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I. I NTRODUCTION
HE last decade has witnessed the increasing popularity
of wireless services. Based on xed spectrum allocation
methodology, in many countries, most of the available radio
spectrum has been assigned for various services. On the
other hand, careful studies of the spectrum usage pattern
have revealed that the allocated spectrum experiences low
utilization. In fact, recent measurements by Federal Communications Commission (FCC) have shown that 70% of the
Manuscript received October 25, 2006; revised August 18, 2007; accepted
January 2, 2008. The associate editor coordinating the review of this paper
and approving it for publication was W. Yu. This paper was presented in part
at the IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC), Glasgow,
UK, June 2007.
The authors are with the Institute for Infocomm Research, A STAR,
21 Heng Mui Keng Terrace, Singapore 119613 (e-mail: {ycliang, yhzeng,
athoang}@i2r.a-star.edu.sg.
Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TWC.2008.060869.
Fig. 1. A deployment scenario for IEEE 802.22 WRAN: the primary users
are TV receivers and wireless microphones.
1327
(1)
(2)
s
Denote = 2 as the received signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
u
of the primary user measured at the secondary receiver of
interest, under the hypothesis H1 . We consider both realvalued Gaussian noise case and circularly symmetric complex
Gaussian (CSCG) noise case. For the primary signal s(n),
we consider four scenarios: (1) BPSK modulated signal; (2)
complex PSK modulated signal; (3) real-valued Gaussian
signal and (4) CSCG signal.
Two probabilities are of interest for spectrum sensing: probability of detection, which denes, under hypothesis H1 , the
probability of the algorithm correctly detecting the presence of
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1328
1
N
|y(n)|2 .
(3)
n=1
p0 (x)dx.
(4)
2
u
fs ,
(5)
1
t2
Q(x) =
exp
dt.
(6)
2
2 x
Under hypothesis H1 , denote p1 (x) as the PDF of the
test static T (y). For a chosen threshold , the probability of
detection is given by
Pd ( , ) = P r(T (y) > |H1 ) =
p1 (x)dx.
(7)
if s(n) and u(n) are both circularly symmetric and complexvalued, and
2
1 =
1
2
2
2 2
E|s(n)|4 + E|u(n)|4 (s u )2 + 2s u , (9)
N
2
u
fs
2 + 1
(10)
fs
= Q1 (Pd ).
2 + 1
(11)
2
u
fs .
(12)
Therefore, for a target probability of detection Pd , the probability of false alarm is related to the target detection probability
as follows:
2 + 1Q1 (Pd ) +
Pf = Q
fs .
(13)
(Q1 (Pf )
2 + 1
fs ) .
(14)
Finally, for a given pair of target probabilities (Pd , Pf ), the
number of required samples to achieve these targets can be
determined from (11) and (12) by cancelling out the threshold
variable . The minimum number of samples is given by
Nmin =
Q1 (Pf ) Q1 (Pd ) 2 + 1
2
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(15)
1329
respectively. If we dene
R0 ( , ) =
T
C0 (1 Pf ( , ))P (H0 ),
T
(16)
R1 ( , ) =
T
C1 (1 Pd ( , ))P (H1 ),
T
(17)
and
Fig. 2. Frame structure for cognitive radio networks with periodic spectrum
sensing ( : sensing slot duration; T : data transmission slot duration.)
(18)
R( ) = R0 ( , ) + R1 ( , )
(19)
Pd ( , ) Pd ,
(20)
s.t.
s.t.
R( ) = R0 ( , )
(21)
Pd ( , ) Pd .
(22)
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1330
Pd = Pd , we have
1 Q + fs . (23)
R( ) = C0 P (H0 ) 1
T
fs (1 T )
R ( )
( + fs )2
=
exp
C0 P (H0 )
2
2 2
1
1
(24)
+ Q( + fs ).
T
T
Obviously,
1
1
lim R ( ) = +.
T
0
< 0, (25)
(26)
R ( ) = R ( ) C1 P (H1 )(1 Pd ).
T
Thus, again
lim R ( )
<
lim R ( )
lim R ( ) < 0,
(27)
(28)
time for each mini-slot, and again T the duration for each
frame. We x the the total sensing time in each frame to
= M 1 , and the number of samples for each mini-slot is
N1 = N/M (without loss of generality, we assume that N1
is an integer.)
