Chapter 13 MEIOSIS AND SEXUAL LIFE CYCLE

Living organisms can reproduce their kind.

Inheritance or heredity is the transmission of traits from one generation to the next.
Variation is part of inheritance.
Genetics is the scientific study of heredity and gene-based variation.
INHERIANCE OF GENES
Genes are sections of DN.
Genes contain a specific se!uence of nuc"eotides.
#ffspring ac!uire genes from parents by inheriting chromosomes.
$ost genes program ce""s to synthesi%e specific en%ymes and other proteins &hose cumu"ative
action produces an organism's inherited traits.
Ga!etes transmit genes from one generation to the next.
(he DN of eukaryotic ce""s is subdivided into chromosomes. (here tiny amounts of DN in
mitochondria and ch"orop"asts.
)ach gene in an organism*s DN has a specific "oc#s +p"ura" loci, on a certain chromosome.
COM$ARISON OF ASEXUAL AND SEXUAL RE$RODUCION
Ase%#a" re&rod#ction-
#ne parent.
.roduces the offspring+s, by sp"itting/ budding/ or fragmenting.
"" the genes of the parent are passed on to the offspring.
#ffspring is genetica""y identica" to the parent and is ca""ed a c"one.
No variation or "itt"e variation from parent and sib"ings due to mutations.
Se%#a" re&rod#ction-
(&o parents.
0nion of t&o specia"i%ed ce""s/ kno&n as 'a!etes/ to form a sing"e ce""/ the (y'ote.
1ome of the genes of each parent are passed on to the offspring.
(he offspring is genetica""y diverse from each parent.
Great variation from parents and sib"ings.
MEIOSIS
(he "i)e cyc"e is the se!uence of stages in the reproductive history of an organism/ from
conception to the production of offspring.
HE HUMAN LIFE CYCLE
So!atic ce""s are ce""s other than a sperm or egg/ and have 23 chromosomes.
4eproductive ce""s are kno&n as 'a!etes/ and have 53 chromosomes.
(he disp"ay of chromosomes is ca""ed the *aryoty&e.
)ach chromosome found in somatic ce""s of higher p"ants and anima"s has a partner
chromosome.
(he t&o partners of the pair are kno&n as ho!o"o'o#s chro!oso!es.
(he members of a homo"ogous pair are common"y referred to as !aterna" and &aterna"
chromosome/ because a different parent provided each.
6omo"ogous chromosomes carry simi"ar but not identica" genetic materia" that contro"s
the same inherited character.
Se% chro!oso!es are ca""ed 7 and 8 and determine the sex of the individua". "" other
chromosomes are ca""ed a#toso!es.
1ex chromosomes are morpho"ogica""y different from each other. 9ema"es have 77
chromosomes and ma"es have 78 chromosomes.
#n"y a sma"" part of the 7 chromosome is homo"ogous &ith the sma"" 8 chromosome.
$ost of the 7 chromosome genes do not have a counterpart in the 8 chromosome.
Chromosomes formed by the separation of sister chromatids are/ ho&ever/ identica".
:f a ce"" contains t&o sets of chromosomes/ it is ca""ed di&"oid +,n-.
:f the ce"" has on"y one set of chromosomes/ then it is ca""ed ha&"oid +n-.
1ometimes ce""s may have more than one set of chromosomes and are ca""ed &o"y&"oid
+.n/ 0n/ etc1-.
(he somatic ce""s of anima"s are dip"oid. #n"y reproductive ce""s/ gametes/ are hap"oid.
(he process of !eiosis produces hap"oid ce""s.
4eduction in the number of chromosomes occurs before the formation of gametes.
(he fusion of gametes is ca""ed )erti"i(ation or syn'a!y.
(he resu"ting ce"" is ca""ed a (y'ote.
(he %ygote deve"ops into a sexua""y mature individua""y. "" ce""s are derived from the %ygote
and receive the fu"" comp"ement of chromosomes during mitosis.
(he on"y human ce""s not produced by mitosis are the gametes/ &hich are produced by meiosis.
Variety o) se%#a" cyc"es1
(he a"ternation of meiosis and ferti"i%ation is common to a"" organisms that reproduce sexua""y.
(he timing of these events in the "ife cyc"e varies depending on the species.
