Modeling of Electrical and Mechanical Systems: Lectures 12-15

Lectures 12-15
Modeling of Electrical
and Mechanical Systems
Principles of Control Systems Academic year 2013-2014 164 Prof. K. Melhem (Qassim University)
Lecture outline
In these lectures we will learn how to model electric and mechanical systems in terms
of transfer functions and state-space representations.
Electric network transfer functions
Introduction
We model with transfer functions electric systems including passive networks and operational
amplier circuits. Our guiding principles to develop the transfer functions are Kirchhoffs laws; We
sum voltages around loops or current at nodes and equate the result to zero. Table below
summarizes the relationships between voltage and current, and between voltage and charge, for the
three passive linear components: resistors, capacitors, and inductors, provided that initial conditions
are zero. From these relationships we can write the dierential equations for the network using
Kirchhos laws. Then we can take the Laplace transforms and solve for the transfer function.
Introduction
Below is a technique for simplifying the solution for the transfer function. We take the Laplace
transform for the relationships between voltage and current across a capacitor, resistor, and
inductor to yield
For the capacitor,
V(s) =
1
Cs
I(s)
For the resistor,
V(s) = RI(s)
For the inductor,
V(s) = LsI(s)
We now dene the transfer function
V(s)
I(s)
= Z(s)
which is similar to the denition of resistance, that is, the ratio of voltage to current. Unlike the
resistance, this function is applicable to capacitors and inductors and carries information on the
dynamic behavior of the component, since it represents an equivalent dierential equation. We call
this particular transfer function impedance. Subsequently, the concept of impedance can be used to
simplify the solution for the transfer function when the Kirchhos voltage law is used.
Introduction
Conversely, let us write the relationships between voltage and current across a capacitor, resistor,
and inductor as
For the capacitor,
I(s) =CsV(s)
For the resistor,
I(s) =
1
R(s)
V(s)
For the inductor,
I(s) =
1
Ls
V(s)
We now dene the transfer function
I(s)
V(s)
=Y(s)
which is similar to the denition of conductance (inverse of resistance), that is, the ratio of current
to voltage. Unlike the conductance, this function is applicable to capacitors and inductors and
carries information on the dynamic behavior of the component, since it represents an equivalent
dierential equation. We call this particular transfer function admittance. Subsequently, the concept
of admittance can be used to simplify the solution for the transfer function when the Kirchhos
current law is used.
Voltage source and current source
Energy sources are twofold:
Voltage source: presents a constant voltage to any load (variations in the load do not
appreciably change the voltage).
Current source: delivers a constant current to any load (variations in the load do not
appreciably change the current).
Note: Practically, a current source can be constructed from a voltage source by placing a large
resistance in series with the voltage source.
For circuit analysis convenience, let us recall of the following theorem:
Nortons theorem (its dual is called Thvenins theorem): a voltage source V(s) in series with an
impedance Z(s) can be replaced by a current source I(s) =V(s)/Z(s) =Y(s)V(s) in parallel with the
admittance Y(s).
Simple circuits via mesh analysis
Transfer functions can be obtained using Kirchhos voltage law in which voltages are summed
around loops or meshes. We call this method loop or mesh analysis. Let us look at an example.
Problem Find the transfer function relating the capacitor voltage V
C
(s) to the input voltage V(s) in
gure below.
Solution Summing the voltages around the loop, assuming zero initial conditions, yields the
integrodierential equation for the network as
L
di(t)
dt
+Ri(t) +
1
C
t
0
i()d = v(t)
Changing variables from current to charge using i(t) = dq(t)/dt yields
L
d
2
q(t)
dt
2
+R
dq(t)
dt
+
1
C
q(t) = v(t)
Since q(t) =Cv
C
(t), we have
LC
d
2
v
C
(t)
dt
2
+RC
dv
C
(t)
dt
+v
C
(t) = v(t)
Taking the Laplace transform assuming zero initial conditions, rearranging terms, and simplifying
yields
(LCs
2
+RCs +1)V
C
(s) =V(s)
Solving for the transfer function V
C
(s)/V(s), we obtain
V
C
(s)
V(s)
=
1/LC
s
2
+
R
L
s +
1
LC
which is shown in gure below.
Let us next demonstrate how the concept of impedance simplies the solution for the transfer
function.
The Laplace transform of the loop dierential equation, assuming zero initial conditions, is
(Ls +R+
1
Cs
)I(s) =V(s)
which is in the form
[Sum of impedances] I(s) = [Sum of applied voltages]
The last form suggests the circuit shown below
in which we add impedances in series as we add resistors in series. We notice that the circuit above
could have been obtained immediately from the original network circuit simply by replacing each
component with its impedance. We call this altered circuit the transformed circuit.
Conversely, let us suppose that we have the transformed circuit
for which we simply apply the Kirchhos voltage law to yield
(Ls +R+
1
Cs
)I(s) =V(s)
Solving for I(s)/V(s), we obtain
I(s)
V(s)
=
1
Ls +R+
1
Cs
But the voltage across the capacitor is V
C
(s) = I(s)/Cs, which eventually leads to the same transfer
function
V
C
(s)
V(s)
=
1/LC
s
2
+
R
L
s +
1
LC
Conclusion: With the impedance concept we can bypass the dierential equation and directly use
the transformed circuit to nd the transfer function.
Complex circuits via mesh analysis
To solve complex electrical networks with multiple loops, using mesh analysis, we can perform the
following steps:
1. Replace passive element values with their impedances
2. Replace all sources and time variables with their Laplace transforms
3. Assume a transform current and a current direction in each mesh
4. Write Kirchhos voltage law around each mesh
5. Solve the simultaneous equations for the output
6. Form the transfer function
Let us look at an example.
Problem Given the network of the gure at the top below, nd the transfer function I
2
(s)/V(s).
Solution We rst nd the transformed circuit as shown in the central gure. This circuit has two
independent meshes, thus two simultaneous (because of coupling) equations are to be solved for the
transfer function. These equations can be found by summing voltages around Mesh 1 and Mesh 2 as
shown in the gure.
