AGGLOMERATION:

The act or process of converting separate particles into mass or cluster.

An enormous amount of fines is generated during mining and ore processing
operations.
Since the fines can not be used directly in the blast furnace.
It is necessary to agglomerate them into lumps; pellets and briquettes.
The particulate matter may require size enlargement to make it sellable or to improve
its physical properties
The process is used for changing the size of concentrate particles, when the particle size
of an ore is too small for the use in latter stage of treatment (e.g. in the blast furnace), it
must be reformed to lumps of appropriate size and strength.
Most of the mineral products are agglomerated by four basic processes.
a) Sintering
b) Pelletizing
c) Briquetting
d)Nodulizing

(1) SINTERING:
The sintering of iron ore is one of the most important methods of ore treatment
It may be defined as the process of heating concentrate particles to an elevated
temperature below its melting point.
It is one of the processes in which a bed of small ore particles is bonded into clinker by
high temperature fuel combustion.
Excessive fine material in an ore will result in a greater fine dust loss at blast furnace
The rate of temperature is controlled by drying and blowing air through the bed. The
temperature approaching 1400C in the narrow combustion zone.
Sintering has the largest industrial application and many million tons of iron ore
concentrate are annually converted into sinters by this process.
(2) BRIQUETTING :
It can be defined as a process of agglomeration where by particulate matter is
consolidated into briquettes
Iron ore fines ------> binder -------->Mixing--->Mechanical pressure = iron ore Briquettes
Briquetting process is based on the principle of applying pressure on iron ore fines so
that a compact mass can be obtained in specific size.
In this process ore fines and concentrated are mixed with suitable binder (lime or
Petroleum bitumen or pitch) and fed into a double roll Briquetting process to be
moulded into shape.
(3) PELLETIZING:
The formation of raw iron ore pellets are known as palletizing.
It is another process of agglomeration in which fine grained moist ore is rolled in drum,
so that the particles cling together and rollup into small, spherical pellets.
Making larger spheres from the finely ground iron ore has several purposes.
Not only is handling and transport easier with pellets but they are also a requirement in
subsequent iron and steel making processes.
If the iron ore material is too fine , the process suffocates in the same way as when sand
is thrown on an open fire.
Pellet size, high iron content and a good balance of additives also provide steel works
with technical and financial production advantages.
A binder should be used to provide strength to the pellets during the stress of
transference, transport and use.
The concentrate pellets are practically always heat hardened for the same reason.
A wide range of organic grinding material like tar, pitch and inorganic binding material
like, lime some, cement, bentonite clay etc, have been used with varying proportions.
The process of pelletizing combines with mixing of the raw material , forming the pellet
and a thermal treatment baking the soft raw pellet to hard spheres. The raw material is
rolled into the balls and then fired in a kiln for heat hardened in order to make it
suitable for blast furnace.
(4) NODULIZING:
Nodulizing is a process of size enlargement by fusion in which strongest nodules or small
rounded lumps are formed.
Iron ore fines + Tar + Rotary kiln furnace = nodule
In nodulizing ore concentrates along with tar pass through a fired rotary kiln, the
material begins to soften at high temperature and the rotation of the material causes
the sticky material to roll into lumps.
The temperature inside the kiln is just sufficient to soften the ore but not enough to fuse
the ore.
The kiln used may be 100ft long 6 ft in diameter at entrance and 10ft diameter at the
discharge end.
It is slightly inclined to the horizontal and rotates at the speed of 1to 2 rpm.
The agglomeration continues as the ore proceeds through the kiln and heated at
temperature of 1200 to 1500C.
A great cooler usually cools the nodules.
The size of nodules depend upon the temp:, quality of tar and speed of rotation of kiln.

