Chapter 12 INTRASPECIFIC COMPETITION:

POPULATION REGULATION
Density dependent effects influence a population in proportion to is size.
At low density, no interaction occurs; as the population grows beyond certain point, the
greater the number of individuals affected.
Densitydependent mechanisms act largely through shortages and competition for resources.
INTRASPECIFIC COMPETITION
Competition is the simultaneous demand by two species or two individuals for an essential
common resource that is actually or potentially in limited supply.
A resource is a component of the environment that can be utilized by the organism for help or
support.
!f the resource is enough supply there is no competition.
"he form of competition in which the competing individuals do not interact with each other when
e#ploiting the resource is called exploitatie competition. "he individuals do not react to each
other but to the level of resource.
$hen each individual competing for the resource obtains such a small supply of the resource
that none can survive, it called a competition scram!le.
Contest competition is the form of intraspecific competition in which mortality compensates
e#actly for increases in density, so that there is a constant %or appro#imately constant& number
of survivors irrespective of initial density.
Contest competition can be called interference competition.
!f the member of the population interact directly see'ing a resource that is not limiting, e.
g. fight, the interaction is called contest or inter"erence competition.
(ome individuals get all the resources and the others do not reproduce, migrate or die.
EFFECTS ON GRO#T$ AN% FECUN%IT&
)opulations characterized by scramble or e#ploitative competition, individuals respond to
lowered level of food by reducing growth. "he animals do not grow large so the biomass
remains the same, e. g. many small individuals * fewer large individuals.
Density also affects fecundity.
!n some populations, competition causes the animals to grow at a slower pace and reach
maturity at a later time.
!n some large mammal populations, competition does not affect the fecundity of the population
until the population density reaches a number close to +, the carrying capacity, and then
fecundity is reduced and the birth rate declines with increasing density.
!n other large mammal population, the birth decline is linear with population growth and increase
density.
EFFECTS ON PLANT 'IOMASS
!n plants, a high density of seedlings in an area will not have an initial effect on the individuals.
,ventually, however, competition for canopy space, root space, nutrients, water, and light
intensifies.
As individuals in a competing population of evenaged plants grow, their mean biomass also
increases and their number decreases.
A few individuals outcompete the others and grow faster. -thers lac' the ability to compete and
die.
"he result is a thinning of the stand and a developing hierarchy of size with a few large and
many small individuals. "his is called sel"(t)innin*.
.ow soon the population will feel the effects on the increasing weight and size of the plants
depends on the initial density. !f the initial density is high, the effects li'e mortality and reduced
growth will be felt sooner.
/egardless of the initial density, populations eventually converge on a common density that will
decrease through time.
"he final result is the same regardless of the number of individuals in the original
population.
"he average plant volume or weight increases about 1.0 units for each unit decrease in density.
o 122 power law of self thinning.
o "he logarithm mean weight or volume plotted against the logarithm of plant density, the
slope of the line averages around 122 or 1.0.
o All populations eventually reach the same point where population declines as plant
volume increases.
Another way of saying the selfthinning law3
o in crowded pure stands, the mean plant biomass should be proportional to a 122 power
of their densities
"he thinning law applies to evenaged, singlespecies stands.
o "he plants are of similar shape regardless of size.
o "he canopy is 1445 closed.
!n mi#ed stands of many species, the law seems to apply in a broad sense.
%ENSIT& AN% STRESS
(tress causes physiological changes in vertebrates involving the endocrine system.
"he pituitary and adrenal glands are affected by stress.
(tressful environmental stimulus
6
.ypothalamus releases corticotrophin releasing factor %C/7&
6
Anterior pituitary releases adrenocoticotropic hormone %AC".&
6
Adrenal glands release cortisol
6
Cortisol causes a reaction in the body, e.g. increase in blood sugar
(tress triggers hyper activation of the hypothalamuspituitaryadrenocorticular system, which in
turn alters the secretion of growth and se# hormones.
"he hyper activation of the endocrine system suppresses growth, slows down reproductive
function, and delays se#ual activity.
.ormonal changes may cause the brea' down of in white blood cells increasing the vulnerability
to diseases.
(ocial stress in pregnant females may cause spontaneous abortion and inade8uate lactation
that will produce stunted nurslings.
(tress can result in decreased births, and increased mortality.
(tress reaction varies with the individual.
!t probably has a genetic component.
)rolonged e#posure to a stressful stimulus affects the reaction.
+nowledge and earlier e#periences influence the reaction system in humans and
animals.