Around Mesh 1 in which current I
1
(s) ows, we have
R
1
I
1
(s) +LsI
1
(s) LsI
2
(s) =V(s)
Around Mesh 2 in which current I
2
(s) ows, we have
LsI
2
(s) +R
2
I
2
(s) +
1
Cs
I
2
(s) LsI
1
(s) = 0
Combining terms in the last two equations, we nd the simultaneous equations in I
1
(s) and I
2
(s):
(R
1
+Ls)I
1
(s) LsI
2
(s) = V(s)
LsI
1
(s) +
_
Ls +R
2
+
1
Cs
_
I
2
(s) = 0
Solution (Contd) The system of linear equations representing the last two equations has the general
form Ax = B for which unknowns x is given as x = A
1
B. If we are interested in a single unknown x
k
,
Cramers rule can be used. To solve for I
2
(s) Cramers rule gives that
I
2
(s) =
R
1
+Ls V(s)
Ls 0
=
LsV(s)
where
=
R
1
+Ls Ls
Ls Ls +R
2
+
1
Cs
It follows that the transfer function I

2
(s)/V(s) is
I
2
(s)
V(s)
=
Ls
=
LCs
2
(R
1
+R
2
)LCs
2
+(R
1
R
2
C+L)s +R
1
which is shown in the gure at the bottom before.
Solution (Contd) The last equations in I
1
(s) and I
2
(s) take the following general form:
_
_
Sum of
impedances
around Mesh 1
_
_
I
1
(s)
_
_
Sum of
impedances
common to the
two meshes
_
_
I
2
(s) =
_
_
Sum of applied
voltages around
Mesh 1
_
_
Sum of
impedances
common to the
two meshes
_
_
I
1
(s) +
_
_
Sum of
impedances
around Mesh 2
_
_
I
2
(s) =
_
_
Sum of applied
voltages around
Mesh 2
_
_
Recognizing this form helps us write such equations rapidly from the transformed circuit!
Solution (Contd)
Important remark about the number of independent meshes required: In a multi-meshes electric network,
the number of simultaneous dierential equations required to describe the system equals the number
of independent meshes. Independent meshes are when we open-circuit one of the meshes, the other
meshes can still have currents owing through them if there are voltage sources in these meshes. In
our example, there are (sets of) two independent meshes. Determination of the currents owing in
the independent meshes should give the currents in each electric component in the circuit.
Simple circuits via nodal analysis
Transfer functions can be obtained using Kirchhos current law in which currents are summed at
nodes. We call this method nodal analysis. Let us look at an example.
Problem Repeat the previous problem of RLC network using nodal analysis and without writing a
dierential equation.
Solution The transfer function can be obtained by summing currents owing out of the node whose
voltage is V
C
(s) (unknown) in the gure below.
We assume currents leaving the node are positive and currents entering the node are negative. The
incoming current is the current owing through the series resistor and inductor and the outgoing
current is the current through the capacitor. The Kirchhos current law applied at that node gives
V
C
(s)
1/Cs
+
V
C
(s) V(s)
R+Ls
= 0
from which it follows the same transfer function V
C
(s)/V(s) determined earlier.
Simple circuits via nodal analysis
Solution Notice that the last equation can be rewritten as
_
1
R+Ls
+Cs
_
V
C
(s) =
1
R+Ls
V(s)
which is in the form
[Sum of admittances connected to the node] V
C
(s) =[Sum of applied currents at the node]
This suggests the following transformed circuit given now with current source and admittances
rather than voltage source and impedances.
1/(R+Ls)V(s)
1/(R+Ls)
Cs VC(s)
Complex circuits via nodal analysis
To solve complex electrical networks with multiple nodes, using nodal analysis, we can perform the
following steps:
1. Replace passive element values with their admittances
2. Replace all sources and time variables with their Laplace transforms
3. Replace transformed voltage sources with transformed current sources
4. Write Kirchhos current law at each node
5. Solve the simultaneous equations for the output
6. Form the transfer function
Problem For the network of the previous problem of R
1
LR
2
C network, nd the transfer function
I
2
(s)/V(s), using nodal analysis.
Solution By replacing all the passive elements with their admittances and the voltage sources in series
with an impedance to current sources in parallel with an admittance using Nortons theorem, we get
the following transformed circuit. Note that G
1
= 1/R
1
and G
2
= 1/R
2
. We identify two independent
nodes with voltages as the inductor voltage V
L
(s) and capacitor voltage V
C
(s), as indicated in the
gure. Now, we apply Kirchhos current law at the two nodes using the concept of admittance.
Solution (Contd)
Summing currents at the node V
L
(s) yields
G
1
[V
L
(s) V(s)] +
1
Ls
V
L
(s) +G
2
[V
L
(s) V
C
(s)] = 0
Summing currents at the node V
C
(s) yields
CsV
C
(s) +G
2
[V
C
(s) V
L
(s)] = 0
Combining terms, the last two equations can be rewritten as simultaneous equations in V
L
(s) and
V
C
(s) as
_
G
1
+G
2
+
1
Ls
_
V
L
(s) G
2
V
C
(s) = V(s)G
1
G
2
V
L
(s) +(G
2
+Cs)V
C
(s) = 0
Solving for the transfer function V
C
(s)/V(s) yields
V
C
(s)
V(s)
=
G
1
G
2
C
s
(G
1
+G
2
)s
2
+
G
1
G
2
L+C
LC
s +
G
2
LC
Solution (Contd) An advantage of drawing the transformed circuit with admittances and current
source lies in the form of the last equations and its direct relationship to the transformed circuit,
namely
_
_
Sum of admittances
connected to Node 1
_
_
V
L
(s)
_
_
Sum of admittances
common to the two
nodes
_
_
V
C
(s) =
_
_
Sum of applied
currents at Node 1
_
_
_
Sum of admittances
common to the two
nodes
_
_
V
L
(s) +
_
_
Sum of admittances
connected to Node 2
_
_
V
C
(s) =
_
_
Sum of applied
currents at Node 2
_
_
Remarks:
The above form is not always favorable since transforming voltage sources to current sources is
a dicult task.
