DEAR YR 8s YOU OWE ME :D - Timmy

Science Study Notes

Cell theory
Cell theory:
Proposed in 1839
Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden
The theory states:
1. All living things or organisms are made up of cells.
2. New cells are created by old cells dividing in two.
3. All cells are similar to each other but not identical.
Contributors to our understanding of cells:
Robert Hooke
- devised the compound microscope and illumination system
- wrote Micrographia (a book which showed accurate and detailed drawings of his
observations)
- discovered plant cells
Zacharias Janssen
- invented compound microscope
Antoine van Leeunwenhoek
- made lenses which gave magnifications of up to 270x diameters
- firs to see and describe bacteria, yeast plants, overflowing life in a drop of water and
the circulation of blood capsules in capillaries
Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann
- proposed the cell theory
Virchow
- observed that a whole organism does not get sick-only certain cells or groups of cells
- discovered cells in bones and connective tissue

Unicellular organisms:
Protists
- generally found in wet places e.g. sea, ponds and damp ground
- can make their own food by using energy in sunlight
- some eat other living things
Amoeba
- a protist that lives in fresh water
- doesnt have a fixed shape
- feeds by engulfing (swallowing) its prey
- digests its food in a food vacuole
- reproduces through fission
Euglena
- a protist that can eat food and can also make food.
- Live in fresh water, salt water and in soil
- Reproduces by fission
Bacteria
- Nucleus has no membrane
- Divide by fission
- Can live in any environment on the Earth
- Can be beneficial (decomposing waste, digesting food and making cheese and
yoghurt)
Coarse focus knob
Fine focus knob
Arm
Stage clips
Inclination joint
Base
Eyepiece/ocular lens
Barrel/bodytube
Revolving nosepiece
Low power objective
High power objective
Stage
Diaphragm
Mirror/light source
- Can be harmful (cause diseases and food poisoning)
Viruses
- Not made of cells
- Consist of a core of chemicals (DNA, found in the nucleus of cells) surrounded by
protein coat
- Can infect all types of living things
- Cause diseases
- Cannot reproduce outside a living cell
- Enter healthy cell and take over cell nucleus to make new viruses
- This is called replication
Cell structure:
Cell structure Description
Cell membrane Thin layer surrounding the cell; controls
entry of nutrients (such as food and oxygen)
and exit of materials (such as waste) from
the cell; protects cell contents
Nucleus Control centre of the cell; contains inherited
(genetic) codes in structures called
chromosomes, surrounded by nuclear
membrane
Cytoplasm Clear, jelly-like liquid; many chemical
reactions occur within the cytoplasm
Mitochondrion Site where energy is generated by a process
called respiration
Vacuole Storage area for water, food and waste
substances; usually large in plant cells, but
tiny or no-existent in animal cells
Cell wall (plants only) Provide strength and support for the plant;
composed of woody cellulose
Chloroplast (green plant cell) Contain the green chemical chlorophyll
which absorbs sunlight; site of
photosynthesis (conversion of solar energy
into chemical energy)
Ribosomes Makes proteins

Eyepice magnification*Objective magnification= Total magnification
Procedure to Making a Wet Mount
1. Place specimen on microscope slide.
2. Place three drops of liquid (e.g. iodine) on the specimen.
3. Place coverslip onto slide, on its side, beside the specimen and liquid.
4. Cover the coverslip slowly to avoid air bubbles
5. Blot away excess liquid from beside the coverslip with absorbent paper.

Minigrid:
- A slide with a miniature grid or scale on it
- Enables us to measure length, width, etc. of tiny objects e.g. cells
Images appear under the microscope as:
- Upside-down
- Back to front

Reproduction of:
Unicellular organisms-binary fission
- Asexual reproduction
- A cell replicates its DNA and splits its DNA and cytoplasm equally
Fungi-spores
- Asexual reproduction
- Discharges spores into the air
Virus-infection of other cells
- Uses help of a living cell
- Infect the cell and will then marshal the cells ribosomes, enzymes and other cellular
machinery to reproduce
Four phases in bacterial reproduction:
1. Lag phase
- Start of reproduction
- Microbes are adjusting to their surroundings
- Not reproducing very much
2. Log phase
- Conditions are good for reproduction
- Population size increases rapidly
3. Stationary phase
- Food and oxygen in short supply