MAGNETIC SEPARATION:
It is one of the methods applied in mineral processing for separation of magnetic
minerals from non-magnetic minerals.
Initially it was employed to separate strongly magnetic ores(magnetite) from gangue.
Before 1939,only few ferromagnetic materials were available for industrial application.
With the advancement of technology and design of machines , this method is adopted
now for the separation of ores which are feebly magnetic.
For Example:
Hematite, limonite, siderite, etc, can now be separated from their gangue by application
of high intensity magnetic fields.
Magnetic separation is a method of concentration of an ore used when:
1) The ore is magnetic but gangue is non-magnetic
2) The ore is non-magnetic but gangue is magnetic
The magnetic separation is effective due to distinct movement of magnetic particles
towards the magnetic field and non-magnetic particles away from it.
Broadly minerals can be classified into three groups on the basis of their behaviour in a
magnetic field:
1) Attracted
2) Repelled or
3) Unaffected
Further more, there are three main classifications of magnetic minerals w.r.t their
interaction with the magnetic field:
1) Paramagnetic Minerals (Feebly Attracted)
2) Ferromagnetic Minerals(Strongly Attracted)
3) Diamagnetic Minerals (Non-magnetic)
PARAMAGNETIC MINERALS:
These minerals are slightly attracted by the magnetic field and dont retain their
magnetic properties when the external field is removed.
These minerals are attracted in the direction in which the magnetic field increases( i.e.
towards a concentrated magnetic field).
A magnetic response is obtained at a flux density greater than 2000 gauss and less than
20000 gauss.
Examples include:
Chromite, Hematite, Limonite, Monazite, Aluminum, Tin, Platinum
FERROMAGNETIC MINERALS:
These are themselves magnets and have very high susceptibility to magnetic force and
they exhibit the strong attraction to the magnetic field.
They are attracted in the same way, however they can be quite easily magnetized by a
low intensity of magnetic field.
A magnetic response is obtained at a flux density of <2000 gauss.
Examples Include: magnetite, pyrrohotite etc.
The element iron, nickel and cobalt are strongly attracted b/c their individual atoms
have higher degree of magnetism.
Alloy of iron, nickel , cobalt can become permanent magnet such that they retain their
magnetism for a long time.
DIAMAGNETIC MINERALS:
These are repelled or unaffected in the direction of magnetic field intensity (in practical
terms nonmagnetic)
No magnetic response at a flux density <20000 gauss.
Examples include:
Feldspar, Quartz, Rutile, Zircon, Garnet, gold, silver and copper etc
These cant be concentrated magnetically.
GAUSS:
The amount of magnetism induced in a body by a magnetic force is called Flux density
and is measured in gauss.
The intensity of a magnetic field refers to the no. of lines of flux passing through a unit
area .
Lines of flux are measured in gauss( lines/cm2 orTesla) 1 Tesla = 10,000 gauss.
TYPES OF MAGNETIC SEPARATORS:
INTRODUCTION:
various material compositions on the
basis of their magnetic properties. They are used in industries like mining, and smaller versions
are utilized in scientific labs to process some types of samples. Numerous companies make
magnetic separators for various applications, and there are several different styles available for
people to choose from, depending on the application and their needs.
kind. As materials are passed below,
over, through, or around the magnetic separator, it attracts undesirable impurities, pulling
them out and cleaning the process stream.
WHERE MAGNETIC SEPARATORS COULD BE USED?
Magnetic Separators could be used in two cases:
The ore is magnetic but gangue is non-magnetic
The ore is non-magnetic but gangue is magnetic
All the materials are affected in some way when placed in the vicinity of magnetic field,
although with most substances the effect is too slight to be detected.
The mechanism for the separation is distinctive movement of magnetic particles
towards the magnetic field and non-magnetic particles away from it.
APPLICATION OF MAGNETISM AS SEPARATOR:
For the removal of tramp iron in coarse and intermediate-crushing circuits, as a
protection to the crushing machinery.
For the concentration of magnetite ores
For the concentration of iron ore other than magnetite, after preliminary conversion of
iron minerals to artificial magnetite by suitable Roasting
For the removal of small quantities of iron ore minerals form ceramic raw materials.
ELEMENTS OF DESIGN OF MAGNETIC SEPARATORS:
Following are the elements while selection and designing of a magnetic separator:
Production of suitably converging magnetic field
Even feeding of ore particles as a stream or sheet
Control of speed of passage of ore thorough the magnetic field
Avoidance and/ or correction of occlusion or non-magnetic material between or within
magnetic flux
Provision of suitable means for disposing off separated products
Provision for production of a middling
Elimination or reduction to a minimum of moving (wearing) parts

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC SEPARATORS:
Magnetic separators can be classified according to:
the medium in which the separation is made
the mode of presentation of the feed
the mode of disposal of the products and
whether the magnets are stationary or moving

On such basis some might be as:
High intensity magnetic separators
Low intensity magnetic separators
Dry separators
Wet separators etc

IMPORTANT TYPES OF MAGNETIC SEPARATORS:
There are many types of magnetic separators but some important types are described as under:

EDISON SEPARATOR:
This magnetic separator consists of a bar magnet. The ore as thin stream falls in front of
the poles, susceptible particles being deflected towards and non-susceptible particles
continuing to fall un-deflected.
This magnetic separator was not wholly successful because of inability of control flow of
solid in a thin sheet, and because of lack of control over the speed of the falling
particles.

MAGNETIC DRUM SEPARATOR:
These are important magnetic separators that remove ferrous metal from dry bulk
products in free-flowing processing systems. They are self cleaning unit consisting of
drums and housing normally of stainless steel. The magnets used by the magnetic drum
separators are either ceramic magnets or rare earth magnets. The magnetic drum
separators are available both in single or double drum configuration.

HOW IT WORKS?
The processing materials enter the top of the magnetic drum separator and flow across
the surface of the drum. The rotary drum in the magnetic field captures the ferrous
tramps whereas the nonferrous falls free from the drum into the cleaned material flow.
As the drum rotates, the ferrous metal so captured is carried past the diverter and
released outside of the magnetic field.