Let us consider the following hypotheses for the ith minislot:
H1 : yi (n) = hi si (n) + ui (n),
(30)
H0 : yi (n) = ui (n),
(31)
The channel coefcients hi s are zero-mean, unitvariance complex Gaussian random variables;
The noises are independent of each other for each of the
M mini-slots;
The signal power and noise power are constant over the
2
M mini-slots, i.e., E[|si (n)|2 ] = s , and E[|ui (n)|2 ] =
2
u for all i;
The primary user is either active or inactive for all the
M mini-slots.
Data Fusion: Process the measurements from all minislots jointly and then make the nal decision based on
the calculated statistics;
Decision Fusion: Process each mini-slots data separately,
and make individual decisions. The nal decision is then
made by fusing the individual decisions.
1
N1
N1
|yi (n)|2 ,
(32)
n=1
Using data fusion, the test statistic used for nal decision is
then represented as
M
T (y) =
gi Ti (y),
(33)
i=1
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2
with mean 1 = u
2
1
M
2
i=1 gi (|hi |
1
N1
+ 1) and variance
M
2
gi [|hi |4 E|s(n)|4 + E|u(n)|2
i=1
2
2
(|hi |2 s u )2 ],
1
N1
2 2
2|hi |2 s u ],
2
0 =
4
u
,
N1
2
1 =
4
u
N1
(36)
M
2
gi |hi |2
1 + 2
(37)
i=1
(38)
Pd = Q (f2 (g1 , , gM ; Pf )) ,
f1 (g1 , , gM ; Pd ) = 1 Q
M
i=1
2
gi =1
gi |hi |2 .
(47)
i=1
Pf = Q 2 Q1 (Pd ) +
(Pd ) +
gi |hi | , (40)
N1
N1
M
|hi |2
(48)
Q1 (Pf )
gi |hi |2
N1
(41)
i=1
M
2
2
i=1 gi |hi | .
min
M
i=1
2
gi =1
f2 (g1 , , gM ; Pf ).
(42)
max
M
i=1
2
gi =1
f1 (g1 , , gM ; Pd ).
gi |hi |2 , (44)
N1
i=1
M
f2 (g1 , , gM ; Pf ) Q1 (Pf )
gi |hi |2 . (45)
N1
i=1
(Pf )
N1
M
|hi |2
(49)
i=1
2 + 1Q1 (Pd ) +
M N1 .
(50)
(43)
i=1
f2 (g1 , , gM ; Pf )
1
1
1
2
i=1
g1 , ,gM :
Pd = Q
M
1
g1 , ,gM :
(46)
(39)
where
g1 , ,gM :
(35)
|hi |4
max
i=1
2
u )2
M
i=1
2
gi [|hi |4 E|s(n)|4 + E|u(n)|2
2
(|hi |2 s
|hi |2
gi =
(34)
1331
B( ) =
(1 Pf ( )).
T
(51)
B. Decision Fusion
(i)
(i)
Pd = Q
0
2
u
|hi |2 1
N1
2|hi |2 + 1
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(52)
1332
and the probability of false alarm for the ith slot is given by
(i)
Pf = Q
0
2
u
N1 .
(53)
Once the decision is made for each time slot, there are different
rules available for making nal decision on the presence of
the primary user.
1) Optimal Decision Fusion Rule: Let Ii be the binary
decision from the ith time slot, where Ii {0, 1} for i =
1, , M . The optimal decision fusion rule is the ChairVarshney fusion rule [16], which is a threshold test of the
following statistic:
M
Ii log
i=1
+ log
(i)
Pd
(i)
Pf
+ (1 Ii ) log
P (H1 )
.
P (H0 )
1
1
(i)
Pd
(i)
Pf
(54)
Pd = 1
(i)
(1 Pd ),
i=1
M
Pf = 1
(i)
(1 Pf ).
