surface of the clay particles.
'l
+A
and 3
A
are more strongly held than other cations. "hese two cations can replace the more loosely
held 8g
%A
, Ca
%A
, ?
A
, Ba
A
, and B3
A
.
"he percentage of sites occupied by basic ions .8g
%A
, Ca
%A
, ?
A
, Ba
A
/, is called percent base saturation.
'cidic soils have a low : base saturation because there are many 3
A
available.
Soils with high C(C are potentially fertile because they can hold many cations needed by plants.
Soils with high C(C and : base saturation are potentially fertile unless they are too saline or contain
to)ic cations, e.g. Cd
%A
.
Cations held in the e)change sites are dynamic e=uilibrium with those in solution.
Cations in solution are continuously being replaced by or e)changed with those in the e)changeable
sites.
"he removal of cations by the roots of plants lowers their concentration in the soil solution and enhances
the releasing of more cations by the micelles.
3ydrogen is added to the soil by rain, humus and the roots of plants. "he soil slowly becomes more
acidic.
's the acidity of the soil increases, the solubility of 'l
+A
increase and that of Ba
A
, Ca
%A
and other cations
decreases. "his process decreases the fertility of the soil.
THE LI&IN' SOIL
Soil is relatively stable structurally and chemically and offers an underground environment that varies
little.
Soil is a living system that contains a wide array of organisms! bacteria, fungi, protooans, vertebrates,
algae, etc.
()amples of density!
-acteria! #$
C
to #$
D
per gram of soil.
2rotooans! #$
4
to #$
0
per gram of soil.
Bematodes! #$ to #$
%
per gram of soil.
8ites .'carina/ and springtails .Collembola/ are the most common soil animals. "ogether they make
about C$: of the soil fauna. "hey feed on fungi or other animals.
(arthworms .5umbricidae/ ingest soil and fresh litter, and then defecate these materials mi)ed with
intestinal @uices producing aggregates in the soil.
"hese aggregates bind the soil particles together and improve aeration and capillarity of the soil.
SOIL FOR()TION
F)*TORS IN SOIL FOR()TION
+, Parent (aterial
"he parent material is an unconsolidated mass of rock, sand, clay or silt.
It may be derived from the bedrock on which it is found or transported by water, glaciers, wind, or gravity.
"he parent material comes from igneo#s- sedi$entary or $eta$orphic roc.s.
#. Igneous rocks are formed when magma cools on the surface .e)trusive/ or below the surface of
the (arth .intrusive/.
%. Sedimentary rocks are formed from material that accumulates at the bottom of lakes or oceans,
and then converted to rock by the pressure of sediments that accumulate above. "hese rocks
may be e)posed by uplifting of the (arthEs surface or by the erosion on mountains.
+. 8etamorphic rocks are formed when igneous or sedimentary rocks are buried deep in the (arth
and sub@ected to great pressure and high temperatures. "he original minerals melt and form new
minerals.
/, *li$ate0 Radian energy and "ater,
3eating and cooling depends on the climate and determines the intensity of weathering.
"emperature affects the rates of biochemical reactions.
Radiant energy influences the evaporation and the dryness of the soil.
<ater is the carrier of acids that affect biochemical processes.
's water moves through the soil, it leaves behind suspended materials and carries away minerals in
solution, a process called leaching.
1, Topography
"opography affects the intensity of the radiant energy hitting the soil and the amount of water that enters
the soil.
<ater that drains from slopes enters the soil on low land.
Steep slopes are sub@ect to erosion and landslides and soil creep.
Slopes usually have poorly developed soils because erosion removes the soil as soon as it is formed.
2, 3iota
Vegetation is responsible for the nutrient content of the soil.
*rganic acids produced by plants speed up the weathering process.
4, Ti$e
<ell&developed soils in balance with erosion, weathering and biological action may re=uire %$$$ to
%$,$$$ years to form.
Soil differentiation from parent material may be as fast as +$ years.
Soil develops more slowly in dry regions than in humid ones.
5owlands constantly accumulate soil from the highlands around. "hese soils are usually more fertile than
old ones because they have not been e)posed to leaching as long as the old soils.
WE)THERIN'
<eathering is the physical disintegration and the chemical decomposition of the parent material.
+, Physical "eathering
2hysical weathering is due to the action of water, wind and temperature changes.
Cracking and flaking of the soil occurs, freeing in crevices e)pands and cracks the rocks, erosion carries
away and deposits loose materials in other locations and e)poses new surfaces to weathering.