TYPES:
Its types are as under:
Electro drum separators
Wet drum separators
Single drum separators
Double drum separators

APPLICATIONS:
The magnetic drum separator is ideal for separating iron particles from granules and powders;
it is widely used in the following industries:
Glass
Ceramic
Chemical
Fertilizer
Plastic
Food industry
Iron and steel slag treatment
Reduced pyrite ash separation
Calcined limestone production
Metal powder production

BALL NORTON SEPARATOR:
Unlike most magnetic separators which are used to remove relatively small amounts of metal,
the ball Norton separator is designed to handle large amounts of ferrous material removing
other undesirable elements. A unique combination of alternating magnetic poles and vibratory
conveying works to clean the magnetic material.

APPLICATIONS:
Its applications include:
Foundry shot
Crushed borings
Slag and magnetic ores




ROLLER TYPE MAGNETIC SEPARATOR:
This is meant to separate ferrous contaminants from the flimsy magnetized dry granular
metallic and non-metallic materials. It has wide applications in industries and mineral
processing. This separator uses high powered rare earth magnets with very low
dimensional tolerance. The other components of machine are conveyor and vibratory
feeder. The magnetic rolls are available in different widths and magnetic strength.

HOW IT WORKS?
The material is discharged on the belt by the feeder. The magnetic roll is enveloped by
the conveyor. The Para and Ferro magnetic ingredients remain stuck to the belt whereas
non-magnetic ingredients pass freely at the end of the conveyor.

APPLICATIONS:
It has applications in the following areas like:
Glass industries
Abrasive refractory
Quartz cleaning
Upgrading of graphite
Recovery of metals from slag removal of Ferro silicates
Chemical industry.

GRAVIT FEED MAGNETIC SEPARATOR:
This separates ferrous tramp metal through gravity system; these magnets are
constructed out of welded stainless steel structure. The gravity magnet comes in
different shapes and sizes and is ideal for narrow chute applications. Gravity feed
magnets are normally used in vertical flow system.

APPLICATIONS:
Gravity magnetic separators have different industrial and commercial usage. They are applied
in industries like:
Food industry
Chemical industry
Grain processing industries
Pharmaceutical industries

MAGNETIC COOLANT SEPARATOR:
It is a device which cleans the coolant liquid of very fine ferrous particles. It removes
the iron chips from the milling or grinding liquid. It is light and compact structure having
strong magnetic power which can remove very fine ferrous particles. For precise
grinding operations uninterrupted flow of oil is must. The coolant magnetic separator
ensures the uninterrupted flow of the liquid.


WET DRUM SEPARATOR:
Wet drum magnets have high magnetic recovery and discharge. The feed slurries
recover the magnetic. These are available in single or multiple drum applications. These
recover magnetic solids in as clean a magnetic concentrate as possible. Permanent
magnet assembly eliminates coil burn-outs. The magnet/pole elements are bolted to a
mild steel shaft. The drum is made from thick stainless steel for long service of life. Wet
drum separators are available in different configuration like single drum, double drum
and multiple drum. In double drum two separators are arranged back to back with a
common feedback.

APPLICATIONS:
Glass industry
Chemical industry
Plastic industry
Mining industry
Food industry
Pharmaceutical industry
Foundry industry

FROTH FLOTATION:
Floatation is the process by which mineral particles are induced to become attached to
the air bubble & float and other particles to sink, so that valuable mineral are
concentrated and separated from the worthless gangue or waste.
Floatation is widely used in mineral processing industry with the aim of concentrating
valuable to obtain high grade concentrate and simultaneously separate gangue.
Before floatation the mined ore is mechanically ground, to powder of desired grain size
and mixed with water and chemicals to form slurry or pulp for flotation process.
In the floatation cell air is introduced into slurry to produce air bubble that naturally
move upward and produce froth on the top of the slurry .
The mineral grains depending on their mineral contents tend either to float or sink in
the liquid .
During the floatation process particles of desired mineral which are commonly
hydrophobic attached to the rising air bubble from bottom of the cell where air is
injected with the particles of gangue material (which are hydrophilic) remain in slurry or
pulp and discarded through tailing gate.
Froth flotation can be adapted to a broad range of mineral separations, as it is possible
to use chemical treatments to selectively alter mineral surfaces so that they have the
necessary properties for the separation. It is currently in use for many diverse
applications, with a few examples being:
separating sulfide minerals from silica gangue (and from other sulfide minerals);
separating potassium chloride (sylvite) from sodium chloride (halite);
separating coal from ash-forming minerals;
removing silicate minerals from iron ores;
separating phosphate minerals from silicates

Flotation process can be categorized as:
1) PLAIN FLOTATION:
It was 1st practiced in MP to obtain one type of concentrate from sulfide ore.