P)eromones are chemicals released by animals that serve as communication between
individuals of the same species.
)heromones in the urine may delay puberty of young females in high density populations.
"here are different 'inds of pheromones that produce different effects on other members of the
population, e.g. aggregation, attac', flight, changes in development, territoriality, etc.
)lants respond to high density in a variety of ways3 reducing the number of nodes, the length of
the internodes, number of flowers and seeds, leaves per stem, and branches.
9enets may produce fewer ramets in crowded conditions.
(ome ruderal plants reduce their vegetative parts in crowded conditions but produce a large
number of seeds that will stay dormant until disturbance e#poses the seeds to light and
fluctuating daily temperatures.
(ome biennials under competitive stress delay reproduction for three to five years.
!n general, lower proportion of plants survives to maturity under crowded conditions.
:ore information3
http322salmon.psy.plym.ac.u'2year12stressho.htm;stressors<hormone<levels
http322en.wi'ipedia.org2wi'i2)heromone
MEC$ANISMS OF POPULATION REGULATION
%ispersal
(everal hypotheses have been proposed to e#plain dispersal as a way of controlling population
density.
"here is evidence that dispersal occurs before the population reaches its pea' and becomes
overcrowded, and also, there is evidence that dispersal occurs when the population reaches its
saturation point.
Presaturation +ispersal3
"he population is increasing.
=efore reaching the carrying capacity and resources are depleted.
Dispersers are in good physical condition.
Dispersers are of any age and se# group.
.ave a chance of survival.
.ave a high probability of settling in a new area.
Saturation +ispersal3
!t occurs when carrying capacity has been e#ceeded.
Dispersers are mostly >uveniles and subdominants
.ave two options to stay and either perish or not breed, or to leave the area.
Dispersal re8uires an unfilled habitat, suitable or not, where the disperser can survive for a time.
(ome hypotheses3
Aggressiveness of dominant adults causes dispersal.
(ome genotypes are more prone to disperse than others and will disperse regardless of
density conditions.
Asocial individuals, either dominant or subdominant, fail to develop social ties and are
more li'ely to disperse.
"here costs and benefits related to dispersal or with staying at home. See Table 12.1.
%oes +ispersal re*ulate populations,
Dispersal may function in population regulation by encouraging mostly subadults and possibly
some subdominant individuals to leave their natal area and occupy vacant habitats.
(uccessfully dispersing individuals improve their fitness by doing so.
SOCIAL INTERACTIONS
(ocial behavior appears to be a mechanism that limits the number of animals that can live in a
particular habitat, have access to food supply, and engage in reproductive activities.
(ocial behavior involves a**ressie and su!missie !e)aior e#pressed as social
+ominance and territorialit-.
SOCIAL %OMINANCE
(ocial dominance is based on intraspecific aggressiveness and intolerance and on the
dominance of one individual over another.
,ach individual occupies apposition in the group or local population based on dominance and
submissiveness.
"he position in the social hierarchy may depend on a number of factors3 level of hormones, size,
maturity, in>ury, fatigue, e#perience in fighting, etc.
)ec'ing order may ta'e several forms3
?inear in which the dominant individual pec's on another of lower ran'; the last in the
pec'ing se8uence is subservient to all other members of the group.
"riangular3 one pec's on number two, who in turns pec' of number three; and number
three pec's on number one.
Comple# pec'ing occur when individuals pec' on each other, and the dominant pec's
the most times.
:ales and females may have separate hierarchy in mi#ed groups with males dominant over
females; or females e8ual to males; or males subservient to females.
(tranger coming into a group are either re>ected or are relegated to the bottom of the social
order.
-ften, males and females that come into breeding early rise in the social order due increase
aggressiveness.
Dominant individuals have the first choice of food, shelter and space, and secure most mates.
(ubdominant individuals often have to wait to eat.
TERRITORIALIT&
"he social organization involving the division and e#clusive occupation of space by a social unit
or individual with a defended boundary in territorialit-.
"erritoriality and social hierarchy represent degrees of manifestation of the same basic pattern
of dominance.
"erritoriality can be considered a spatial organization of dominance hierarchies in which the
individual holds the highest ran' in the hierarchy in its own territory or center of activity.
T-pes o" territor-3
9eneral purpose territory established during the breeding season where breeding and
feeding occurs.
:ating and nesting territory with feeding done elsewhere.
7eeding territory where only the food source is defended.
Colonial birds defend only the nesting territory.
(ome birds defend a winter roosting territory when ade8uate roosting sites are scarce.
