ECE 345 / ME 380

Introduction to Control Systems

Lecture Notes 2
Dr. Oishi
oishi@unm.edu
August 27, 2013
Learning Objectives
Find the Laplace transform and inverse Laplace transform
Find the transfer function of a system from a dierential equation
Solve a dierential equation by using its transfer function
Find the transfer function for
LTI electrical networks
LTI mechanical systems (translational and mechanical)
LTI electromechanical systems
gear systems with and without loss
Produce analogous electrical and mechanical circuits
Linearize a nonlinear system to nd its transfer function
References:
Nise Chapter 2
1
Outline
The Laplace transform
Transfer functions
Electrical systems
Mechanical systems
Geared systems
Mechanical-electrical system analogs
Linearization
2
The Laplace Transform
Modeling
Three elements: input, output, and the system (process)
Dierential equations often model systems of interest, but can be
cumbersome mathematically
Laplace transforms facilitate block-diagram modeling of systems and
subsystems
3
The Laplace Transform
The method of Laplace transforms converts a calculus problem (the
linear dierential equation) into an algebra problem.
Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749-1827)
Integral transformation (similar to the Fourier transform)
L[f(t)] = F(s) =
Z

0

f(t)e
st
dt
Multiplication by the Laplace variable s corresponds to dierentiation in
the time domain
Inverse Laplace transformation
L
1
[F(s)] =
1
2j
Z
+j
j
F(s)e
st
ds = f(t)u(t)
4
The Laplace Transform
Properties of the Laplace transform
Linearity
Dierentiation
Final value theorem
Initial value theorem
Region of convergence
Important Laplace transform pairs
Impulse function
Step function
Exponential decay
Sine and cosine
Damped oscillations
5
The Laplace Transform
Clicker question
Find L
1
h
3s
4+2s
2
i
.
A. L
1
h
3s
4+s
2
i
=
3
2
cos(2t)
B. L
1
h
3s
4+s
2
i
= 3 cos(2t)
C. L
1
h
3s
4+s
2
i
=
3
2
cos

2t

D. L
1
h
3s
4+s
2
i
=
3
2
sin(2t)
E. L
1
h
3s
4+s
2
i
= 4 cos

2
t

6
The Laplace Transform
Clicker question
Use the method of Laplace transforms to solve the dierential equation
dy
dt
= y + 3e
2t
, y(0) = 1
with non-zero initial condition. What is the solution y(t) for t 0?
A. y(t) = 4e
t
3e
2t
B. y(t) = e
t
e
2t
C. y(t) = 3e
t
+ 4e
2t
D. y(t) = e
4t
+ 3e
2t
Hint: Start by taking the Laplace transform of both sides of the equation.
7
Transfer functions
Goal: Algebraically relate input and output
Consider an n
th
order dierential equation with initial conditions equal
to zero, that relates the input u(t) and output y(t)
d
n
y
dt
n
+ a
1
d
n1
y
dt
n1
+ + a
n
y = b
0
d
m
u
dt
m
+ b
1
d
m1
u
dt
m1
+ + b
m
u,
Take the Laplace transform of both sides
s
n
Y (s)+a
1
s
n1
Y (s)+ +a
n
Y (s) = b
0
s
m
U(s)+b
1
s
m1
U(s)+ +b
m
U(s)
And rearrange to obtain
Y (s)
R(s)
=

b
0
s
m
+ b
1
s
m1
+ + b
m1
s + b
m

(s
n
+ a
1
s
n1
+ + a
n1
s + a
n
)
8
Transfer functions
Goal: Algebraically relate input and output
The transfer function is the ratio G(s) =
Y (s)
R(s)
.
Note that this means that Y (s) = G(s)R(s), so the output signal can
be calculated in a straightforward manner (multiplication!).
9
Transfer functions
Clicker question
Consider the system represented by
dy
dt
+ 2y(t) = r(t), y(0) = 0
What is the system response y(t) to a step input r(t) = u(t)?
A. y(t) = 2e
t
for t 0, y(t) = 0 for t < 0
B. y(t) =
1
2

1
2
e
2t
for t 0, y(t) = 0 for t < 0
C. y(t) =
1
2
+
1
2
e
4t
for t 0, y(t) = 0 for t < 0
D. y(t) =

1
2

1
2
e
t/2

u(t)
Hint: First nd the transfer function.
10
Transfer functions
Electrical systems
Mesh analysis = Kirchhos voltage law
Nodal analysis = Kirchhos current law
Identify integro-dierential equations directly, or use
Laplace transforms
Impedances often more convenient for mesh analysis (Nise, p. 51)
Admittances often more convenient for nodal analysis (Nise, p. 55)
11
Transfer functions
Electrical systems
Ideal operational amplier
May be inverting or non-inverting
No current at the input terminals that ows into the op-amp
(Input impedance is innite)
Voltage at the two input terminals is tied
Convenient way to build, implement, and realize transfer functions
Analog controllers
12
Transfer functions
13
Transfer functions
Mechanical systems translational elements
Spring-mass-damper systems
Dynamic simulator, courtesy of Professor Bonnie Heck, Georgia Tech:
http://users.ece.gatech.edu/bonnie/book1/applets/suspension/MSDdemo.htm
Choose positive direction, then apply Newtons second law.
14
Transfer functions
Mechanical systems rotational elements
Spring-inertial load-damper systems
Choose positive direction, then apply Newtons second law.
15
Transfer functions
Geared systems
For lossless gears,
T2
T1
=
1
2
=
N2
N1
Electromechanical systems
DC motor
16
Mechanical / Electrical System Analogs
Clicker question
Which of the following pairs could be analogs?
A. RLC parallel circuit and spring-mass system
B. RC series circuit and a spring-mass system
C. LC series circuit and spring-mass system
D. LC series circuit and damper-mass system
E. Not very condent about any of these answers
17
Linearization
Linearity of f(x)
Scaling: f(x) = x
Superposition: f(x
1
+ x
2
) = f(x
1
) + f(x
2
)
For example: f(x) = 3x
Examples of nonlinearities
18
Linearization
Solution:
Linearize y = f(x) for x near x
0
Taylors series approximation
Works for (x x
0
) small enough
f(x) f(x
0
)
f
x

x=x0
(x x
0
)
19
Linearization
Frictionless rigid pendulum
Linearize the dynamics () = MgLsin around = 0.
() 0 MgL
sin

=0
( 0)
MgL
with = , =
20
Linearization
Clicker question
Consider again the pendulum dynamics
() = MgLsin
What is linearization of this system when the pendulum is upright, e.g.,
around = ?
A. MgL , = , =
B. MgL , = MgL, =
C. MgL , = , =
D. MgL , = /2
21