(i)
Pd ,
i=1
M
Pf =
M
2
M
M
(1 Pd,0 )
+j
M
2
M
2
j=0
M
M
2
M
M
(1 Pf,0 )
+j
Pd =
M
2
Pf =
M
2
j=0
respectively, where
c
k
(57)
+j
+j
2
Pf,0
, (59)
, (60)
c!
k!(ck)! .
In this section, we consider cooperative spectrum sensing using multiple distributed secondary users. The tradeoff
methodology proposed in the previous section can be applied
directly. Dene the hypotheses for the ith receiver as:
H1 : yi (n) = hi s(n) + ui (n),
H0 : yi (n) = ui (n),
(61)
(62)
i=1
(56)
2
Pd,0
y(n) =
(55)
i=1
h
i
yi (n).
M
2
i=1 |hi |
(63)
y(n) =
H0 :
M
i=1
y(n) = u(n),
(64)
(65)
2
where E[|u(n)|2 ] = u . Obviously, it is equivalent to sense
M
the primary user with SNR i=1 |hi |2 and sampling size
N . From (13) and (14), for a target probability of detection,
Pf = Q 3 Q1 (Pd ) +
|hi |2
(66)
i=1
M
(i)
Pf .
(58)
i=1
4) Majority Rule: Another decision rule is based on majority of the individual decisions. If half of the decisions or
more say that there is a primary user, then the nal decision
declares that there is a primary user. Mathematically, dene
M
= i=1 Ii , if M , where x denotes the smallest
2
integer not less then x, then the primary user is declared to
be present; otherwise, there is no primary user. Assuming
(1)
that all decisions are independent, and supposing that Pd =
(M )
(1)
(M )
Pd
= Pd,0 and Pf = Pf
= Pf,0 , the probability
where 3 =
2 i=1 |hi |2 + 1. On the other hand, for
(Q1 (Pf ) N
|hi |2 ) .
3
i=1
M
Pd = Q
(67)
N
M
|hi |2
i=1
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(68)
1333
10
5.4
5.3
10
10
5.2
5.1
4.9
4.8
3
10
0.8
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.2
2.4
2.6
Number of samples
x 10
4.7
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
Pd = Q
1
4
Q1 (Pf )
N
M
|hi |2
(69)
i=1
0.97
1+
2
M
M
i=1
|hi |2 .
B. Decision Fusion
Suppose that Pd,i and Pf,i are the probability of detection
and probability of false alarm from the ith secondary user,
respectively. Similar to the multiple mini-slot case, the probability of detection and probability of false alarm of the nal
decision can be derived accordingly, from which the sensingthroughput tradeoff can be carried out.
0.96
where 4 =
0.95
0.94
0.93
0.92
0.91
0.9
of detection as Pd = 0.9.
A. One Secondary User for Spectrum Sensing
First, we compare the probability of detection and probability of false alarm calculated from Monte Carlo simulations
and the theoretical results derived in this paper. 20000 Monte
Carlo simulations are performed. In the simulations, for each
sample size and under hypothesis H1 , we rst nd out the
detection threshold to achieve the target detection probability
based on the 20000 test statistics, then apply this threshold
to the hypothesis H0 and derive the probability of false
alarm. Fig. 3 shows the comparison between simulated and
0.89
Simulated
Theory
0.88
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
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0.5
0.45
0.4
Pf of the network
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.95
0.9
Normalized throughput
1334
0.85
0.8
0.75
M=1
M=2
M=3
M=4
M=5
0.7
0.1
0.65
0.05
0
1.5
2.5
3
3.5
Sensing time (ms)
4.5
Fig. 6.
The average probability of false alarm Pf ( ) using multi-slot
spectrum sensing.
4
5
Sensing time (ms)
0.95
0.9
Normalized throughput
0.85
0.8
0.75
M=1
M=2
M=3
M=4
M=5
0.7
0.65
4
5
Sensing time (ms)
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1335
0.975
0.95
LogicAND
LogicOR
LogicMajority
2.4
2.2
0.9
0.85
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.8
channel known
channel unknown
0.75
5
6
7
Number of minislots
0.6
0.4
10
10
12
14
16
18
20
Number of users
Fig. 9.
N
1
2
2
= E
|s(n) + u(n)|2 (s + u )
N n=1
1
E[(|s(n)|2 + |u(n)|2 + s(n)u (n)
N
2
2
+ s (n)u(n) s u )2 ].