2) BULK FLOATATION:
Generally mineral ores contain more than one valuable mineral. In case of sulphides,
minerals usually occur together e.g. chalcopyrite and galena, chalcopyrite and pyrite. In
some ore bodies many minerals may floats out together and discard the gangue.
Such flotation process in which more than one valuable mineral ore floated together is
called bulk flotation.
Or the rising of a mineralized froth, of more than one mineral, in a single operation.

3) DIFFERENTIAL FLOTATION: Later on this mixture of valuable minerals is further floated after
bulk floatation to recover individual mineral one by one is called differential flotation.
It was later developed to recover progressively more than two kinds of concentrate
from complex sulfide ore bearing many valuable minerals.
In differential flotation , valuable minerals are recovered individually.
In this , sulfide concentrate is accomplished by 1
st
destroying the hydrophobic coating
and then by recovering another concentrate.

FLOTATION EQUIPMENT:
Flotation can be performed in rectangular or cylindrical mechanically agitated cells or
tanks.
Mechanical cells use large mixer at the bottom of the tank to introduce air and
providing mixing action.
Flotation cells use spargers to introduce air at the bottom of the cell.

Most of the minerals usually do not possess enough floatability and it is difficult to float
these minerals without the aid of chemical agent.
In order to achieve satisfactory separation of valuable minerals from gangue various
floatation reagents classified as collector, frothers and modifiers are used.

1) COLLECTORS/SURFACTANTS:
Collectors are reagent that adsorb on the mineral surface to form a thin ,coating and
make them hydrophobic .
Collectors provide hydrophobicity on the mineral surface to enhance the mineral to air
bubble attachment .
Hydrophobicity has to be imparted to the most of the minerals in order to float them .
in order to achieve hydrophobicity ,surfactants known as collectors are added to the
slurry and time is allowed for adsorption during agitation that is its conditioning period

COLLECTORS:





2) FROTHERS:
Frothers are reagents used to produce froth of adequate stability and its main function
is tostabilize the bubble that transport the hydrophobic valuable minerals to the surface
of froth zone where they can easily be separated.
Froth generation require the use of frothers and they must be to some extent soluble in
H2O,otherwise they would be distributed very unevenly in an aqueous solution and
their surface active properties would not be fully effective.

The most effective frothers include:
Pine oil
Cresol (cryslic acid)
Aliphatic alcohol
Polyglycol
Hydroxyle ,carboxyle ,carbonyle
Esters

Apart from the ability of frothers to form froth, they have other important roles
including:
Creating finer bubbles, whereby the dispersion of air in the flotation cell also improves.
Reducing the rate of bubble rise from the mixing zone to the froth zone
Increasing the strength of the bubbles and stability of the froth

3) MODIFIERS/REGULATORS:
Modifiers are used extensively in flotation to modify the action of collectors.
The function of modifiers is neither collecting nor frothing but the main function of
modifier is to modify the action of collector either by enhancing or by reducing its
hydrophobic effect on the mineral surface.
In the presence of modifiers, the collector only adsorb on the particles that are targeted
for recovery and make the collector action more selective towards certain mineral.
The purpose of regulator or modifier is to prepare the surface of various solids for
selective adsorption of the surfactants in such a manner that only the desired particles
are made hydrophobic.

According to their function the modifying reagents may be classified into the following groups:
Activators
Depressants
PH Regulators

ACTIVATORS:
Activators are reagents that alter the surface of mineral so that it can more readily
adsorb a collector and float.
Copper sulphate (CUSO4): is an activator widely used that reacts with the surface of
mineral particle resulting an increase in the adsorption and consequently improved
floatability.
The mineral processing industry has found its application as an activator in the
concentration of cobalt, gold, zinc, lead and other sulphides.

DEPRESSANTS/DE-ACTIVATORS:
Depressant, is any reagent which prevents the adsorption of a collector by the mineral
particle and there by prevents its flotation.
Depressants can also remove the collector coating from mineral surface causing
depression of the mineral.
Potassium per magnet (KMNO4) has depressing effect on most of the sulphide
minerals.
Cyanide salts are used as depressants for sphaterite, pyrite, during lead, copper, zinc
floatation.
Sodium sulphide is an excellent depressants used in mineral processing industry.

PH REGULATORS:
PH regulators are used to adjust the pH of the pulp.
The effectiveness of all classes of flotation reagents depends to large extent on the
degree of alkalinity or acidity of the pulp.
Floatation is carried out at alkali pH (above 7) because most of the collectors are stable
at higher pH.
This produces optimum processing result while also preventing corrosion of metal
equipment or flotation cell.
Lime and sodium hydroxide and soda ash to increase the pH (alkalinity) and sulphuric
acid (H2SO4) and HCL to decrease the pH (acidity).

FLOCCULATION AND DISPERSION:
INTRODUCTION:
All those mineral processing operations, which use slurry or pulp are concerned with
the dispersion and flocculation.
Ore particles can be unattached to one another (dispersed) or clumped
together(flocculated) depending upon the process of treatment.
Both these operations find applications in classification, thickening, filtration and froth
flotation.
These conditions are desirable under certain circumstances where we may be
interested in recovering solid, liquid or both.