1. nima"s
9erti"i%ation ; %ygote ; mitosis ; dip"oid mu"tice""u"ar organism ; meiosis ; gametes ;
ferti"i%ation
5. $ost fungi and some a"gae
9erti"i%ation ; %ygote ; meiosis ; mitosis ; hap"oid mu"tice""u"ar organism ; gametes by
mitosis ; ferti"i%ation.
3. ."ants and some a"gae.
9erti"i%ation ; %ygote ; mitosis ; dip"oid mu"tice""u"ar organism +sporophyte, ; meiosis ;
spores ; mitosis ; hap"oid mu"tice""u"ar organism +gametophyte, ; mitosis ; gametes ;
ferti"i%ation
"ternation of generation- sporophyte a"ternates &ith gametophyte.
HE $ROCESS OF MEIOSIS
$eiosis reduces the chromosome number from dip"oid to hap"oid.
(he phases of meiosis are simi"ar to those of mitosis but &ith the fo""o&ing differences-
1. $eiosis invo"ves t&o successive nuc"ear and cytop"asmic divisions/ producing up to four
ce""s.
5. (here are t&o consecutive ce"" divisions in meiosis- !eiosis I and !eiosis II.
3. DN and other chromosoma" components dup"icate on"y once.
2. )ach ce"" produced by meiosis has on"y one set of chromosomes< it is hap"oid.
=. During meiosis/ the genetic information of both parents is shuff"ed/ so each resu"ting
hap"oid ce"" has a uni!ue combination of genes.
Meiosis I
$eiosis : separates homo"ogous chromosomes/ not sister chromatids of individua"
chromosomes.
During the inter&hase2
Chromosomes rep"icate during the 1 stage of the interphase.
)ach chromosome consists of t&o genetica""y identica" sister chromatids connected at
the centromere.
(he centrosome rep"icates/ forming t&o centrosomes.
1. $ro&hase I3 the nuc"ear enve"ope disintegrates< chromosomes condense< the chromosome
members of a pair become to "ie "ength&ise side by side/ in &hat is ca""ed syna&sis.
(he four chromatids "ying side by side are ca""ed tetrads/ a term preferred by
geneticists.
(he term tetrad refers to the four chromatids/ t&o forming each homo"ogous
chromosomes
4i5a"ent is another term synonym of tetrad and preferred by cyto"o'ists.
During synapsis the chromosomes undergo crossing over. (he p"ace &here the
chromosomes cross is ca""ed chias!a +p"ura" chiasmata,.
Crossin'6o5er is a process of genetic recombination in &hich homo"ogous
chromosomes exchange sections of DN- chromatids break/ exchange sections of DN/
and re>oin.
(here is no crossing-over bet&een sister chromatids.
(he syna&tone!a" co!&"e%/ made of proteins/ is formed bet&een synapsed
homo"ogous chromosomes and ho"ds the chromosomes together.
Centrosomes move a&ay from each other and the spind"e of microtubu"es forms
bet&een them...
(he nuc"ear enve"ope disintegrates.
(he microtubu"es of the spind"e attach to the kinetochores and the chromosomes begin
to move to the metaphase position.
5. Meta&hase I3 tetrads "ine up in the e!uatoria" p"ane forming the !eta&hase &"ate/ and are
he"d together by chias!ata/ +sing. chiasma,.
:n "ate prophase :/ homo"ogous chromosomes are he"d together on"y at chiasmata/ the
regions &here crossing over occurred.
$icrotubu"es from one po"e are attached to one homo"ogous chromosome/ and those
from the other po"e to the other homo"ogous chromosome.
?oth kinetochores of sister chromatids are attached to the same po"e.
:n mitosis/ sister kinetochores are attached to opposite po"e.

3. Ana&hase I3 the members of each homo"ogous pair separate and move to opposite po"es.
)ach po"e receives a mixture of materna" and paterna" chromosomes but on"y one
member of the homo"ogous pair.
(he sister chromatids are sti"" united at their centromere region.
2. e"o&hase I3 nuc"ear enve"ope may reorgani%e< chromatids decondense some&hat<
cytokinesis may take p"ace.
6omo"ogous chromosomes continue to move apart unti" the reach the po"es of the ce"".
