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Heat kills Enzymes denature Proteins change shape Cell pressure increases boiling pasteurization Introduction to HWTS 2 Safe Storage Filtration Sedimentation higher pressure, higher boiling temperature Autoclave, steam sterilization 121 C at 1 bar for 15 minutes Dose = Heat Time Thermal death kinetics First-order kinetics assumed (exponential) d = time required at 121 C for 1 LRV Canning 12 d reduction of Clostridium botulinum spores
Heat kills Enzymes denature Proteins change shape Cell pressure increases boiling pasteurization Introduction to HWTS 2 Safe Storage Filtration Sedimentation higher pressure, higher boiling temperature Autoclave, steam sterilization 121 C at 1 bar for 15 minutes Dose = Heat Time Thermal death kinetics First-order kinetics assumed (exponential) d = time required at 121 C for 1 LRV Canning 12 d reduction of Clostridium botulinum spores
Heat kills Enzymes denature Proteins change shape Cell pressure increases boiling pasteurization Introduction to HWTS 2 Safe Storage Filtration Sedimentation higher pressure, higher boiling temperature Autoclave, steam sterilization 121 C at 1 bar for 15 minutes Dose = Heat Time Thermal death kinetics First-order kinetics assumed (exponential) d = time required at 121 C for 1 LRV Canning 12 d reduction of Clostridium botulinum spores
Introduction to Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage, Module 3.1
Dr. Richard Johnston Heat kills Enzymes denature Proteins change shape Cell pressure increases Boiling Pasteurization
Introduction
Introduction to HWTS| 2 Safe Storage Disinfection Filtration Sedimentation Higher pressure, higher boiling temperature Autoclave, steam sterilization 121 C at 1 bar for 15 minutes
Lower pressure, lower boiling temperature
Temperature and pressure Introduction to HWTS| 3 Dose = Heat * Time
Thermal death kinetics First-order kinetics assumed (exponential) D = time required at 121 C for 1 LRV
Canning 12 D reduction of Clostridium botulinum spores
Thermal death kinetics Introduction to HWTS| 4
Oldest method of HWTS Estimated 600 million people report usual practice >90% in Uzbekistan, Mongolia, Viet Nam, Indonesia
Effective against all viruses, bacteria and protozoa Turbidity is not a problem Prone to recontamination Flat taste
Boiling Introduction to HWTS| 5
Country Reduction in TTC % samples < 1 CFU/100 mL % samples < 10 CFU/100 mL Reference India 2 LRV 60% 65% Clasen et al., 2008 Vietnam 1.5 LRV 37% 75% Clasen et al., 2008 Guatemala 0.9 LRV 71% 82% Rosa et al., 2010 Indonesia -- 49% Sodha et al., 2011 Cambodia 2 LRV 44% 73% Brown and Sobsey, 2012 Effectiveness in field studies Introduction to HWTS| 6 If biomass is used as fuel
Health impacts Environmental impacts
Costly (India, Viet Nam) Fuel: 0.5%-1.5% monthly income Time: 20 min/d wood collection (India), 30 minutes extra/day for treatment (Viet Nam) Another 2-5% of monthly income
Fuel and time Introduction to HWTS| 7 Not necessary to reach 100 Protein damage Milk pasteurization 72 C for 15 seconds 63 C for 30 minutes
Heat-up and cool-down time help
Difficulty of knowing when water is 70C WAPI Pasteurization Introduction to HWTS| 8 System developed in Bangladesh Readily available waste heat Inefficient stoves 600 C internal, >80% heat wasted Inexpensive flow-through heat exchanger
Chulli system Introduction to HWTS| 9 System developed in Bangladesh Readily available waste heat Inefficient stoves 600 C internal, >80% heat wasted Inexpensive flow-through heat exchanger
Chulli system Credit: Islam and Johnston, 2006 Introduction to HWTS| 9 System developed in Bangladesh Readily available waste heat Inefficient stoves 600 C internal, >80% heat wasted Inexpensive flow-through heat exchanger
Evaluation: (Gupta et al. 2007) Microbiologically effective, median 5 LRV E. coli Low use: 20%
Chulli system Credit: Islam and Johnston, 2006 Introduction to HWTS| 9 Disinfection effectiveness Protozoa Giardia Bacteria E. coli, Viruses Adenovirus, poliovirus, hepatitis Lab waters, Indian waters
Protozoa 6-9+ LRV Crypto cysts inactivated after 1 min at 72C
Bacteria 6-9+ LRV B. anthrax can survive boiling