4. Death phase
- Occurs when food and oxygen has run out or the environment has changes and
starts killing microbes



Body Systems

Cells-a small unit in cell organisms that make it up
Tissues-a group of similar cells in an organism that performs a task for it
Organ- a group of tissues in an organism that performs a task
Organ system-a group of organs in an organism that perform tasks
Organism-an individual life form










Cells
Tissues-
collections of
tissues
become a
specialised
working
groups
Organs
with related
jobs
becoming
part of an
Organ
system
with specific
function
needed by
the
Organism
The human skeleton



Cranium
Mandible
Clavicle
Sternum
Humerus
Ribs
Spinal Cord
Pelvis
Radius
Ulna
Carpals
Metacarpals
Phalanges
Femur
Platella
Tibia
Fibula
Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges
The Skeletal System
Parts of the Skeletal System:
Bones
Joints
Cartilages
Ligaments (bone to bone)
Tendons (bone to muscle)
Divided into two divisions:
Axial skeleton
Appendicular skeleton- limbs and girdle
Functions of bones:
Support of the body
Protection of soft organs
Movement due to attached skeletal muscles
Storage of minerals and fats
Blood cell formation
Bones of the Human Body:
The skeleton has 206 bones (adult)
Two basic types of bone tissue
- compact bone
homogenous
-spongy bone
small needle-like pieces of bone
many open spaces
Classification of Bones on the Basis of Shape:
Long bones e.g. femur
Short bones e.g. carpals
Flat bones e.g. cranium
Irregular e.g. vertical column
Though bone is hard it is living tissue made of bone cells and protein fibres embedded in a
hard substance called calcium phosphate.
All bones are made up of compact and spongy bone.
Compact bone is very strong and is used where the bone is under most stress, but is heavy
so could not be used for the whole bone.
Spongy bone weighs less and is used in parts of the bone that take stress. It is less tightly
packed.
Bone marrow is also found in the spongy bone.
Changes in the Human Skeleton:
In the embryos, the skeleton is primarily cartilage
During development, much of the cartilage is replaced by bone
Cartilage remains in isolated areas
-bridge of the nose
- parts of the ribs
- joints
Bone growth:
Epiphyseal plates allow the growth of long bone during childhood
-new cartilage is continuously formed
-older cartilage becomes ossified
-cartilage is broken down
-bone replaces cartilage
Joints
Joints are where two or more bones meet in the skeleton. They are either fixed or movable.
There are three main types of movable joints:
Pivot
Hinge
Ball and socket
Pivot joints:
Give a rotation movement such as the head from side to side, or up or down. E.g. the skull
and spine joint.
Hinge joints:
Permit a forward and back motion in one plane, like a
door on a hinge. E.g. the elbow and the knees.

Ball and socket joints:
Allow the greatest amount of freedom of movement.
They are made up of a large round end of a long bone
that fits into the hollow of another bone. E.g. the hip
and shoulders.
The arms can move more freely that the legs because
of the way the joints are arranged, and because the
shoulder blade is only loosely attached to the chest wall.
Fixed joints:
Some of your joints are fixed and dont allow any
movement. E.g. skull. The bones of the skull are held
together with fibrous connective tissue.
A typical synovial joint:
Movable joints are protected from wear and tear:
A smooth layer of cartilage covers the ends of the bones that move over each other
so they dont rub
Cartilage cushions the joint
Synovial fluid keeps the joints moist and lubricated
What is cartilage??
A rubbery fibrous connective tissue that helps to support the vertebrae body. Its main
constituent is the protein collagen.
Synovial joint:

Muscles
Muscle is the tough elastic tissue that makes the body parts move.
Skeletal muscles:
Help hold the skeleton together
Together, give the body shape
Make the body move
Tendons (a bundle of tough fibres) attach muscle to bone. Muscles move bones by pulling
on tendons.
Ligaments (also tough fibres) hold the bones of a joint in position.
Muscles pull on bones by contracting, or shortening. Muscles never push. Tendons do not
contract and relax like muscles do.
