The number of simultaneous equations that must be written is equal to the number of
independent nodes whose voltages are unknown. Determining the voltages of the independent
nodes should lead to determining the voltage across each electric component in the circuit.
A problem-solving technique
In all our examples, we have seen a repeating form in the equations that we can use to our
advantage. If we recognize this form, we need not to write the equations component by component;
we can sum impedances around a mesh in the case of mesh equations or sum admittances at a node
in the case of node equations. Let us look at an example.
Problem (Mesh equation via inspection) Write, but do not solve, the mesh equations for the network
shown in the gure below.
Solution (Contd) As seen before, the mesh equations have a predictable form. Actually, the
equations for Meshes 1, 2, and 3 have the following form:
_
_
Sum of
impedances
around Mesh 1
_
_
I
1
(s)
_
_
Sum of
impedances
common to
Mesh 1 & Mesh 2
_
_
I
2
(s)
_
_
Sum of
impedances
common to
Mesh 1 & Mesh 3
_
_
I
3
(s) =
_
_
Sum of applied
voltages around
Mesh 1
_
_
Sum of
impedances
common to
Mesh 1 & Mesh 2
_
_
I
1
(s) +
_
_
Sum of
impedances
around Mesh 2
_
_
I
2
(s)
_
_
Sum of
impedances
common to
Mesh 2 & Mesh 3
_
_
I
3
(s) =
_
_
Sum of applied
voltages around
Mesh 2
_
_
Sum of
impedances
common to
Mesh 1 & Mesh 3
_
_
I
1
(s)
_
_
Sum of
impedances
common to
Mesh 2 & Mesh 3
_
_
I
2
(s) +
_
_
Sum of
impedances
around Mesh 3
_
_
I
3
(s) =
_
_
Sum of applied
voltages around
Mesh 3
_
_
Solution (Contd) Substituting the values from the gure shown before into the last three equations
yields
+(2s +2)I
1
(s) (2s +1)I
2
(s) I
3
(s) = V(s)
(2s +1)I
1
(s) +(9s +1)I
2
(s) 4sI
3
(s) = 0
I
1
(s) 4sI
2
(s) +
_
4s +1+
1
s
_
I
3
(s) = 0
which can be solved simultaneously for any desired transfer function, for example I
3
(s)/V(s).
Electric network state-space representations
Below, we present a technique for selecting state variables and representing an electric network in
state-space form.
Problem Given the electrical network shown below, nd a state-space representation if the output is
the current through the resistor.
Solution First, we label all of the branch currents in the network. These include i
L
, i
R
, and i
C
as
shown in the gure. Second, we choose the state variables as the dierentiated quantities in the
derivative equations for all the energy-storage elements. That is, from
C
dv
C
dt
= i
C
L
di
L
dt
= v
L
we choose the state variables as v
C
(the voltage across the capacitor) and i
L
(the current through the
inductor). Next is to determine the time derivatives of v
C
and i
L
as linear combinations of v
C
and i
L
as well as the input v(t). To that end, i
C
and v
L
are to be found as such combinations, using
Kirchhos voltage and current laws.
At Node 1, we have
i
C
= i
R
+i
L
=
1
R
v
C
+i
L
which gives i
C
as a linear combination of state variables v
C
and i
L
.
Around the outer loop, we have
v
L
=v
C
+v(t)
which gives v
L
as a linear combination of the state variable v
C
and the input v.
Substituting the results found above into the equations determining the derivatives of v
C
and i
L
gives the following state equations
C
dv
C
dt
=
1
R
v
C
+i
L
L
di
L
dt
= v
C
+v(t)
Or
dv
C
dt
=
1
RC
v
C
+
1
C
i
L
di
L
dt
=
1
L
v
C
+
1
L
v(t)
Since the output is chosen as i
R
(t), the output equation is
i
R
=
1
R
v
C
which is a linear combination of state variable v
C
.
Finally, the state-space representation in matrix form is
_
_
v
C
i
L
_
_
=
_
_
1/(RC) 1/C
1/L 0
_
_
_
_
v
C
i
L
_
_
+
_
_
0
1/L
_
_
v
i
R
= [1/R 0]
_
_
v
C
i
L
_
_
Operational ampliers
We now discuss active circuits that can be used to implement controllers and compensators. These
are circuits built around an operational amplier.
An operational amplier (or dierential amplier), as pictured in the gure above, is an electronic
amplier, which has the following characteristics:
1. Dierential input, v
2
(t) v
1
(t)
2. High input impedance, Z
i
= (ideal)
3. Low output impedance, Z
o
= 0 (ideal)
4. High constant gain amplication, A = (ideal)
5. The output v
o
(t) of an operational amplier is given by v
o
(t) = A(v
2
(t) v
1
(t))
Operational ampliers
The following remarks on operational ampliers (op-amps) are in order:
Op-amps are frequently used to amplify signals from sensor circuits. They are also used to
implement analog lters and controllers.
The amplier gain A is approximately 10
5
10
6
for dc signals and ac signals with frequencies
less than approximately 10 Hz. Whereas, the gain A decreases with the signal frequency and
becomes about unity for frequencies of 1 MHz 50 MHz.
Since the gain of an op-amp is very high, it is necessary to have a negative feedback from the
output to the input (the inverted input) to make the amplier stable.
In an ideal op-amp, no current ows into the input terminals, and the output voltage is not
aected by the load connected to the output terminal. In other words, the input impedance is
innity and the output impedance is zero. In an actual op-amp, a very small (almost
negligible) current ows into an input terminal and the output cannot be loaded too much. For
the sake of analysis purpose, we make the assumption that the op-amps are ideal.