DISPERSION:
It is the uniform mixture of solid particles in a liquid, where the solids are insoluble in
that liquid.
In dispersion, the suspended particles are uniformly distributed in suspension with the
individual particles being essentially separate.
In dispersion, the suspended particles remain in suspension for longer period of time
during which the pulp is processed.
Dispersants or dispersing agents are used to improve the separation of the particles and
to prevent settling or clumping of the particles.
Dispersants include:
Sodium Silicate
Sodium hexametaphosphate
Sodium Polyacrylate

FLOCCULATION:
Flocculation refers to the process by which fine particles are caused to clump together
to form floc.
In this process, the suspended particles in slurry come closer to each other, making
cluster and settle to the bottom of the liquid or float to the top of the liquid depending
on their weight.
Mineral industry world wide need to process finely mineralized ores and recover
mineral values from slimes.
Mostly desired minerals in the form of concentrate of coarse particles are recovered whereas
the slimes may be discarded while containing mineral values.
Because of losses of mineral values, it is necessary to convert slimes into coarser particles by
the process of flocculation.
Flocculation is achieved by agitation and flocculants which encourage the clumping of
slime.
Once, suspended particles are flocculated into larger particles they can usually be
removed from liquid by filtration.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE FLOCCULATION ARE:
concentration of particles in the pulp (pulp density)
temperature of pulp
PH of pulp
Size of particles

Rate of flocculation
Depends upon the following factors:
(a) Particle population in the fluid.
(b) Size of the particles.
(c) Sequence of other events.
If some other phenomenon happens before flocculation the condition may change and may
affect the subsequent rate of flocculation.
Flocculants or flocculating agents are chemicals used to facilitate the settling of
suspended particles in slurry.
Flocculants include:
Lime
Starch
Lime + starch
Alum
Gypsum
Ferric Chloride
Aluminum sulphate

HEAP LEACHING OF COPPER ORE:
DEFINITION:
Leaching is the process of extracting minerals from a solid by dissolving them in a
liquid, either in nature or through an industrial process
OR
Heap leaching means leaching ores that have been mined, crushed, and transported
on impervious pads for leaching by sprinkling and percolation of the solution through
the ore
OR
Heap leaching is a tried and tested mining technique enabling the processing of
different kinds of ores which could not otherwise be exploited under viable economic
conditions
OR
The separating or dissolving out the soluble constituents from a rock or ore body by
percolation of water is called Heap Leaching/Leaching.

Leaching is the process by which inorganic, organic contaminants or radio nuclides are
released from the solid phase into the water phase under the influence of mineral
dissolution, desorption, complexation processes as affected by pH, redox, dissolved
organic matter and (micro) biological activity. The process itself is universal, as any
material exposed to contact with water will leach components from its surface or its
interior depending on the porosity of the material considered.
Leaching is extensively used in metal processing industries. The useful metal may occur
in mixtures with very large amounts of undesirable constituents, and leaching is used to
remove the metals as soluble salts. The use of acids is prevalent in the metal processing
industry, Sulphates are normally used to remove metals from the solid phase, and these
produce harmful environmental byproducts such as sulphates.

STEPS IN THE PROCESS OF HEAP LEACHING OF COPPER ORE:
Crushing and throwing of oxide ore on clay lined leach pad
Showering of weak sulphuric acid on the heap
Collection of solution (water+acid+ore) in the pond
Transporting solution to the Solvent Extraction Plant to produce copper cathodes
Electrowining process is applied
Pure copper is transported and water is recycled back to the pad

HEAP LEACHING PROCESS:
The mined ore is usually crushed into small chunks and heaped on an impermeable
plastic and/or clay lined leach pad where it can be irrigated with a leach solution to
dissolve the valuable metals.
While sprinklers are occasionally used for irrigation, more often operations use drip
irrigation to minimize evaporation, provide more uniform distribution of the leach
solution, and avoid damaging the exposed mineral.
The solution then percolates through the heap and leaches both the target and other
minerals. This process, called the "leach cycle," generally takes from one or two months
for simple oxide ores (e.g, most gold ores) to two years (for nickel laterite ores).
The leach solution containing the dissolved minerals is then collected, treated in a
process plant to recover the target mineral and in some cases precipitate other
minerals, and then recycled to the heap after reagent levels are adjusted.
Ultimate recovery of the target mineral can range from 30% of contained (run-of-mine
dump leaching sulfide copper ores) to over 90% for the easiest to leach ores (some
oxide gold ores).
In recent years, the addition of an agglomeration drum has improved on the heap
leaching process by allowing for a more efficient leach.
The rotary drum agglomerator works by taking the crushed ore fines and agglomerating
them into more uniform particles.
This makes it much easier for the leaching solution to percolate through the pile,
making its way through the channels between particles.
The addition of an agglomeration drum also has the added benefit of being able to pre-
mix the leaching solution with the ore fines, to achieve a more concentrated,
homogeneous mixture, and allowing the leach to begin prior to the heap.