Territorial +e"ense occurs after the individual has established the territory. At first the conflicts
may be numerous.
(ongs and calls advertise that an area has already been ta'en. "hese are long distance
warning to potential trespassers.
@isual displays are a way confronting trespassers that disregard vocal warnings.
!f intimidation with visual displays fails, the dominant animal will attac' and chase the intruder.
=oundaries are mar'ed with scent secretions as a way to warn other members of the species.
"hese boundary mar's also tell members of the pac' that they are within their own territory and
prevent the straying into a neighboring pac'As territory.
)heromones are important in mar'ing territorial boundaries, identity of the individual, se#, social
ran', etc.
#)- +e"en+ a territor-,
"he basic benefit is an increased probability of survival and improved reproductive success B an
increase in fitness.
"he animal that claims the best territory usually has the best reproductive success.
Territor- si.e
Defending a territory can be costly in energy and health.
As the size of the territory increases, the cost of defending it increases.
An animal may claim a territory so large that cannot be defended. !n such cases, the defending
animal will reduce the territory to a more manageable size.
"here is a point below which the reduction cannot occur because the territory will be too small to
meet the need of the individual.
"he size of the territory is influenced by resource availability, habitat changes, adult mortality,
and settlement patterns.
"erritory size decrease as density increases, but when the territory compresses to a certain
size, the resident resists further compression and denies access to additional settlers.
Competitors are e8ual and habitats vary in 8uality.
(ome individuals are denied territory as a result of competition.
"hese individuals do not reproduce because they are e#cluded from the suitable breeding sites
by territorial individuals. "hey constitute a "loatin* resere.
7loaters will reproduce if they can secure a territory.
Population re*ulation
"erritoriality functions in population regulation only if it creates a surplus population consisting of
se#ually mature individuals prevented from breeding by territory holders.
"erritoriality can result in spacing out the population rather than regulating its size if all pairs that
settle get a territory.
$OME RANGE
"erritorial or not, all animals possess a )ome ran*e B an area over which an animal lives,
seasonally or throughout the year.
"he home range of one individual may overlap over the home range of other individuals. "he
use of these overlapping home ranges may be influenced by a social hierarchy. (ubordinate
individuals avoid contact with dominant ones by using different parts of a shared area or home
range and by using the area at different times.
.ome ranges may be compact, continuous, or bro'en into two or more discontinuous parts
reached by trails and runways.
.ome ranges do not have fi#ed boundaries.
"he size of the home range is related to body size. ?arger animals occupy larger home ranges.
Carnivores in general occupy larger home ranges than herbivores.
.ome range provides certain advantages3 'nowing where to find food, shelter, and cover from
enemies.
/E& FACTOR ANAL&SIS
A 'ey factor is a biological or environmental condition associated with mortality that causes a
ma>or fluctuation in population size.
+ey factor analysis tries to identify the factor in the life cycle of an organism that influences
trends in adult populations. !t is the factor contributes most to population fluctuations.
"his factor is the ma>or cause of mortality in a population.
7inding the sensitive parts of the life cycle.
!n many populations, particularly insects, specific sources of mortality related to specific
stages of the life cycle.
$here does the greatest mortality occurC
$hich mortality factors correlate best with population fluctuationsC %'ey factors&.
$hich mortality factors are correlated with population densityC
Key Factor analysis looks for the cause of mortality which most closely tracks overall mortality.
This approach downplays differences between fecundity and will not work where there are great
differences in individual birth rates
T ! population si"e before mortality factor acts.
T#1 ! population si"e after mortality factor acts.
K value for a mortality factor $ is%
&f K is all of the mortality a cohort e$periences and n is the total number of sources of mortality'
then
The Key Factor is that source of mortality which most closely correlates with overall mortality
(which one is the key factor can be decided by using statistics).

Key factors have been determined mostly for univoltine insects' although the analysis can be
done for any organism.
univoltine means that there is one insect generation per year (multivoltine refers to
insects with more than one generation per year).* )hil 9anter,
http322www.tnstate.edu2ganter2=D12524Ch52411524)op/eg.html
%ENSIT& IN%EPEN%ENT INFLUENCES
Density independent influences affect but do not regulate populations.
/egulation implies a feedbac' that functions with density. !t is the fluctuation of the population
around e8uilibrium.
"hey can reduce local populations but their effects do not vary with density.
!n general the influence of weather is stochastic3 it is irregular and unpredictable and it functions
largely by influencing the availability of food.