Inverting operational ampliers
If v
2
(t) is grounded, as shown in the gures above, the amplier is called inverting operational
amplier, since we have
v
o
(t) =Av
1
(t)
If two impedances are connected to the inverting operational amplier as shown in the gure on the
right, an important result can be derived as follows. I
a
(s) = 0 since input impedance is high.
Therefore, by Kirchhos current law, I
1
(s) =I
2
(s). Also, v
1
(t) = 0 since gain A is large. Thus,
I
2
(s) =V
o
(s)/Z
2
(s) by Kirchhos voltage law. But I
1
(s) =V
i
(s)/Z
1
(s). It follows that
V
o
(s)
V
i
(s)
=
Z
2
(s)
Z
1
(s)
If Z
1
(s) = Z
2
(s), then the inverting op-amp circuit shown acts as a sign inverter.
PID controller using inverting operational ampliers
A PID controller can be realized by the operational amplier circuit above. To see this, let us
determine the ratio of the output E
o
(s) to the input E
i
(s). First, the transfer function E(s)/E
i
(s) is
given as
E(s)
E
i
(s)
=
Z
2
(s)
Z
1
(s)
where
Z
1
(s) =
R
1
R
1
C
1
s +1
, Z
2
(s) =
R
2
C
2
s +1
C
2
s
Thus
E(s)
E
i
(s)
=
R
2
C
2
s +1
C
2
s
R
1
C
1
s +1
R
1
=
_
R
1
C
1
+R
2
C
2
R
1
C
2
+
1
R
1
C
2
s
+C
1
R
2
s
_
PID controller using inverting operational ampliers
But a PID controller is expressed as
T(s) = K
p
+
K
i
s
+K
d
s
which has no negative sign, compared to the transfer function E(s)/E
i
(s) found. For E(s)/E
i
(s) to
represent a PID controller we connect our circuit with a sign inverter as shown in the gure. The
overall transfer function E
o
(s)E
i
(s) is simply
E
o
(s)
E
i
(s)
=
E
o
(s)
E(s)
E(s)
E
i
(s)
=
_
R
4
R
3
__
_
R
1
C
1
+R
2
C
2
R
1
C
2
+
1
R
1
C
2
s
+C
1
R
2
s
__
=
R
4
(R
1
C
1
+R
2
C
2
)
R
3
R
1
C
2
+
R
4
R
3
R
1
C
2
s
+
R
4
R
2
C
1
R
3
s
from which the PID controller gains are to be
K
p
=
R
4
(R
1
C
1
+R
2
C
2
)
R
3
R
1
C
2
K
i
=
R
4
R
3
R
1
C
2
K
d
=
R
4
R
2
C
1
R
3
PID controller using inverting operational ampliers - - an example - -
Problem Find the transfer function V
o
(s)/V
i
(s) for the circuit given below.
Solution Since the admittances of parallel components add, the impedances of cascaded components
add, and the impedance is the reciprocal of admittance, we get
Z
1
(s) =
1
C
1
s +
1
R
1
=
1
5.610
6
s +
1
36010
3
=
36010
3
2.016s +1
Z
2
(s) = R
2
+
1
C
2
s
= 22010
3
+
10
7
s
Substituting Z
1
(s) and Z
2
(s) into V
o
(s)/V
i
(s) =Z
2
(s)/Z
1
(s), we get
V
o
(s)
V
i
(s)
=1.232
s
2
+45.95s +22.55
s
The aforementioned circuit can be used to implement a PID controller.
Lead or lag compensator using inverting operational ampliers
The active (or electronic) circuit, as shown in the gure on the left, using an operational amplier,
has the following transfer function
E(s)
E
i
(s)
=
Z
2
(s)
Z
1
(s)
where
Z
1
(s) =
R
1
R
1
C
1
s +1
, Z
2
(s) =
R
2
R
1
C
2
s +1
Thus
E(s)
E
i
(s)
=
R
2
R
1
R
1
C
1
s +1
R
2
C
2
s +1
=
C
1
C
2
s +
1
R
1
C
1
s +
1
R
2
C
2
Lead or lag compensator using inverting operational ampliers
The last circuit is sign inverting so that a sign inverter connected at the output or the input of the
circuit may be used as in the gure on the right. The sign inverter transfer function
E
o
(s)/E(s) =R
4
/R
3
makes that the whole transfer function be
E
o
(s)
E
i
(s)
=
E
o
(s)
E(s)
E(s)
E
i
(s)
=
R
4
R
2
R
3
R
1
R
1
C
1
s +1
R
2
C
2
s +1
=
R
4
C
1
R
3
C
2
s +
1
R
1
C
1
s +
1
R
2
C
2
= K
c
Ts +1
Ts +1
= K
c
s +
1
T
s +
1
T
where
K
c
=
R
4
C
1
R
3
C
2
, =
R
2
C
2
R
1
C
1
, T = R
1
C
1
The discussed active network is used to implement the so-called lead compensator when R
1
C
1
> R
2
C
2
(or < 1) and lag compensator when R
1
C
1
< R
2
C
2
(or > 1).
Operational amplier circuits used as controllers or compensators
Table below presents a list of operational amplier circuits that may be used as controllers or
compensators.
A lead-lag compensator can be formed by cascading the lag compensator with the lead
compensator, as shown in gure below.
Passive-circuit realization of compensators
Lag, lead, and lag-lead compensators can also be implemented with passive networks. Table below
summarizes the networks and their transfer functions.
The lag-lead transfer function can be put in the following form:
G
c
(s) =
_
s +
1
T
1
__
s +
1
T
2
_
_
s +
1
T
1
__
s +

T
2
_
where < 1. The terms with T
1
form the lead compensator and the terms with T
2
form the lag
compensator. Equation above shows a restriction inherent in using this passive-circuit realization.
Indeed, the dc gain of this network is unity.
However, a lag-lead compensator without this restriction can be implemented with an active
network as previously seen, or with passive networks by cascading the lead and lag networks shown
in the next table. Here, the two networks of lead and lag compensators must be isolated to ensure
that one network does not load the other, as shown in the gure hereafter.