Respiratory System:

a- Nasal cavity
b- Epiglottis
c- Trachea
d- Bronchus tube
e- Larynx (voice box)
f- Alveoli
g- Diaphragm
h- Intercostal muscles
How we Breathe

Breathing in:
Diaphragm pulls down increasing chest volume. Air pressure in lungs is decreased and air flows into
lungs.
Breathing out:
Diaphragm relaxes and decreases chest volume. Air pressure in lungs is increased and air flows out
of lungs.









Gas exchange



Circulatory System
The heart:

Double pump
Right side pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs
left side receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the rest of the
body
The heart has four chambers
These are connected by valves-blood can only flow in one direction
The walls on the right side of the heart are not as thick as the left
Blood does not have to be pumped as far
Pacemaker-tissue that controls the beating of the hear
If heartbeat is irregular, a surgeon can place a battery-powered electronic one
Superior Vena Cava
Aorta
Pulmonary vein
Left atrium
Pulmonary artery
Bicuspid valve
Left ventricle
Septum
Right ventricle
Tricuspid valve
Inferior
Vena Cava
Semi-lunar
valves
Right atrium
Veins carry blood towards the heart
Arteries carry blood away from the heart
Blood vessels
Blood vessels-there are three major types: arteries, veins and capillaries
Arteries
Thick walled.
Carries blood away from the heart to all parts of the body
The aorta carries blood under high
pressure from the left side of your heart. It
branches into smaller arteries which lead
to the head, arms legs and organs of the
body.
The pulmonary artery carries blood to the
lungs for oxygenation.
With every contraction of the lower half of
the heart causes a spurt of blood and sets
up a movement or pulse in the elastic
material in the walls of the artery. It can be
felt as a light tap against your fingers
where an artery comes close to the skin.
Capillaries:
As arteries continue to branch they
become smaller and smaller until they are
very fine tubes with extremely thing walls.
These are capillaries.
Capillaries reach nearly all the live cells of
your body. Through their thin walls, cells
absorb oxygen, nutrients and other
substances formed at various parts of the
body.
Cells also pass back into the blood, through capillary walls, waste materials such as
carbon dioxide which is carried in the plasma until the blood flows through the lungs
where it can be breathed out.
When we cut or scratch ourselves, that blood comes from broken capillaries.
Veins:
Thin-walled vessels that carry blood back to the heart.
Small veins formed by the joining of a few capillaries. These join to form larger and
larger veins.
All veins of the head, neck and arms join up into one large vein, the superior vena
cava.
The veins from the other parts (the trunk and legs) join to form the inferior vena
cava
These two veins empty into the right atrium of the heart
Veins are thin-walled and simple in structure. They also contain valves which allow
blood to flow in one direction only, towards the heart.
Digestive System
PARTS OF DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
CARBBOHYDRATES PROTEINS FATS
Mouth
Teeth grind up food
into small pieces; adds
enzymes from salivary
glands
Breakdown of starch
begins; some maltose
forms
Proteins not digested Fats not digested
Stomach
Mixes food into soupy
mixture; acids and
enzymes attack the
food
Carbohydrates not
digested
Protein chains broken
into smaller
polypeptide chains
Fats not digested
Duodenum (first part
of small intestine) Bile
from liver and
gallbladder emulsifies
fats to small droplets;
enzymes from
pancreas attack fats,
proteins and
carbohydrates
Starch is changed
into simple sugars
such as maltose
Polypeptide chains are
broken down to
dipeptide chains
Fats are broken into
fatty acids and
glycerol
Small intestine
Digestion is
completed; digested
nutrients diffuse into
the bloodstream
through intestinal wall
Maltose is converted
into simple sugars
such as glucose
Dipeptides break
down into amino acids
Any remaining fats
are converted to
fatty acids and
glycerol
Large intestine
Water and vitamins
and minerals
absorbed into blood;
waste transferred to
rectum before being
excreted.
None None None
Excretory System:
The Urinary System

Functions of the Kidneys Structures:
1. Renal artery: takes blood containing water, glucose urea and salt to the kidney.
2. Renal vein takes deoxygenated blood (minus salts and some water) from the kidney.
3. Capsule: is an outer layer coat.
4. Cortex: contains tiny tubes called nephrons which filter the blood, removing salts
and some water, thus forming urine.
5. Medulla: passes urea from the cortex to the pelvis.
6. Pelvis: is the site where wastes/urine collects.
7. Ureter: takes urine from the pelvis to the bladder.
8. Fat surrounding the kidney: keeps the kidney warm and protected.