(72)
= E (T (y) 1 )2
N
1
2
2
= E
(s(n) + u(n))2 (s + u )
N n=1
=
1
E[(s2 (n) + u2 (n) + 2s(n)u(n)
N
2
2
s u )2 ].
(73)
(74)
(75)
Eq. (9) can then be derived by using the zero-mean and mutual
independence property of s(n) and u(n).
A PPENDIX B: C ONCAVITY OF R( )
Proposition 5: Under the assumptions (AS1) - (AS3), if the
primary signal is complex-valued PSK and the noise process
is CSCG, then Pf ( ) is decreasing and convex for the range
of in which Pf ( ) 0.5.
2
1
Fig. 10. Optimal sensing time for distributed spectrum sensing with various
decision rules: SN Rp = 15dB, T = 100ms.
(70)
(71)
Pf ( )
dPf ( )
d
fs 1/2
exp(( +
=
2 2
=
fs )2 /2).(77)
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1336
R EFERENCES
0.995
0.99
0.985
0.98
0.975
LogicAND
LogicOR
LogicMajority
0.97
2
10
12
14
16
18
20
Number of users
16
14
12
10
1.5
2.5
3.5
Number of users
Fig. 12. Optimal sensing time for distributed spectrum sensing using logicAND decision fusion rule.
R( ) = C0 P (H0 )
(1 Pf ( )),
T
(78)
then
Pf ( )
1
R ( ) = C0 P (H0 )
T
T
Pf ( )
1
. (79)
T
Ying-Chang Liang (SM00) received the PhD degree in Electrical Engineering in 1993. He is now
a Senior Scientist in the Institute for Infocomm Research (I2R), Singapore, where he has been leading
research activities in the area of cognitive radio
and cooperative communications and standardization activities in IEEE 802.22 wireless regional
networks (WRAN), for which his team has made
fundamental contributions in physical layer, MAC
layer, and spectrum sensing solutions. He also holds
adjunct associate professorship positions in Nanyang
Technological University (NTU) and the National University of Singapore
(NUS), both in Singapore, and an adjunct professorship position at the
University of Electronic Science and Technology, China (UESTC). He has
been teaching graduate courses in NUS since 2004. From Dec. 2002 to Dec.
2003, Dr Liang was a visiting scholar with the Department of Electrical
Engineering, Stanford University. His research interests include cognitive radio, dynamic spectrum access, recongurable signal processing for broadband
communications, space-time wireless communications, wireless networking,
information theory and statistical signal processing.
Dr Liang served as an Associate Editor for the IEEE T RANSACTIONS
ON W IRELESS C OMMUNICATIONS from 2002 to 2005, Lead Guest-Editor of
the IEEE J OURNAL ON S ELECTED A REAS IN C OMMUNICATIONS , S PECIAL
I SSUE ON C OGNITIVE R ADIO : T HEORY AND A PPLICATIONS, and GuestEditor of the Computer Networks Journal (Elsevier) Special Issue on Cognitive Wireless Networks. He received the Best Paper Awards from IEEE
VTC-Fall1999 and IEEE PIMRC2005, and the 2007 Institute of Engineers
Singapore (IES) Prestigious Engineering Achievement Award. Dr Liang has
served for various IEEE conferences as a technical program committee (TPC)
member. He was Publication Chair of the 2001 IEEE Workshop on Statistical
Signal Processing, TPC Co-Chair of the 2006 IEEE International Conference
on Communication Systems (ICCS2006), Panel Co-Chair of the 2008 IEEE
Vehicular Technology Conference Spring (VTC2008-Spring), TPC Co-Chair
of the 3rd International Conference on Cognitive Radio Oriented Wireless
Networks and Communications (CrownCom2008), Deputy Chair of the 2008
IEEE Symposium on New Frontiers in Dynamic Spectrum Access Networks
(DySPAN2008), and Co-Chair, Thematic Program on Random matrix theory
and its applications in statistics and wireless communications, Institute for
Mathematical Sciences, National University of Singapore, 2006. Dr Liang is
a Senior Member of IEEE. He holds six granted patents and more than 15
led patents.
1337
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