A lead-lag compensator can be formed by cascading the passive-circuit lag compensator with the
passive-circuit lead compensator with isolation, as shown in gure below.
Active- and passive-circuit realization of compensators
Controllers and compensators can be realized either by active networks, using operational amplier
circuits, or by passive networks using only resistors and capacitors (for electric networks).
Compensators that use pure integration (PI controllers) for improving steady-state error or
pure dierentiation (PD controllers) for improving transient response are dened as ideal
compensators. Ideal compensators must be implemented with active networks, which, in the
case of electric networks, require the use of active ampliers with additional power sources for
their operation. An advantage of ideal integral compensators is that steady-state error is
reduced to zero. Electromechanical ideal compensators, such as tachometers, are often used to
improve transient response, since they can be conveniently interfaced with the plant.
Compensators that can be implemented with only passive elements (lag, lead, and lag-lead
compensators) such as resistors and capacitors do not use pure integration or dierentiation
and are not ideal compensators. Advantages of passive-circuit compensators are that they are
less expensive and do not require additional power sources for their operation. Their
disadvantage is that the steady-state error is not driven to zero.
The choice between an active- or passive-circuit compensator revolves around cost, weight,
desired performance, transfer function, and the interface between the compensator and the
other hardware.
Translational mechanical system transfer functions
Next we see how to model a translational mechanical system by a transfer function. Like electrical
networks, mechanical systems have three passive linear components. Two of them, the spring and
the mass, are energy-storage elements, and one of them, the viscous damper, dissipates energy.
The concept of impedance
Like electric networks, impedances can be dened for mechanical systems, which can be used to
write the equations of motion and nd the transfer function without bypassing by the dierential
equations.
Taking the Laplace transform of force-displacement column of the previous table, we obtain
For the spring,
F(s) = KX(s)
For the viscous damper,
F(s) = f
v
sX(s)
For the mass,
F(s) = Ms
2
X(s)
If we dene impedance for mechanical components as
Z
M
(s) =
F(s)
X(s)
and apply the denition to the last equation above, we arrive at the impedances of each component
as summarized in the table. The impedance concept allows us to write the force-displacement
relationships for mass and viscous damper algebraically as in the case of spring.
To nd transfer functions for translational mechanical systems, we can perform the following steps:
1. Assume a positive direction of motion, for example, to the right, for each moving body.
2. Draw a free-body diagram for each moving body, placing on it all the forces that act on the
body either in the direction of motion or opposite to it.
3. Use Newtons law to form a dierential equation of motion for each moving body, by summing
forces and setting the sum equal to zero.
4. Finally, assuming zero initial conditions, we take the Laplace transform of each dierential
equation, separate variables, and arrive at the transfer function required.
Transfer function - - One degree of freedom - -
Problem Find the transfer function X(s)/F(s) for the system shown below.
Solution We begin with drawing the free-body diagram and placing on it the forces felt by the mass.
We assume the mass is traveling toward the right.
Transfer function - - One degree of freedom - -
Solution We now write the dierential equation of motion using Newtons second law to sum to zero
the dierent forces acting on the mass and to yield
M
d
2
x(t)
dt
2
+ f
v
dx(t)
dt
+Kx(t) = f (t)
Taking the Laplace transform, assuming zero initial conditions,
Ms
2
X(s) + f
v
sX(s) +KX(s) = F(s) or (Ms
2
+ f
v
s +K)X(s) = F(s)
Solving for the transfer function yields
G(s) =
X(s)
F(s)
=
1
Ms
2
+ f
v
s +K
Using the concept of impedance, we notice that the Laplace-transformed equation of motion is of
the form
[Sum of impedances connected to the motion at x] X(s) = [Sum of applied forces at x]
Transfer function - - Multiple degrees of freedom - -
In order to work a problem with multiple degrees of freedom, we draw the free-body diagram for
each point of motion and then use superposition. For each free-body diagram, we begin by holding
all other points of motion still and nding the forces acting on the body due only to its own motion.
Then we hold the body still and activate the other points of motion one at a time, placing on the
original body the forces created by the adjacent motion.
Transfer function - - Two degrees of freedom - -
Problem Find the transfer function X
2
(s)/F(s) for the system shown below.
Solution The system has two independent degrees of freedom, since each mass can be moved while
the other is held still. Thus, two simultaneous equations of motion will be required to describe the
system. The two equations come from the free-body diagrams of each mass.
If we hold M
2
still and move M
1
to the right, we see the forces shown in gure at the top on the left.
If we hold M
1
still and move M
2
to the right, we see the forces shown in the gure at the top on the
right. The total forces acting on M
1
are the superposition, as shown in the gure at the bottom.
Now the Laplace transform of the equations of motion for M
1
can be written as
_
M
1
s
2
+( f
v
1
+ f
v
3
)s +(K
1
+K
2
)
X
1
(s) ( f
v
3
s +K
2
)X
2
(s) = F(s)
Similarly, the Laplace transform of the equation of motion for M
2
is
( f
v
3
s +K
2
)X
1
(s) +
_
M
2
s
2
+( f
v
2
+ f
v
3
)s +(K
2
+K
3
)
X
2
(s) = 0
From the last two simultaneous equations of motion, the transfer function X
2
(s)/F(s) is
X
2
(s)
F(s)
= G(s) =
f
v
3
s +K
2
where
=
M
1
s
2
+( f
v
1
+ f
v
3
)s +K
1
+K
2
( f
v
3
s +K
2
)
( f
v
3
s +K
2
) M
2
s
2
+( f
v
2
+ f
v
3
)s +K
2
+K
3
Notice that the last two simultaneous equations of motion are in the general form:
_
_
Sum of impedances
connected to
the motion at x
1
_
_
X
1
(s)
_
_
Sum of impedances
between
x
1
and x
2
_
_
X
2
(s) =
_
_
Sum of applied
forces
at x
1
_
_
Sum of impedances
between
x
1
and x
2
_
_
X
1
(s) +
_
_
Sum of impedances
connected to
the motion at x
2
_
_
X
2
(s) =
_
_
Sum of applied
forces
at x
2
_
_
Note: If we become familiar with this form, we can nd the equations of motion by inspection,
without drawing the free-body diagrams.