Renal
vein
Renal
artery
Capsule
Medulla
Fat surrounding the kidney
Chemistry
Atoms

Mass of one electron= 1/1846 mass of 1 proton or 1 neutron
Nucleus contains 99.9% mass of entire atom but nucleus occupies approximately 1/10000
the volume of the atom.
Compounds
Pure substances made up of two or more elements chemically joined together
Different samples of same compound will have exactly the same properties
However, their properties will be different to the properties of the elements that the
compound is composed of
A property is a characteristic of a substance that can be used to identify it e.g.
melting point, boiling point, colour, conductivity, density and hardness
Element Compound (of 2 elements) Mixture (of 2 elements)

(i.e., joined by chemical
bonds- the compound has
different properties
compared to its element)

(i.e., not joined by chemical
bonds-the component
elements keep their own
properties)

Properties of Metals and Non-metals
Metal properties Non-metal properties
Shiny Dull
High melting and boiling points Low melting and boiling points
High density Low density
Strong Not strong
Malleable Brittle
Ductile Not ductile
Good conductor Poor conductor

Pure and Impure Substances

Pure substances have fixed physical properties e.g. melting point, boiling point and
density
No matter what sample of the same substance is investigated will always be the
same e.g. every sample of pure copper will have the same red-brown colour, same
conductivity, the same hardness etc.
All elements and compounds are pure
Therefore, their constant properties can be used to identify them
Mixtures are impure because the properties of a mixture can vary from sample to
sample
This is because compositions arent fixed


Matter
Impure
-Mixtures
Pure
- Elements (Metals and
non-metals)
-Compounds
Decomposition of a compound
While elements cannot be decomposed by any means, compounds can be decomposed,
frequently by:
Strong heating
Electricity
Binary compound
Contain 2 elements only
Always has ide ending
First element name not changed though
E.g.: Between metals=non-metals
e.g. NaCl- sodium chloride
KI- potassium iodide
MgO-Magnesium oxide
Between Non-metals
- use prefixes
e.g. : CO- carbon monoxide
CO2-carbon dioxide
SF6-sulfur hexafluoride
H2O- hydrogen monoxide
SO2-Sulfur dioxide
No. of Elements in a compound:
e.g. sucrose C12H22O11 no. of elements=3, no. of atoms=45
octane C8H18 no. of elements= 2, no. of atoms=26
butane C4H10 no. of elements=2, no. of atoms=14



Indicators of a chemical reaction
In a chemical reaction at least one new substance is formed. How do you when this has
happened?
Change of colour
Formation of gas (bubbling)
Metal dissolving
Relatively large amounts of heat are absorbed or released
A solid forms when two solutions mix (a precipitate)
Science: systematical knowledge of the universe, obtained by experiments, observations
and preparation of facts

Chemistry: is the branch of science that deals with matter and its properties

Matter: anything that occupies space








John Daltons atomic theory:
1. Matter is composed of tiny indivisible particles called atoms.
2. All atoms of one element are identical, but different from the atoms of all other
elements.
3. Chemical reactions consist of combining, rearranging or separating atoms in whole
number ratios.
Matter
Pure substances
Mixtures
Elements Compounds
Atoms Molecules Molecules













