History of Geology The Birth of New Science

History of Geology
The birth of modern science:

17
th
and 18
th
centuries
Discussions about the origin and formation of

the fossils, and the origin of Mountains
Nicolas Steno (1638-1686) and the law of

superposition
Benot de Maillet (1656-1738) and the end of

the biblical Earth History
James Hutton (1726-1797) opposed to

Abraham Werner (1749-1817): Neptunism and
Plutonism

The Birth of Modern Science
Origin of fossils
Since the Roman Era, the

question of the origin of
fossil is still debated
Some assert that they are

the remains of animals
transformed into stones
Others argue that they

are the result of
spontaneous generation
within the rocks layers

Origin of fossils
The origin of giant bones and

the principle of the
apparition and disappearan-
ce of species is not conceived
yet
Giant bones are still

attributed to ancient giant
race of humans

Origin of fossils
The origin of giant bones and

the principle of the
apparition and disappearan-
ce of species is not conceived
yet
Giant bones are still

attributed to ancient giant
race of humans
Unknown species are not

considered as ancient
organisms, but to human
inventions or spontaneous
generative force of the earth

Origin of fossils
Even the existing species are

not well known
Pietro d'Abano wrote that

fossils resulted from the
action of the stars on the
earth (star shape in urchin
fossils)

Origin of fossils
Various legends about

fossils persisted till the 17
th

century
For example, some fossils

would be flying rocks, or
falling from the moon, or
appearing miraculously
during thunderstorms etc.
Spiriferida, Echinoderms
(sea urchins) and
glossopetr were classified
among the flying fossils

Origin of fossils
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-

1519), Bernard Palissy
(1510-1589) and Nicolas
Steno (1638-1386) brought
evidence for the organic
origin of fossils
Leonardo da Vinci:
Growth lines visible on
fossils like the living shells
Problem with the species

that does not exist any-
more (no explanation)

Origin of fossils
Bernard Palissy noticed

the presence of non living
species and explained that
by overfishing
Notion of lost species
He also noticed the

presence of equatorial
fishes in France, which has
a temperate climate and
supposed they were
brought by man after
fishing

Origin of fossils
Nicolas Steno laid down

the basis of modern
stratigraphy and
palaeontology
He demonstrated the
organic origin of fossils:
Absence of deformation of
the matrix containing the
fossils, presence of broken
shells, the organisation in
strata of the rocks, etc.

Origin of fossils
If fossils were forming in-

situ within the rock by
spontaneous generation,
the matrix would break
They would be all the

same, with no broken
shells like observed in
beaches
Fossils and living shells

are too similar to be
formed by two different
processes

Various legend existed about fossils until the

17
th
century: flying stones, falling from the
moon, the stars or from the sky during
thunderstorm or lunar eclipse
Only two serious suppositions were accepted

as scientific:
1.Formation in-situ by spontaneous genera-
tion or influenced by stars (astrology)
2.Formation by transformation of once-
living organism into rock
Scientists of the 16
th
and 17
th
centuries showed
that the second hypothesis was the best
Origin of fossils

The notion of lost species (species that does

not exist any more) is suggested for the first
time by Bernard Palissy
Two hypothesis to explain the disappearance

of species:
1.Overfishing by humans
2.Spontaneous disappearance after the
Deluge caused by God's anger
The scale of time used by 16

th
and 17
th

centuries geologists is false but some
important ideas of the modern science are
emergent
Origin of fossils

Origin of fossils
What were the legends about fossils?

Origin of fossils
What are the two main scientific
hyothesis to e!lain fossils?

Origin of fossils
What arguments used "eonardo da
#inci$ Bernard %alissy and &icolas Steno
to demonstrate their hyothesis?

Principle of original
horizontality
Nicolas Steno laid down

the basis of modern
stratigraphy and
palaeontology
He postulated the law of

superposition
He inferred the principle of

original horizontality
He tried the first hypothesis

for the Tuscany mountains
formation

Principle of original
horizontality
This principle states that

layers of sediments are
originally deposited
horizontally under the
action of gravity
In the hypothesis of an
inactive earth all layers
should be horizontal
Tilted or folded layers exist

and indicate that the earth
is active

Law of superposition
Sedimentary layers are

deposited in a time
sequence with the oldest
on the bottom and the
youngest on the top
The Brethren of Purity

(Ikhwan Al-Safa) in the
late 10th century first
suggested this law
Avicenna in 1027 also

wrote about strata of
rocks and superposition

Suggested by early
author but not applied
Formally stated by
Nicolas Steno in his
Prodromus in 1669
Based on the studies of

fossils and the layers
containing them
Nicolas Steno was the

first to infer the relative
age of stratas

Using the law of

superposition and the
principle of original
horizontality, Nicolas
Steno made a model for
the formation of the
Tuscany Mountains
The plate goes from the

present time to the
origin, i.e. from the
bottom to the top

1.Sedimentary deposit within
the ocean during an
submersion episode
2.Emersion and digging of a
subterranean river by
circulation of water
3.Collapse of the top layer
4.Submersion and horizontal
sedimentary deposit
5.Emersion, digging and
collapsing