COPPER LEACHING COUPLED WITH SX/EW
CONSISTS OF THE FOLLOWING STEPS:
Application of a sulfuric acid solution to the top of a heap.
Interaction of the leach solution with the ore and gangue minerals within the heap.
Stoichiometric exchange of one copper ion for two hydrogen ions in the SX plant.
Recirculation of the copper depleted solution back onto the heap.
The preceding four points state that oxide copper leaching with SX/EW takes place
within a system that is closed to all elements save copper and sulfur.
Sulfur is added as fresh leach solution.
Copper is removed from the system in the SX/EW plant.
Sulfide dump or heap leaching, where all acid is derived from the dissolution of pyrite
and other sulfides, is closed to all elements save copper.
For all other elements and compounds, copper heap leaching is a closed system.
The characterization of copper leaching as a closed system has profound implications to
the chemistry of leaching.

SOLVENT EXTRACTION AND ELECTROWINING:
SOLVENT EXTRACTION:
It is more commonly used to refine copper.
An organic solvent in which copper is soluble is introduced.
As the copper is more soluble in the organic layer than the aqueous, it enters an
organic-copper solution and is separated.
Sulfuric acid is added to strip the copper from the organic solvent into an electrolytic
solution.

ELECTROWINING:
The copper is refined by electrolysis.
The anodes cast from processed blister copper are placed into an aqueous solution of 3
4% copper sulfate and 1016% sulfuric acid.
Cathodes are thin rolled sheets of highly pure copper or, more commonly these days,
reusable stainless steel starting sheets.
A potential of only 0.20.4 volts is required for the process to commence.
At the anode, copper and less noble metals dissolve.
More noble metals such as silver and gold as well as selenium and tellurium settle to the
bottom of the cell as anode slime, which forms a saleable by product
Copper ions migrate through the electrolyte to the cathode. At the cathode, copper
metal plates out but less noble constituents such as arsenic and zinc remain in solution.
The reactions are:
At the anode: Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2e
At the cathode: Cu2+(aq) + 2e Cu(s

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES CAUSED BY
LEACHING AND THEIR IMPROVEMENTS:
Heap leaching systems have the potential to contaminate groundwater.
Infiltration of leach solutions must be prevented with the use of appropriate liners and
sub-surface drainage systems to collect and recycle solution for treatment.
Pipelines should be provided with secondary containment and leak detection
equipment should be installed.
Impoundments to hold dirty water or untreated process effluents must also be lined.
Groundwater monitoring for contamination levels and quality must be carried out.

ADVANTAGES OF HEAP LEACHING:
Much more environmentally friendly than pyrometallurgy.
Compared to pyrometallurgy, only a fraction of the gases liberated into the
atmosphere.
Low capital cost
Ability of complex and low grade ores extraction
A major advantage of heap leaching is the elimination of expensive milling operations
since the ore body need not be crushed to sizes much smaller than 20 to 25 mm.

DISADVANTAGES OF HEAP LEACHING:
Large amount of water used,
greater potential for contamination.
Difficulties in solidliquid separation
Impurities problems in purification process
Much longer time needed for high metal recovery

NAGAR PARKER CHINA CLAY PROCESSING:
CHINA CLAY- AN INTRODUCTION:
It is a common name used for Kaolin, and is derived from kaolinite, a Chinese word
meaning high ridge
This was the name of a hill near Jauchau Fu, China, where kaolin was first mined several
hundred years ago for ceramics.
It is white powdery mineral, containing impurities like silica sand, mica etc
The removal of these impurities makes it suitable for various industrial applications.
The important properties of china clay are that, it has good plasticity , doesnt swell in
water, withstand high temperature ( up to 1300 0C and even above) and is non-
conductor of electricity.


FORMATION OF CHINA CLAY:
China clay is a white kaolin formed due to alteration of feldspars and also when granite
is changed by hydrothermal metamorphism.
It occurs naturally as hydrated aluminum in the compositions usually 2
SiO2.Al2O3.2H2O

NAGAR PARKER CHINA CLAY:
The Geological Survey Of Pakistan discovered the Nagar Parker deposits and
investigated these deposits with the help of detailed Geological mapping, sampling and
by physical and chemical testing.
In Nagar Parker area, deep weathering and alteration of granitic rocks have produced
china clay.
The china clay is in the form of several large pockets which occur in a plain area at
shallow deposits.
The deposits are largely covered by a thin layer of soil and further confirming that
Kaolinite is the major constituent of Nagar Parker china clay and the measured reserves
are 3.6 Million tons.
To beneficiate Nagar Parker china clay for various industrial uses, it should be processed
for the removal of undesirable minerals such as quartz, gypsum, calcite etc.
Wet processing is preferred for the beneficiation of Nagar Parker china clay as dry
process is simpler and produces a lower quality product than wet process.
Wet processing is more efficient in concentrating fine china clay .This method involves
two main steps of the process:
1) Liberation of particles
2) Separation of particles