Transfer function - - Equations of motion by inspection - -
Problem Write, but do not solve, the equations of motion for the translational mechanical system
shown below.
Solution The system has three degrees of freedom, since each of the three masses can be moved
independently while the others are held still.
Solution (Contd) The form of the Laplace-transformed equations of motion for masses M
1
, M
2
, and
M
3
are
_
_
Sum of
impedances
connected to
the motion at x
1
_
_
X
1
(s)
_
_
Sum of
impedances
between
x
1
and x
2
_
_
X
2
(s)
_
_
Sum of
impedances
between
x
1
and x
3
_
_
X
3
(s) =
_
_
Sum of
applied forces
at x
1
_
_
Sum of
impedances
between
x
1
and x
2
_
_
X
1
(s) +
_
_
Sum of
impedances
connected to
the motion at x
2
_
_
X
2
(s)
_
_
Sum of
impedances
between
x
2
and x
3
_
_
X
3
(s) =
_
_
Sum of
applied forces
at x
2
_
_
Sum of
impedances
between
x
1
and x
3
_
_
X
1
(s)
_
_
Sum of
impedances
between
x
2
and x
3
_
_
X
2
(s) +
_
_
Sum of
impedances
connected to
the motion at x
3
_
_
X
3
(s) =
_
_
Sum of
applied forces
at x
3
_
_
Solution (Contd) M
1
has two springs, two viscous dampers, and mass associated with its motion.
There is one spring between M
1
and M
2
, and one viscous damper between M
1
and M
3
. Thus, the
equation of motion for M
1
is
[M
1
s
2
+( f
v
1
+ f
v
3
)s +(K
1
+K
2
)]X
1
(s) K
2
X
2
(s) f
v
3
sX
3
(s) = 0
Similarly, the equations of motion for M
2
and M
3
are
K
2
X
1
(s) +[M
2
s
2
+( f
v
2
+ f
v
4
)s +K
2
]X
2
(s) f
v
4
sX
3
(s) = F(s)
f
v
3
sX
1
(s) f
v
4
sX
2
(s) +[M
3
s
2
+( f
v
3
+ f
v
4
)s]X
3
(s) = 0
Note: We can solve the last equations for any displacements X
1
(s), X
2
(s), or X
3
(s), or transfer
function.
Translational mechanical systems
A state-space representation
Problem Find the state equations for the translational mechanical system shown in the gure below.
Solution First, the dierential equations of motion are
M
1
d
2
x
1
dt
2
+D
dx
1
dt
+Kx
1
Kx
2
= 0
Kx
1
+M
2
d
2
x
2
dt
2
+Kx
2
= f (t)
Now, let v
1
= dx
1
/dt and v
2
= dx
2
/dt, and then select x
1
, v
1
, x
2
, and v
2
as the state variables (normal
choice for mechanical systems).
Translational mechanical systems
A state-space representation
It follows that the state equations of the system are simply given by
dx
1
dt
= v
1
dv
1
dt
=
K
M
1
x
1
D
M
1
v
1
+
K
M
1
x
2
dx
2
dt
= v
2
dv
2
dt
=
K
M
2
x
1
K
M
2
x
2
+
1
M
2
f (t)
In matrix form, we have
_
_
x
1
v
1
x
2
v
2
_
_
=
_
_
0 1 0 0
K/M
1
D/M
1
K/M
1
0
0 0 0 1
K/M
2
0 K/M
2
0
_
_
_
_
x
1
v
1
x
2
v
2
_
_
+
_
_
0
0
0
1/M
2
_
_
f (t)
Rotational mechanical system transfer functions
Rotational mechanical systems are handled the same way as translational mechanical systems
except that torque replaces force and angular displacement replaces translational displacement.
Similarly, the mechanical components for rotational systems are the same as those for translational
systems except that the components undergo rotation instead of translation.
Problem Find the transfer function
2
(s)/T(s) for the rotational mechanical system shown below.
The rod is supported by bearings at each end and is undergoing torsion. A torque is applied at the
left, and the displacement is measured at the right.
We approximate the system by assuming that the torsion acts like a spring concentrated at one
particular point in the rod, with an inertia J
1
to the left and an inertia J
2
to the right. We also
assume that the damping inside the exible shaft is negligible. The schematic of the system is
shown in the gure at the right. The system has 2 degrees of freedom so that it will take two
simultaneous equations to solve.
Next, we draw a free-body diagram of J
1
, using superposition. Figure at the left shows the torques
on J
1
if J
2
is held still and J
1
rotates. Figure at the center shows the torques on J
1
if J
1
is held still
and J
2
rotates. Figure at the right shows the nal free-body diagram for J
1
, from which the equation
of motion, after summing torques, is
(J
1
s
2
+D
1
s +K)
1
(s) K
2
(s) = T(s)
Similarly, the free-body diagram of J
2
is shown above, from which the equation of motion, summing
all the forces acting on J
2
, is
K
1
(s) +(J
2
s
2
+D
2
s +K)
2
(s) = 0
Using the last two simultaneous equations of motion yields the transfer function
2
(s)
T(s)
=
K
where
=
J
1
s
2
+D
1
s +K K
K J
2
s
2
+D
2
s +K
Notice that the last two simultaneous equations of motion are in the general form:
_
_
Sum of impedances
connected to
the motion at
1
_
1
(s)
_
_
Sum of impedances
between
1
and
2
_
2
(s) =
_
_
Sum of applied
torques
at
1
_
_
Sum of impedances
between
1
and
2
_
1
(s) +
_
_
Sum of impedances
connected to
the motion at
2
_
2
(s) =
_
_
Sum of applied
torques
at
2
_
_
Note: If we become familiar with this form, we can nd the equations of motion by inspection,
without drawing the free-body diagrams.