Viruses 6-9+ LRV Easily killed, even at 60 C Introduction to HWTS| 10 Disinfection effectiveness Protozoa Giardia Bacteria E. coli, Viruses Adenovirus, poliovirus, hepatitis Lab waters, Indian waters
Protozoa 6-9+ LRV Crypto cysts inactivated after 1 min at 72C
Bacteria 6-9+ LRV B. anthrax can survive boiling
Viruses 6-9+ LRV Easily killed, even at 60 C Islam, M. F. and R. B. Johnston (2006). "Household pasteurization of drinking water: the chulli water-treatment system." Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition 24(3): 356-362. Ericsson, C. D., R. Steffen and H. Backer (2002). "Water disinfection for international and wilderness travelers." Clinical infectious diseases 34(3): 355-364. Introduction to HWTS| 10 Some key elevations Dbendorf 440 Zermatt 1608 Addis Ababa 2355 La Rinconada, Peru 5101 La Paz, Bolivia 3640 Mt. Everest 8848 Kilimanjaro 5895 Mt. Fuji 3776 Aspen, Colorado 2579 Kathmandu 1400 -2000 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 E l e v a t i o n ,
m
The Dead Sea -427 Dhaka 4 Mean sea level 0 Introduction to HWTS| 11 Some key boiling points (Celsius) Dbendorf 98.6 Zermatt 94.4 Addis Ababa 92.1 La Paz, Bolivia 87.8 Aspen, Colorado 91.3 Kathmandu 95.2 -2000 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 E l e v a t i o n ,
m
The Dead Sea 101.5 Dhaka 100 Mean sea level 100 Introduction to HWTS| 12 Some key boiling points (Celsius) Dbendorf 98.6 Zermatt 94.4 Addis Ababa 92.1 La Rinconada, Peru 83.2 La Paz, Bolivia 87.8 Mt. Everest 72.0 Kilimanjaro 80.9 Mt. Fuji 87.3 Aspen, Colorado 91.3 Kathmandu 95.2 -2000 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 E l e v a t i o n ,
m
The Dead Sea 101.5 Dhaka 100 Mean sea level 100 Introduction to HWTS| 12 Some key boiling points (Relative oxygen) Dbendorf 96 Zermatt 82% Addis Ababa 77% La Rinconada, Peru 54% La Paz, Bolivia 66% Mt. Everest 33% Kilimanjaro 48% Mt. Fuji 63% Aspen, Colorado 74% Kathmandu 86% -2000 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 E l e v a t i o n ,
m
The Dead Sea 106 Dhaka 100% Mean sea level 100% relative = 20.9% actual oxygen Introduction to HWTS| 13
How long do you need to boil water? Introduction to HWTS| 14 Advantages Challenges Highly effective Takes long time, including cooling Not affected by turbidity Changes taste of water Simple operation, no special equipment needed Possibility of recontamination Widely accepted, understood, promoted High energy and time costs Considerations for heat treatment Introduction to HWTS | 15 Heat kills Effective against all classes of pathogens Boiling is very widespread Recontamination is widespread Pasteurization works well but is rare
Summary
Introduction to HWTS| 16 Ultraviolet radiation Introduction to Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage, Module 3.2 Dr. Richard Johnston Ultraviolet radiation Artificial radiation Natural radiation (solar disinfection)
Introduction: Ultraviolet Radiation
Introduction to HWTS| 2 Safe Storage Disinfection Filtration Sedimentation Cosmic Rays Gamma Rays X-rays Ultraviolet Visible Infrared Micro waves Radio waves 0.1 0.1 1 nm 100-400 nm 400-700 nm Up to 1 mm 1 cm 1 m Electromagnetic spectrum Vacuum UV UV-C UV-B UV-A Visible 400 700 315 280 200 100 Germicidal Peak 260 Introduction to HWTS| 3 Dose = Intensity * Time 1 mJ/cm 2 = 10 J/m 2
DNA absorbs in 200-300 nm range Peak at 260 nm
Most effective against Bacteria, then Protozoa cysts, then Viruses, bacterial spores
Typical dose 400 J/m 2 (40 mJ/cm 2 )
Efficacy against pathogens Introduction to HWTS| 4
Efficacy against pathogens Source: USEPA 2006, UV Disinfection Guidance Manual Introduction to HWTS| 5 UV-C generated by lamps Low-pressure mercury lamps, 254 nm Medium-pressure lamps, 200-440 nm LED lamps developing rapidly
Effective in water No impact of pH Turbidity can shield particles Modest temperature effect, more dose needed at low temperatures
UV-C Generation Introduction to HWTS| 6 Baja California, Mexico Small UV-C lamp (electricity) 1200 J/m 2 5 litres per minute, storage in jugs
Evaluation: water quality better than pre-intervention, than control, than alternative disinfection Exclusive use: 40%