PROCESSING MECHANISM :
Wet processing of kaolin at Nagar Parker begins with blunging of raw china clay with
water to produce slurry using agitator.
Where china clay is liberated from its impurities through the action of agitation.
The slurry is then allowed to pass through tank opening designed at the bottom of the
tank.
The fine china clay particles are carried along the moving steam and coarser
particles(silica sand) are allowed to settle down in channels.
The water carrying china clay particles are then passed through fine sieve to separate
small size silica particles and stored in settling tanks.
After settlement of kaolin particles , most of the water is removed through pumping
and thick pulp of china clay is left behind.
The water is squeezed off from the pulp using disc type filters.
The moist agglomerated china clay is then dried for transportation to consumer or for
further refining.




USES OF CHINA CLAY:
China clay is extremely useful mineral, its properties of white color, softness,
smoothness, small particle size and chemically inertness makes it possible for no. of
different applications.
Kaolin has a wide variety of industrial applications including:
Ceramics
Refractories
Insulators
Paint industry
Paper coating and filling
Plastic
Rubber and textile industries
Glass industry
Dyes and inks
Cosmetics
Pharmaceuticals
Adhesives and cement
Chemical industry
Medicines
Leather
Soaps and detergents powder etc.

GLASS MANUFACTURING PROCESS:
DEFINITION:
Glass is an amorphous, hard, brittle, transparent or translucent super cooled liquid of
infinite viscosity, having no definite melting point obtained by fusing a mixture of a
number of metallic silicates or borates of Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, and Lead.
An inorganic product of fusion which has cooled to a rigid condition without
crystallizing.

PROPERTIES OF A GLASS:
The following are the properties that are exhibited by the glass:
Brittle
Amorphous
High viscous
Supper Cooled liquid
Capacity to absorb different colors without affecting
Transparent and translucent
Low thermal conductivity
Electrical insulator
Transparency
Hardness
Chemically inert
High refractive index
High dispersion










MELTING PROCESS:
Raw materials in proper proportions are mixed with cullets.
It is finely powdered and intimate mixture called batch is fused in furnace at high
temperature of 1800C ,this charge melts and fuses into a viscous fluid.


remove traces of ferrous
compounds and Carbon.
obtained and it is then cooled
to about 800C.

FORMING, SHAPING, AND ANNEALING:
FORMING AND SHAPING:
The viscous mass obtained from melting is poured into moulds to get different types of
articles of desired shape by either blowing or pressing between the rollers.

ANNEALING:
Glass articles are then allowed to cool gradually at room temperature by passing
through different chambers with descending temperatures. This reduces the internal
Strain in the glass.

FINISHING:
Finishing is the last step in glass manufacturing.
It involves following steps.

Cleaning
Polishing
Cutting

TYPES OF GLASS:
There are nine types of glass according to the minor additions and variations in the
ingredients used and according to the methods of manufacturing.
The different types of glasses are different in their properties and uses.

1.SODA GLASS OR SODA-LIME GLASS:
About 90% of all glass is soda-lime glass.
It is prepared by heating Sodium carbonate and silica.
The approximate composition is Na2CO3.CaO.6SiO2.
They are low cost, resistant to water but not to acids.
They can melt easily and hence can be hot worked.

Uses:
Window glass, Electric bulbs, Plate glass, Bottles, Jars, cheaper table wares, test tubes,
reagent bottles etc .

2. COLORED GLASS:
Small amounts of metallic oxides are mixed with the hot molten mixture of sand,
sodium carbonate and limestone.
The desired color determines the choice of the metallic oxide to be added, as different
metallic oxides give different colors to the glass.

USES:
Colored glass is much in demand.
It is used for decorating walls, making sunglasses, and for making light signals for
automobiles, trains and aero planes.

3. PLATE GLASS:
Plate glass is thicker than ordinary glass.
It has a very smooth surface.
It is made by floating a layer of molten glass over a layer of molten tin.
It is used in shop windows and doors.

4. SAFETY GLASS:
It can also be called shatterproof glass.
It is made by placing a sheet of plastic such as celluloid between sheets of glass.
The special quality of this glass is that in case of breakage the broken pieces stick to the
plastic and do not fly off.
You must have noticed a broken window-pane of a bus or a car still in its place.
It is used in automobiles.
It is also used for making bulletproof screens.

5. LAMINATED GLASS:
It can also be called bulletproof glass.
Several layers of safety glass are bound together with a transparent adhesive.
The larger the number of layers used the greater is the strength of the glass.
It is stronger than safety glass.
It is used in aero planes and windshields of cars.

6. OPTICAL GLASS:
Optical glass is softer than any other glass.
It is clear and transparent.
Potassium and lead silicates are used in making optical glass.
It is also called flint glass.
The main use of flint glass is in the manufacture of lenses, prisms and other optical
instruments.