Energy
Kinetic energy (active energy) Potential energy (stored energy)
Light energy: Energy produced by
luminescent objects such as the sun, the
stars and bulbs. Includes light, x-rays,
microwaves, infra-red waves.
Gravitational energy: stored energy in raised
objects. A person standing on a diving board
has gravitational energy. The gravity of Earth
pulls them down.
Sound energy: Energy made by vibrating
objects-speech and music are caused by
vibrations.
Elastic energy: Energy stored in stretched
objects. A trampoline has elastic energy.
Heat energy: Increase in temperature caused
by tiny particles in substances to move
more. Heat is transferred by conduction,
convection and radiation.
Nuclear energy: The nucleus of an atom has
large amounts of stored energy which can be
released by fission.
Electrical energy: The flow of electrons in the
conductors and circuits in appliances such as
TV, radio, computer, etc.
Chemical energy: Energy stored in fuels,
foods and batteries.
Magnetic energy: Magnets have a magnetic
field around them, which attracts magnetic
material within the field
What is Energy?
It makes things happen.
It is the ability to do work.
It does not have mass.
It occupies space.
It has many forms.
What is Energy Transformation?
Energy transformation is when energy is changed from one form to another.
Laws of Conservation of Energy
Energy can be transformed (converted) into different types of energy. These changes can be
represented as a chain or web.
It is important to remember that:
Energy cannot be made (created)
Energy cannot be destroyed
Energy can be changed from one form to another
These three ideas are the basis for the Law of Conservation of Energy.
Sound
Sound is produced by vibration of particles.
When a tuning fork vibrates it disturbs the surround air molecules. The air particles are
pushed back and forth. When this happens, air particles at firs back up and then spread out
again. This is called compression and rarefaction.

When this happens air particles spread in all directions and sound energy can travel through
solids, liquids and gases but not through a vacuum.
Why does the speed of sound vary in different states of matter?
The speed of sound varies between solids, liquids and gases as the particles of solids are
closely packed, therefore, sound can vibrate faster. However, the particles in gases are
spread out therefore, the sound vibrates slower.
Speed=distance/time

Pitch is measured in Hz (hertz)
Loudness is measured in dB (decibels)

Static Electricity
Static electricity involves objects becoming electrostatically charged. The charge stays on
the object without moving. That is why this kind of electricity is called static electricity;
static means not moving or changing.
Static electricity isnt always static; it can move.
Static electricity describes situations that occur when objects have extra electrical charge.
This electrical charge may be positive or negative. Objects become charged when electrons
are rubbed onto or off the atoms in the objects.
Dynamic electricity
Dynamic electricity describes electricity that occur when electrical charges move through a
conductor. The electrical charges are negative. An electric current is produced when
electrons travel through a wire.

Charged objects attract uncharged objects.
(NOTE: When charge is passed onto uncharged object by the charged object, it will start to
repel.)
Objects with the same charge repel each other
Objects with different charges attract each other.

Heat Transfer
Conduction
Heat transfer through solids
Metals are good conductors
Poor conductors are called heat insulators
Conduction is when the particles in one part of an object vibrate more, and these
vibrations are passed on from particle to particle through the object

Convection
Heat transfer through fluids (gases and liquids)
Convections currents form because:
-the hot water at the bottom of the beaker expands
-this expansion causes the water at the bottom to become less dense than the water
at the top
-the less dense water floats to the top
-it gets pushed to the sides as more less dense water floats up
-as water cools, it contracts
-as it contracts, it becomes denser
-as it becomes denser, it sinks back down to the bottom of the beaker
Radiation
Only heat transfer that can go through vacuums
Passing of heat from one place to another
Dull surfaces absorb more than shiny surfaces
Black surfaces absorb more than white surfaces
Dull black objects cool down faster than shiny white objects
















Working Scientifically
Hypotheses

Statement describing the relationship between 2 variables.

Scaffold:
If the independent variable is changed, then something happens in the dependent variable.

i.e. If the amount of sunlight is increased then there is an increase in the height of wheat
plants.

A hypothesis is not the same as a guess or an inference and it is not a prediction.

A hypothesis cannot be proven or disproven, but it can be supported or not. A prediction on
the other hand can be proven correct or not.

For example, a hypothesis might be that small balls bounce higher than larger balls. Data
obtained from a test using a number of different balls and over a number of trials may
support this, however not prove it. On the other hand, a prediction might be made that the
tennis ball will bounce the highest of those balls that are being tested, this can be proven
correct or not.

Fair testing

A fair test is structured to ensure constant conditions to obtain a valid and reliable result.

Valid - the results obtained are a true measure of the effect of the independent variable on
the dependent variable. Validity is how well a test measures what it is supposed to be
measuring. Includes repeat trials, replication and the use of an experimental control to help
account for the effect of unintended variables.