UV-C interventions: Mesita Azul Credit: F. Reygadas, 2012 Introduction to HWTS| 7 Use natural sunlight PET bottles
Six hours exposure 2 days if cloudy
> 20 countries, 5 million+ people www.sodis.ch www.fundacionsodis.org
Solar Disinfection (SODIS) Introduction to HWTS| 8
Solar irradiation Introduction to HWTS| 9 Direct inactivation UV-B Much removed by PET
Indirect inactivation UV-A Generation of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) Internal: chromophores in cell External: organic matter, iron
Heat SODIS Mechanisms
Introduction to HWTS| 10 UV Radiation Sun height Latitude Cloud cover Altitude Ozone Ground reflection Water column
Factors affecting SODIS Credit: www.sodis.ch Introduction to HWTS| 11 UV Radiation Sun height Latitude Cloud cover Altitude Ozone Ground reflection Water column Temperature At 50C, one hour exposure is sufficient Turbidity < 30 NTU
Bacteria 3-5+ LRV Salmonella > E. coli > Shigella > V. cholera
Viruses 1-5+ LRV Adenovirus, phiX174 > echovirus, MS2 Introduction to HWTS| 12 Since 2001 Eawag + Fondacion SODIS Piloted in Cochabamba Training by NGOs, local health promoters, schools, health professionals, women's groups 700 000 users
Evaluation: 32% mean use
Source: Musezahl, 2009, PLoS Medicine. SODIS in Bolivia
Credit: Fundacin SODIS Introduction to HWTS| 13 PET = polyethylene terephthalate
Antimony Adipates, phthalates Acetaldehydes, formaldehydes Bisphenol A
Genotoxicity
http://www.sodis.ch/methode/forschung/ publikationen/index_EN Is SODIS safe? Introduction to HWTS| 14 Advantages Challenges Highly effective (UV-C > SODIS) Limited to low turbidity waters UV-C requires electricity Simple (SODIS) Dependent on climate Inexpensive (SODIS) Takes significant time Low risk of recontamination (SODIS) Small volumes Considerations for UV treatment Introduction to HWTS | 15 What UV radiation is Efficacy against pathogens
How UV-C interventions work and can be adapted for HWTS How solar disinfection (SODIS) works and is applied in low and middle income countries Summary
Introduction to HWTS| 16 Chemical disinfection Introduction to Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage, Module 3.3 Dr. Richard Johnston
Chlorine Chemistry and dosing Forms Example application
Introduction: Chemical disinfection
Introduction to HWTS| 2 Safe Storage Disinfection Filtration Sedimentation Since 1890s in England, took off in early 20 th century Used in 98% of US utilities
Second most reported HWTS 5.6% of households Latin America and Caribbean
Chlorine disinfection Introduction to HWTS| 3 Elemental Chlorine (Cl 2 gas) High Test Hypochlorite (HTH) Calcium hypochlorite Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) liquid Electrolytic generation
All generate Free Chlorine hypochlorous acid (HOCl) hypochlorite (OCl - ) pKa 7.54 Aim for pH < 8 Chlorine speciation Introduction to HWTS| 4 Dose = Demand + Residual
Chlorine demand Organic carbon Iron and manganese Ammonia
Target 0.5 mg/L residual Usually need 1-5 mg/L dose, typically 2 If turbid, double dose Guideline value for chlorine 5 mg/L
Chlorine dose and demand Introduction to HWTS| 5 Household water treatment Safe storage Behavior change communication
Dilute liquid chlorine 0.75% solution pH 11+ Water Guard, Clorin, Claro, SurEau One capful per 20 L water Dose of at least 1.9 mg/L (e.g. 5 mL of 0.75%) Double if turbid
Safe Water System (CDC, PAHO) www.cdc.gov/safewater/ Introduction to HWTS| 6 Sodium Dichloroisocyanurate About 60% free chlorine Reservoir chlorine Guideline value of 40 mg/L Consistent free chlorine level Less taste and odour Effervescent tablets, long shelf life 10 litres: 1x33 mg tablet if clean, 2 if dirty 20 litres: 1x67 mg tablet if clean, 2 if dirty
Easy to use NaDCC Tablets Source: www.medentech.com Introduction to HWTS| 7 Dose = Concentration * Time (Ct) min-mg/L
Recommended 0.5 mg/L, 30 min Ct = 15 min-mg/L Equivalent to 1 mg/ for 15 minutes
HWTS, minimum dose 1.9 mg/L Ct = 56 min-mg/L
Efficacy against pathogens
Introduction to HWTS| 8 Efficacy against pathogens 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 Ct 99 , mg-min/L Bacteria 0.04 0.08 Viruses 2 30 Protozoa 25 - 245 Source: WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water, 4 th ed.