7. PYREX GLASS:
Pyrex glass is highly heat resistant.
In ordinary glass, silica is the main constituent.
In Pyrex glass some of the silica is replaced by boron oxide. Boron oxide expands very
little when heated, thus, Pyrex.
Glass does not crack on strong heating.
Pyrex glass is also called borosilicate glass. It has a high melting point and is resistant to
many chemicals.
Laboratory equipment and ovenware are made of Pyrex glass.

8. PHOTO-CHROMATIC GLASS:
Photo chromatic glass acquires a darker shade when exposed to bright light and returns
to its original lighter shade in dim light.
This happens because silver iodide is added to this glass. (silver iodide gets colored with
the intensity of light.)

Uses:
In making tinted car glasses and goggles.

9. LEAD CRYSTAL GLASS:
Lead crystal glass has high refractive index, and so has the maximum brilliance.
It sparkles and is used for high quality art objects and for expensive glassware.
It is also called cut glass because the surface of the glass objects is often cut into
decorative patterns to reflect light.
In order to increase the refractive index, lead oxide is used as flux in crystal glass,
therefore it is also called lead crystal glass.









AUXILIARY OPERATIONS:
The operations which do not perform any of the dressing operation directly but without
them the actual dressing operation cannot be carried out are called Auxiliary
operation. The auxiliary operation includes storage, feeding, sampling weighing and
assaying.

(1) STORAGE:
In processing plant the raw material may be stored for processing operation, so that no
delays or stoppage can take place within the plant.
The storage is of two types:
(1) Long term storage
(2) Short term storage
In processing plant the material may be stored for a long time must meet the
requirement of processing operation so that no delays or stoppage can takes within the
plant. The storage can be accomplished in the following important ways depending
upon the nature of the material.
(a) Stock piles (b) Bins (c) Tanks or ponds

Stock piles are often used to store coarse ore of low value outdoors. In designing stock
piles it is necessary to know the angle of repose of the ore, volume or the broken ore
and tonnage.
For continuous feeding of crushed ore to the grinding section feed bins are used or
transfer of the coarse material from belts and road takes. They are made of wood,
concrete or steel. They must be easy to fill and must all steady fall of the ore the
discharge gate pulp storage on a large scale is not as easy as dry ore storage.
Conditioning takes are used for storage suspension of fine particles to provide time for
cynical reaction to proceed. These tanks must be agitated continuously not only to
provide mixing but also to prevent settlement a chocking up.

(2) FEEDING:
Feeding is conveying operation in which the raw material is conveyed to feeder.
Feeding is essentially a conveying operation in which the distance traveled is short and
in which close e regulation of the rate of passage is required. Where succeeding
operation is at same rate it is unnecessary to interpose feeder.
Feeders are necessary whenever it is desired to deliver a uniform stream of dry or moist
ore. Where, however principal operations are interrupted by a storage step. A typical
feeder consists of a small bin which may be an integral part of a large bin with a gate
and suitable conveyor. Feeders of many types have been designed notably chain feeder,
rotary feeder revolving feeder, vibrating feeder.



(3) SAMPLING:
It is an art of getting representative part (small in size) of an ore. Sampling is the means
where by a small amount of material is taken from the main bulk in such a manner that
it is representative of that large amount. Great responsibility rests on a very small
sample, so it is essential that samples are truly representative of the bulk.
Where ever possible samples should be taken of the material when it has been reduced
to the smallest particle size consistent to the process.
To obtain the best sample should be made as homogenous as possible. Ores and
concentrates containing cores particles are less homogenous than those containing five
particles.
Sampling system requires primary sampling devices or cutter, and a system to convey
the collected material to a convenient location for analysis.

(4) WEIGHING:
It means to find out the quantity of ore.
There are numerous ways to determine the quantity of dry ore. Some of them are as
follows.
By weighing ore cars and trucks and weighing of the tare, this requires an operator.
By weighing the concentrate and multiplication of this number by the ratio of ore in
tones is calculated from assay of feed concentrate and failing.
By weighing the ore stream at some convenient point and by making an allowance
for the moisture contents.

(5) ASSAYING:
The term assaying means testing of an ore by chemical examination to determine the
Nature, proportion etc of ingredients it contains.
The ore or concentrate sample must be analyzed or assayed, so that the exact chemical
composition of the material is obtained. Assays are of great importance, as they are
used to control operations and to calculate profitability.
Modern methods of assaying are very accurate on stream X-rays analysis.
A new dimension has been added in the last few years by installation of non-stream
analysis enables a change of quality to be detected and corrected rapidly and
continuously, obviating the delays involved in laboratory testing. Basically it consists of
a source of radiation which is absorbed b the sample and consists to give off fluorescent
response of each element; it enters a detector which generated a qualitative output
signal as result measuring the characteristics radiation of one element from the sample.
The detector output signal is generally used to obtain an assay value which can be used
for process control.