)ach po"e has no& a hap"oid number of chromosomes.
)ach nuc"eus contains on"y a hap"oid number of chromosomes.
)ach chromosome/ ho&ever/ has t&o sister chromatids.
=. Cyto*inesis usua""y occurs simu"taneous"y &ith te"ophase.
C"eavage furro&s form in anima" ce""s and ce"" p"ate appears in p"ant ce""s.
:n some species nuc"eo"i re-forms and chromosomes decondense. (his inter"ude is
ca""ed inter*inesis.
No chromosome rep"ication occurs bet&een the end of meiosis : and the beginning of
meiosis ::.
Meiosis II
$eiosis :: is simi"ar to mitosis and resu"ts in the separation of the sister chromatids.
$ro&hase II
1pind"e apparatus forms and centrosomes move to&ard the po"es.
Meta&hase II
Chromosomes form the metaphase p"ate.
(he kinetochores of each sister chromatid point to&ard opposite po"es.
Ana&hase II
(he centromeres of the sister chromatids separate and the sister chromatids become
separate chromosomes.
Chromosomes move to&ard opposite po"es.
e"o&hase II and cyto*inesis
nuc"ear enve"ope re-forms around each set of chromosomes< nuc"eo"i are a"so formed<
spind"e disappears< chromosomes uncoi".
C"eavage furro&s form in anima" ce""s and ce"" p"ate appears in p"ant ce""s.
COM$ARISON OF MIOSIS AND MEIOSIS
1. 1ynapsis and crossing over occur on"y in meiosis/ never in mitosis.
5. 6omo"ogous chromosomes paired up at the metaphase p"ate : during meiosis< in mitosis/
the chromosomes are not paired during at the metaphase p"ate.
3. During anaphase : of meiosis/ each homo"ogous chromosome moves to an opposite po"e
but the sister chromatids remain attached by the centromere< in mitosis/ the sister
chromatids separate during the anaphase.
GENEIC VARIAION
1exua" "ife cyc"es are responsib"e for most of the variation that is found in each generation.
(here are three mechanisms that reshuff"e the genes carried by individua"s.
Inde&endent assort!ent o) chro!oso!es
:n metaphase :/ the homo"ogous pairs of chromosomes consist of one materna" and one
paterna" chromosome.
(he positioning of each homo"ogous chromosome pair during metaphase is a matter of chance
and independent of the other pairs. (his determines &hich chromosomes &i"" be together in the
daughter ce""s.
)ach homo"ogous pair is positioned independent"y of other pairs.
(here is a =@-=@ chance that a daughter ce"" &i"" get a materna" or a paterna" chromosome of a
given homo"ogous pair.
(he number of daughter ce""s formed by meiosis of dip"oid ce""s is 2/ ,n 7 0.
:n the case of humans/ the hap"oid number of chromosomes is 53/ and the number of possib"e
combinations of materna" and paterna" chromosomes in the resu"ting gametes is 5
53
or rough"y
A.3 mi""ion.
Crossin' o5er
During prophase :/ homo"ogous chromosomes pair precise"y/ a"igning &ith each other gene by
gene.
Non-sister chromatids of homo"ogous chromosomes exchange segments of DN. (his process
gives rise to reco!8inant DNA/ e. g. a segment of the paterna" chromosome is exchange from
a simi"ar segment of the materna" chromosome.
Rando! )erti"i(ation
Due to the "arge number of possib"e combinations in human gametes/ the number of
possibi"ities is in the tri""ions.
(he fusion of a ma"e and a fema"e human gamete &i"" produce one of a possib"e B@ tri""ion
combinations- 5
53
x 5
53
C DB@ tri""ions.
(o this add the variation brought about by crossing over. (his is &hy brothers and sisters are
different.
E5o"#tionary ada&tation
Dar&in recogni%ed the importance of genetic variation in the mechanism of natura" se"ection.
)vo"utionary adaptation depends on the genetic variation found in the popu"ation.
#n the average/ those individua"s best suited to the "oca" environment survive/ "eave the
greatest number of offspring/ and transmit their genes in the process.
(his se"ection of best-suited individua"s resu"ts in an accumu"ation over time of the genetic
variations favored by the environment.