Introduction to HWTS| 9 Efficacy against pathogens 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 Ct 99 , mg-min/L Bacteria 0.04 0.08 Viruses 2 30 Protozoa 25 - 245 Source: WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water, 4 th ed.
Introduction to HWTS| 10 Efficacy against pathogens 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 Ct 99 , mg-min/L Bacteria 0.04 0.08 Viruses 2 30 Protozoa 25 - 245 Source: WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water, 4 th ed.
Introduction to HWTS| 11 Disinfection effectiveness
Protozoa 2-5 LRV Cryptosporidium unaffected
Bacteria 3-6+ LRV Spores may be more resistant
Viruses 2-5 LRV Longer time requirement Introduction to HWTS| 12 Free chlorine + Ammonia = Chloramines Monochloramine Dichloramine Trichloramine
Less efficient disinfectant
Stronger odour Combined chlorine Introduction to HWTS| 13 Organic carbon Trihalomethanes (e.g. chloroform) Haloacetic acids Carcinogenic in laboratory animals at high concentrations
Guideline values, 1 in 100,000 excess cancer cases
Note: Disinfection By-products
Introduction to HWTS| 16 The health risks from these byproducts at the levels at which they occur in drinking water are extremely small in comparison with the risks associated with inadequate disinfection.
Thus, it is important that disinfection not be compromised in attempting to control such byproducts. WHO Guidelines Organic carbon Trihalomethanes (e.g. chloroform) Haloacetic acids Carcinogenic in laboratory animals at high concentrations
Guideline values, 1 in 100,000 excess cancer cases
Note: Disinfection By-products Introduction to HWTS| 15
Example: Gadyen Dlo in Haiti Credit: M. Ritter, Deep Springs International deepspringsinternational.org Introduction to HWTS| 16 Conducted in Northern Haiti Not in the earthquake zone
75% report current use 56% had free chlorine residual at time of visit
Expansion to earthquake zone Massive free distribution High uptake, uncertain sustainability
Gadyen Dlo evaluation Source: Harshfield, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 2012. Credit: M. Ritter, Deep Springs International deepspringsinternational.org Chloramines Chlorine dioxide Ozone
Bromine Silver Other disinfectants Introduction to HWTS| 18 Advantages Challenges Highly effective against bacteria Ineffective against protozoa Residual protection Taste and odour Simple to use Requires low turbidity Low cost Requires supply chain Misunderstanding about by-products Considerations for chlorination Introduction to HWTS| 19 Chlorine is widely used in both conventional treatment and HWT A variety of sources, all produce free chlorine in water Highly effective against bacteria Effective against viruses and some protozoa Not Cryptosporidium Summary
Introduction to HWTS| 20 Safe Storage Introduction to Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage, Module 3.4 Dr. Richard Johnston
Introduction: Safe Storage
Introduction to HWTS| 2 1 Water Resource 2 Delivery system 3 Collection and Transport 4 Household storage 5 Consumption
Opening Small enough to discourage hands, scooping Large enough for easy filling Cap Possible to clean Tap or spigot for withdrawing water
Portable Stable (flat bottom), robust, opaque (Size appropriate for treatment)
Inexpensive, available locally
Characteristics of safe storage Source: UNICEF Water Quality Handbook, 2008 Introduction to HWTS| 3 CDC Container, 20 L
Oxfam bucket, 14 L
Safe storage containers Credit: www.nrs-international.com Credit: www.cdc.gov/safewater Introduction to HWTS| 4 Jerrycans Credit: DFID, Jess Seldon Credit: UNICEF, Pierre Holz