Problem Write, but do note solve, the Laplace transform of the equations of motion for the system
shown below.
Solution (Contd) The form of the Laplace-transformed equations of motion for the rotational masses
J
1
, J
2
, and J
3
are given as
_
_
Sum of
impedances
connected to
the motion at
1
_
1
(s)
_
_
Sum of
impedances
between
1
and
2
_
2
(s)
_
_
Sum of
impedances
between
1
and
3
_
3
(s) =
_
_
Sum of
applied torques
at
1
_
_
Sum of
impedances
between
1
and
2
_
1
(s) +
_
_
Sum of
impedances
connected to
the motion at
2
_
2
(s)
_
_
Sum of
impedances
between
2
and
3
_
3
(s) =
_
_
Sum of
applied torques
at
2
_
_
Sum of
impedances
between
1
and
3
_
1
(s)
_
_
Sum of
impedances
between
2
and
3
_
2
(s) +
_
_
Sum of
impedances
connected to
the motion at
3
_
3
(s) =
_
_
Sum of
applied torques
at
3
_
_
Solution (Contd) As the gure shows, the last equations are given as
(J
1
s
2
+D
1
s +K)
1
(s) K
2
(s) 0
3
(s) = T(s)
K
1
(s) +(J
2
s
2
+D
2
s +K)
2
(s) D
2
s
3
(s) = 0
0
1
(s) D
2
s
2
(s) +(J
3
s
2
+D
3
s +D
2
s)
3
(s) = 0
Note: We can solve for any transfer function, for example,
3
(s)/T(s).
Transfer functions for systems with gears
Rotational mechanical systems, especially those driven by motors, are rarely seen without
associated gears driving the load. Gears provide mechanical advantages to rotational systems. For a
car going uphill we shift to provide more torque and less speed. On the straightaway, we shift to
provide more speed and less torque.
The distance traveled along each gears circumference is the same:
r
1
1
= r
2
2
or

2
1
=
r
1
r
2
=
N
1
N
2
Assuming that gears do not absorb or store energy, the energy into Gear 1 equals the energy out
from Gear 2, that is
T
1
1
= T
2
2
or
T
2
T
1
=

1
2
=
N
2
N
1
Transfer functions for systems with gears - - Example 1 - -
What happens to mechanical systems that are driven by gears? In other words, can the mechanical
impedances be reected from one side to the other in order to eliminate the gears?
T
1
can be reected to the output by multiplying by N
2
/N
1
, from which the equation of motion is:
(Js
2
+Ds +K)
2
(s) = T
1
(s)
N
2
N
1
which is the equivalent system at the output after reection of input torque.
By converting
2
(s) into an equivalent
1
(s), the equivalent system at the input, shown in gure
above, has the equation of motion
(Js
2
+Ds +K)
N
1
N
2
1
(s) = T
1
(s)
N
2
N
1
After simplication,
_
J
_
N
1
N
2
_
2
s
2
+D
_
N
1
N
2
_
2
s +K
_
N
1
N
2
_
2
_
1
(s) = T
1
(s)
Conclusion Rotational mechanical impedance can be reected through the gear by multiplying the
mechanical impedance by the ratio of the number of teeth of gear on destination shaft to the
number of teeth of gear on source shaft.
Problem Find the transfer function
2
(s)/T
1
(s) for the system shown below.
Solution The two inertias do not undergo linearly independent motions, since they are tied together
by the gears. Thus, this is a one degree of freedom system. Now, we want to nd the equivalent
system at the output after reection of impedances.
Solution (Contd) Impedances J
1
and D
1
are reected to the output by multiplying with N
2
/N
1
while
torque T
1
is reected to the output by N
2
/N
1
. This gives the equivalent system of the gure at the
right, from which the equation of motion is
(J
e
s
2
+D
e
s +K
e
)
2
(s) = T
1
(s)
N
2
N
1
where
J
e
= J
1
_
N
2
N
1
_
2
+J
2
; D
e
= D
1
_
N
2
N
1
_
2
+D
2
; K
e
= K
2
Solving for
2
(s)/T
1
(s), the transfer function is found to be
2
(s)
T
1
(s)
=
N
2
/N
1
J
e
s
2
+D
e
s +K
e
Additional problems
Problem Write the nodal equations for the network shown in the gure below.
Solution We rst notice that this network is dicult to be transformed into a circuit with current
source and admittances as the voltage source comes with no impedance in series. For this reason,
nodal equations will be determined based upon the transformed circuit with voltage source and
impedances.
Additional problems
Solution We write the Kirshoos current law at the nodes whose voltages are V
1
(s) and V
o
(s) as
shown in the gure below. As can be seen, this network has three independent nodes (i.e., three
independent loops) whose voltages are sucient to determine the voltage across any component in
the network. We can choose two nodes as stated before and the third one is that of source voltage
V(s). As the third node has a known voltage, we need eectively only two independent nodes to nd
the nodal equations.
Additional problems
Solution From the gure, the nodal equations at the chosen nodes are simply
V
1
(s) V(s) +
V
1
(s)
1+2s
+
V
1
(s) V
o
(s)
2+3s
= 0
V
o
(s) V
1
(s)
2+3s
+
V
o
(s)
4
+
V
o
(s) V(s)
5/s
= 0
or
6s
2
+12s +5
6s
2
+7s +2
V
1
(s)
1
3s +2
V
o
(s) = V(s)
1
3s +2
V
1
(s) +
1
20
12s
2
+23s +30
3s +2
V
o
(s) =
s
5
V(s)
Additional problems
In order to clarify the representation of electric networks in state-space form, we look at the
following example.
Problem Find the state and output equations for the electrical network shown in the gure below if
the outputs are the voltage v
R
2
across resistor R
2
and the current i
R
2
through the same resistor.
Solution Immediately notice that this network has a voltage-dependent current source.
Additional problems
Solution (Contd) First, we label all the branch currents on the network as shown in the gure.