2ressure Release
Rocks below the earth surface support the weight of the overlying column of rock. Erosion strips
away this overlying rock and decreases pressure on buried rocks. All rocks are slightly elastic, so the
buried rocks respond to the reduction of pressure by expanding upwards. This results in the formation
of pressure release fractures (cracks that form parallel to the surface. !ith continued erosion, these
rocks are exposed on the surface and slabs of rock break off along the pressure release fractures.
This weathering creates bare rock surfaces that may be more resistant than surrounding rocks.
These features are termed exfoliation domes" the slabs of rock that break off are termed exfoliation
sheets.
http055enterprise,cc,#a.ron,ed#5geology5natscigeo5Lect#res5"eath5"eath,ht$6che$ical
Daid (c*onnell
/, *he$ical "eathering
Several processes are involved!
*)idation is the loss of electrons. It occurs in cases where the o)ygen supply is high and the biological
o)ygen demand is low.
Reduction is the gain of electrons. It occurs where the material is water saturated, the o)ygen supply is
low, and biological o)ygen demand is high.
3ydrolysis involves 3
A
that attack silicates. 'luminosilicates and feldspar are transformed into clay
kaolinite and montmorillonite, which may weather into other clays.
The free hydrogen ions may alter mineral composition by replacing other ions in a mineral#s
atomic structure" this reaction is termed hydrolysis. $ydrolysis occurs when minerals react with
water to form other products. %eldspar, the most common mineral in rocks on the earth&s surface,
reacts with water to form a secondary mineral such as kaolinite (a type of clay and additional
ions that are dissolved in water. The weaker clay is readily worn away by physical weathering.
%eldspar ' hydrogen ions ' water ( clay ' dissolved ions
)*Al+i,-. ' )$
'
' /$/- ( Al)+i)-01(-$. ' )*
'
' .+i-/
http055enterprise,cc,#a.ron,ed#5geology5natscigeo5Lect#res5"eath5"eath,ht$6che$ical
Daid (c*onnell
Iron is reactive with water and o)ygen and iron bearing materials are prone to rapid decomposition.
<ater and carbon dio)ide react to form carbonic acid, which reacts with hydro)ides of potassium, sodium,
magnesium and calcium to produce carbonates and bicarbonates. "hese materials accumulate deeper in
the soil or are leached away.
5eaching is greater in regions of high rainfall and high temperatures.
ROLE OF THE 3IOT)
5ichens colonie bare rocks and produce acids that attack silicates. "his activity encourages the growth
of mosses that covers the rock.
2lant roots penetrate and further break down the parent material. Roots remove nutrients from deep in
the soil and bring them to the surface.
2lants convert the sunEs energy into organic carbon that is added to the soil. "his energy source provides
food for bacteria, fungi, and other invertebrates that colonie the soil.
3igher invertebrates .centipedes, millipedes, mites, earthworms, etc./ eat fresh material and leave
partially decompose products in their e)creta.
8icroorganisms convert these materials to lignin, wa)es, proteins, carbohydrates, ash and other
substances that are eventually converted to inorganic products.
H#$#s is the organic matter that remains after having been processed by organisms and weather. It is a
non&cellular, dark colored, chemically comple) organic material.
Its characteristic component is h#$in- a comple) substance of organic acids containing humic and fulvic
acids among others.
Soil organisms are involved in the formation of the ' and * horions of the soil.
"hree types of humus formation e)ist in the soil in temperate regions!
#. 8or! characteristic of moist or dry heathland and coniferous forests, well&defined, unincorporated,
matted or compacted plant material, remains unmi)ed with the mineral soil, fungi consume mostly
the vascular cells of leaves, proteins precipitate in a comple) reaction making them resistant to
decomposition.
%. 8ull! characteristic of mi)ed and deciduous woods on fresh and moist soils with a reasonable
supply of calcium, all organic matter is converted to humic substances, animal activity is high and
these products are absorbed into the mineral soil below, bacteria are the chief decomposers,
there is a great variety of organisms that process the organic matter in different ways and mi)ed
with the mineral particles, mineral and organic parts are inseparably bound together.
+. 8oder! organic matter is converted to droppings of small arthropods, particularly Collembolans
and mites, it contains high amount of organic matter, nitrification is limited, the droppings form a
dense matted material with little mineral parts.
SOIL DE&ELOP(ENT PRO*ESSES
;our processes are involved in soil formation!
#. 'dditions of organic or inorganic material.
%. 5osses of material through erosion and leaching.
+. "ranslocation vertically and laterally within the soil.
4. "ransformation of mineral and organic substances into peds.
See table 4.%. F2rocesses of Soil ;ormation.G
SOIL *L)SSIFI*)TION- LOWER SOIL *)TE'ORIES )ND ()PPIN' SOILS,
Read this sections, pages 1D to H1.