Introduction to HWTS| 5
Buckets and jars Credit: M. Ritter, Deep Springs International deepspringsinternational.org Credit: D. Lantagne www.cdc.gov/safewater Introduction to HWTS| 6 Malawi refugee camp Repeated outbreaks of diarrhea and cholera Well water, high micrbobial quality at source
Improved 20 L storage container Provided free to 25% of interviewed households Exchanged for previous containers
53% reduction in total coliform levels 69% reduction in geometric mean
Finger rinse: high contamination Water storage in refugee camps Source: Roberts et al, Bulletin of the WHO, 2001 http://www.who.int/bulletin/archives/79(4)280.pdf Introduction to HWTS| 7
Rural Benin, high levels of E. coli At least 40% using public pump or standpipe
Randomized intervention providing 30 L container with tap 72 villages, 50% selected for full coverage 50% plastic, 50% ceramic. Cost $24-$33, no cost recovery
88% continued use after 7 months Clay containers prone to breakage, hard to clean 70% less E. coli contamination
Improved water storage in Benin Source: Gnther and Schipper, Health Economics, 2012 Introduction to HWTS| 8 Safe storage containers are designed to minimize recontamination Desired characteristics Examples Intervention studies
Summary
Introduction to HWTS| 9 Combinations Introduction to Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage, Module 3.5 Dr. Richard Johnston
Introduction Introduction to HWTS| 2 Safe Storage Disinfection Filtration Sedimentation
Multiple barriers
Informal combinations
Commercial combinations
Sedimentation, roughing filtration, ceramic filtration, or biosand filter +
Informal combinations Source: CAWST - The Centre for Affordable Water and Sanitation Technology (www.cawst.org) Introduction to HWTS| 3 Informal combinations
P&G Purifier Watermaker
Good for turbid water Requires stirring container
Separate safe storage Coagulation and chlorination Credit: Procter & Gamble Introduction to HWTS| 4
Filtration and disinfection Source: www.eawag.ch Source: www.eurekaforbes.com Source:www.pureitwater.com Source:www.tataswach.com Mineral Pot Filter Aquasure Pureit Swach Source: biosil.wordpress.com Introduction to HWTS| 5 Multiple barriers Variable vulnerability of pathogens
Informal combinations Formal combinations Coagulation and chlorination and safe storage Disinfection and chlorination and safe storage
Summary
Introduction to HWTS| 6 Key Messages, Week 3 Introduction to Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage, Module 3.6 Dr. Richard Johnston
Disinfection Heat Ultraviolet Chemical Safe storage Combined systems
Introduction
Introduction to HWTS| 2 Boiling
Pasteurization
Effective against all classes of pathogens Heat Introduction to HWTS| 3 Cosmic Rays Gamma Rays X-rays Ultraviolet Visible Infrared Micro waves Radio waves 0.1 0.1 1 nm 100-400 nm 400-700 nm Up to 1 mm 1 cm 1 m Ultraviolet radiation Vacuum UV UV-C UV-B UV-A Visible 400 700 315 280 200 100 Germicidal Peak 260 Introduction to HWTS| 4 Chlorination Liquids Tablets
Different effectiveness for different pathogens
Safe water system Disinfection Safe storage Behaviour change communication
Chemical disinfection www.cdc.gov/safewater/ Introduction to HWTS| 5
Characteristics of safe storage containers Examples Intervention studies
Safe storage Introduction to HWTS| 6 Multiple barriers
Informal combinations
Commercial combinations Combined systems Introduction to HWTS| 7
HWT technologies reviewed Effectiveness against different pathogens Advantages and challenges
Next: implementation
Summary Safe Storage Disinfection Filtration Sedimentation Introduction to HWTS| 8