Neptunism
The almost ubiquitous

presence of fossils in most
field support the
hypothesis of Neptunism
The study of the Bible and

the belief in the creation
of the earth in a short time
by God reinforced this
theory
The whole earth crust was

believed to have formed in
a primitive ocean

Neptunism
Benot de Maillet observed

sedimentation processes
near seas and oceans and
wrote a theory of the earth
suggesting a history of
several millions of years for
the earth evolution
Mountains would form by

sedimentation in a
primitive ocean which
level is getting lower and
lower

Neptunism
This theory accepted the

formation of the earth and
continents as supposed by
Thomas Burnett
It was slightly transformed

to replace one
catastrophic event
(collapse of the primitive
continent in the primitive
ocean) by a more
progressive cause
(decreasing ocean)

Neptunism
Benot de Maillet was

probably the founder of
Neptunism
A contemporaneous
Italian geologist Lazzaro
Moro (1687-1764)
suggested that the
mountains form and
raise up during volcanic
eruptions
E.g. Monte Nuovo


Neptunism
However, the word

Neptunism was
created by Abraham
Werner (1749-1817) in
the late 18
th
century
The general theory was

that the earth was
totally recovered by a
primitive ocean
The ocean level lower

and allowed lands to
emerge

Neptunism
Mountains formed by
sedimentation around
submerged primitive
mountains
Old and primitive

mountains are in the
centre of mountain
chains and devoid of
fossils
Recent mountains are

rich in fossils in the
periphery

Neptunism
Old and primitive

mountains were formed
before the apparition of
life
New mountains formed

in a primitive ocean rich
in life forms
Continental life appears

progressively during the
emergence of lands by
transformation of the
aquatic forms

Plutonism
James Hutton (1726-

1797) does not believe
that a primitive ocean
recovered the full
surface of the earth
He does not believe

that all the rocks
formed from sediments
He suggested an
igneous origin for
basalts and granites

Plutonism
Their is no fossils in
granites or basalt
These rocks are formed

of crystals and not of
sand or mud
Two types of rocks:

sedimentary and
plutonic
Granites and basalts

may cross-cut the
sedimentary layers

Plutonism
James Hutton
remarked discordances
between the
sedimentary layers
Not all of them are

horizontal, but they
were deposited
horizontally
Thus, some process led

to their deviation,
levelling and covering

Plutonism
James Hutton made the

first great theory of rock
cycle
For him the mechanism

at the origin of
sedimentary layers
deviation is the heat
The heat lead to the

melting of some rock,
and the uplift of
continents and
mountains

Plutonism
The uplift of mountains

and continents out of
the sea lead to their
erosion
The erosion of
continents and
mountains lead to the
transport of the eroded
material into the sea
The transported
material collect as
sediments

Plutonism
Hutton thought that

this cycle could be
eternal and infer that
the earth had no
beginning and won't
have an end
He said we see no
vestige of a beginning...
No prospect of an end
He was accused of
impiety for his assertion

Plutonism
The theory of the

internal fire was not
new during the time of
James Hutton
It also proposed by
Descartes in his theory
of the formation of the
earth
It was also described by

Athanasius Kircher to
explain volcanic activity

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History of Geology

The birth of modern science:

Discussions about the origin and formation of

Nicolas Steno (1638-1686) and the law of

Benot de Maillet (1656-1738) and the end of

James Hutton (1726-1797) opposed to

Since the Roman Era, the

Some assert that they are

Others argue that they

The origin of giant bones and

Giant bones are still

The origin of giant bones and

Giant bones are still

Unknown species are not

Even the existing species are

Pietro d'Abano wrote that

Various legends about

For example, some fossils

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-

Problem with the species

Bernard Palissy noticed

Notion of lost species

He also noticed the

Nicolas Steno laid down

If fossils were forming in-

They would be all the

Fossils and living shells

Various legend existed about fossils until the

Only two serious suppositions were accepted

The notion of lost species (species that does

Two hypothesis to explain the disappearance

The scale of time used by 16

Nicolas Steno laid down

He postulated the law of

He inferred the principle of

He tried the first hypothesis

This principle states that

Tilted or folded layers exist

Sedimentary layers are

The Brethren of Purity

Avicenna in 1027 also

Based on the studies of

Nicolas Steno was the

Using the law of

The plate goes from the

The almost ubiquitous

The study of the Bible and

The whole earth crust was

Benot de Maillet observed

Mountains would form by

This theory accepted the

It was slightly transformed

Benot de Maillet was

E.g. Monte Nuovo

However, the word

The general theory was

The ocean level lower

Old and primitive

Recent mountains are

Old and primitive

New mountains formed

Continental life appears