Second, we choose the current through the inductor i
L
and the voltage across the capacitor v
C
as the
states variables whose time derivatives are given as
L
di
L
dt
= v
L
C
dv
C
dt
= i
C
Since the time derivatives of state variables should be expressed as linear combinations of the state
variables themselves as well the input, we proceed to nd v
L
and i
C
as linear combinations of i
L
, v
C
,
and i(t).
Around the mesh containing L and C, we have
v
L
= v
C
+v
R
2
= v
C
+i
R
2
R
2
But at Node 2, i
R
2
= i
C
+4v
L
. Substituting the last equation for i
R
2
into the expression v
L
yields
v
L
= v
C
+(i
C
+4v
L
)R
2
Solving for v
L
, we get
v
L
=
1
14R
2
(v
C
+i
C
R
2
)
Additional problems
Solution (Contd) Now, we need to nd i
C
in terms of state variables and input. Thus, at Node 1 we
can write the sum of the currents as
i
C
= i i
R
1
i
L
= i
v
R
1
R
1
i
L
= i
v
L
R
1
i
L
Last equation are simultaneous relating v
L
and i
C
in terms of the state variables i
L
and v
C
, as well
the input i(t). These equations can be rewritten as
(14R
2
)v
L
R
2
i
C
= v
C
1
R
1
v
L
i
C
= i
L
i(t)
Solving simultaneously for v
L
and i
C
, using Cramers rule, yields
v
L
=
1
[R
2
i
L
v
C
R
2
i(t)]
and
i
C
=
1
[(14R
2
)i
L
+
1
R
1
v
C
(14R
2
)i(t)]
Additional problems
Solution (Contd) where
=
_
(14R
2
) +
R
2
R
1
_
Substituting the expressions found of v
L
and i
C
into the time derivatives of state variables,
simplifying, and writing the result in matrix form renders the following state equation:
_
_
i
L
v
C
_
_
=
_
_
R
2
/(L) 1/(L)
(14R
2
)/(C) 1/(R
1
C)
_
_
_
_
i
L
v
C
_
_
+
_
_
R
2
/(L)
(14R
2
)/(C)
_
_
i(t)
Now, we derive the output equations. Since the specied outputs are v
R
2
and i
R
2
, we notice that the
mesh containing C, L, and R
2
,
v
R
2
=v
C
+v
L
while at Node 2,
i
R
2
= i
C
+4v
L
Substituting the expressions of v
L
and i
C
found in terms of state variables and input into the last
two equations, the output equation in matrix form is
_
_
v
R
2
i
R
2
_
_
=
_
_
R
2
/ (1+1/)
1/ (14R
1
)/(R
1
)
_
_
_
_
i
L
v
C
_
_
+
_
_
R
2
/
1/
_
_
i(t)
Additional problems
Problem Find the transfer function g(s) = X
2
(s)/F(s) for the translational mechanical system shown
in the gure below.
Additional problems
Solution
Writing the Laplace-transformed equations of motion,
(s
2
+3s +1)X
1
(s) (3s +1)X
2
(s) = F(s)
(3s +1)X
1
(s) +(s
2
+4s +1)X
2
(s) = 0
Solving for X
2
(s),
X
2
(s) =
s
2
+3s +1 F(s)
(3s +1) 0
s
2
+3s +1 (3s +1)
(3s +1) s
2
+4s +1
=
(3s +1)F(s)
s(s
3
+7s
2
+5s +1)
Hence,
X
2
(s)
F(s)
=
3s +1
s(s
3
+7s
2
+5s +1)
Additional problems
Problem Find the transfer function G(s) =
2
(s)/T(s) for the rotational mechanical system as shown
in gure below.
Additional problems
Solution Reecting impedances to
2
gives
_
200+3
_
50
5
_
2
+200
_
5
25
50
5
_
2
_
s
2
+
_
1000
_
5
25
50
5
_
2
_
s +
_
250+3
_
50
5
_
2
_
=
50
5
T(s)
Thus,
2
(s)
T(s)
=
10
1300s
2
+4000s +550
Additional problems
4
in gure below.
Solution Reecting impedances and applied torque to respective sides of the spring yields the
following equivalent circuit:
Additional problems
Solution (Contd)
Writing the equations of motion,
2
(s)
3
(s) = 4T(s)
2
(s) +(s +1)
3
(s) = 0
Solving for
3
(s),
3
(s) =
1 4T(s)
1 0
1 1
1 s +1
=
4T(s)
s
Hence
3
(s)/T(s) = 4/s. But theta
4
(s) = 1/5
3
(s). Thus,
4
(s)/T(s) = 4/(5s).
Additional problems
L
in gure below.
Solution Reecting impedances and applied torque to respective sides of the viscous damper yields
the following equivalent circuit:
Additional problems
Solution (Contd) Writing the equations of motion,
(s
2
+s)
2
(s) s
3
(s) = 10T(s)
s
2
(s) +(s +1)
3
(s)
4
(s) = 0
3
(s)(s +1)
4
(s) = 0
Solving for
4
(s),
4
(s) =
s(s +1) s 10T(s)

s s +1 0
0 1 0
s(s +1) s 0)
s s +1 1
0 1 s +1
=
10sT(s)
s
2
(s +1)
2
=
10T(s)
s(s +1)
2
Thus,
4
(s)/T(s) = 10/s(s +1)
2
. But
L
(s) = 5
4
(s). Hence,
L
(s)
T(s)
=
50
s(s +1)
2
Suggested problems
Students are suggested to solve the following problems from the textbook:
E 2.20, E 2.28, P 2.13, P 2.44, E 3.12, E 3.15, E 3.20, P 3.1, P 3.6, AP 3.2
Students are encouraged to solve the assigned problems by hand before seeking help
from classmates or the teacher. Subsequently, the accompanying solutions can be
checked for conrmation.

Modeling of Electrical and Mechanical Systems: Lectures 12-15

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Modeling of Electrical and Mechanical Systems: Lectures 12-15

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Lectures 12-15

It follows that the transfer function I

s(s +1) s 10T(s)

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