Reliable - measurements have been made accurately and precisely over a number of trials
or with a number of trials. Reliability is how consistent (or similar) the results of a test when
repeated under identical conditions


A fair test should ensure:
1. Variables are controlled, except the independent and dependent variable
2. The use of an experiment control (where appropriate). This is a group that lacks
the factor you are testing.
3. The use of repeat trials or repetition


Types of Investigations

Listed below are some common types of investigations (you will be doing either 1, 2 or 3 in
your assessment task)

1. Investigating a relationship between 2 variables where repeat trials can be used.
2. Investigating a relationship between 2 variables where replication can be used.
3. Testing types of materials.
4. Investigating the effect of several independent variables on 1 dependent variable.
5. Survey investigations where populations are sampled to investigate relationships
between variables.
6. Comparative or descriptive studies typical of field biology and earth sciences.
7. Researching, analysing and explaining data collected and reported by other
scientists.
8. Chemical analysis

Procedure

1. Begin with an aim that can test your hypothesis.
2. Provide a comprehensive list of all the equipment and materials required to do
your experiment.
3. Write a instruction manual on how to carry out the experiment. It should be
written in a way that anyone can pick it up and do the exact same experiment as you did,
without discussing it with you. It should also include at least one diagram showing scientific
apparatus to assist the reader to recreate your experiment.

Data collection and presentation

You first need to decide if the data you will be collecting is qualitative or quantitative, this
will influence how your data is presented.

If it is qualitative, data presentation may include:
A table of descriptive data
Photographs or labelled diagrams

If its quantitative, you need to establish whether it is discrete or continuous.

They can both be put into tables, but the type of graph used will be different, i.e. discrete
data is often presented in a bar or column graph (histogram) and or pie chart, whilst
continuous data lends itself to an X-Y co-ordinate graph (line graph).

F.Y.I

- Tables emphasise absolute values
- Graphs emphasise relative values

Discussion and analyses

A discussion allows for a complete analysis of the experiment and the data produced.

In this section of your report you should endeavour to answer the following in paragraph
form:

What was the purpose of you experiment?
What were the major findings? What significant patterns were observed in your
data?
How accurate were you in collecting data?
How well was your hypothesis supported by the data?
What possible scientific explanations can you offer for the findings?
What recommendations do you have for improving your experiment?
What recommendations do you have for further study?
What significance do your findings have for you and others in your community?

Conclusion

A conclusion should be a simple statement that answers the aim and establishes whether
your experiment supported the hypothesis or not.

F.Y.I

The expectation is that you have analysed your results before you write this statement
(even if your teacher hasnt asked for a discussion)
1. Observation

2. Research


3. Hypothesis

answer

4. Aim question


5. Procedure Variables


6. Results


7. Conclusion
Variables

Controlled variables Independent Dependent
Variables e.g. variable e.g.
Brand of peanut butter volume of oil
Correct way to write you Hypothesis
When (independent variable) changes, the (dependent variable) happens/changes.
Ecology
Definitions
Population: the total number of inhabitants
Community: a group of interacting populations occupying a given area
Habitat: the natural environment of an organism
Environment: the air, water, minerals, organisms, and all other external factors surrounding
and affecting a given organism at any time
Ecosystem: a system formed by the interaction of a community of organisms with their
environment
Symbiosis: the relationship between two different organisms
Mutualism: a relationship between two species of organisms in which both benefit
Parasitism: a relationship between two organisms in which one benefits and the other is
harmed
Predation: a relationship between two organisms in which one benefits by hunting and
feeding on the other
Commensalism: a relationship between two organisms where one benefits and the other is
unaffected
Competition: where two organisms compete for the same resources
Amensalism: a relationship between two organisms where one is unaffected and the other
is harmed

Food chain-a food chain sets out the order of organisms being eaten
First order consumer (heterotrophs)- the organism that eats a producer
Second order consumer (heterotrophs)-the organism that eats a first order consumer
Producer (autotrophs)-organisms which produce their own food
Food web-the interlinking of food chains
3 groups of different animals and what they eat
Omnivore- eats animals and plants
Herbivore-eats plants
Carnivore-eats animals
How Producers, Consumers and Decomposers are Linked-Food Chains
Producers-use photosynthesis to transform sunlight into chemical potential energy i.e.
plants
Consumers-cannot produce their food. Take in energy from other sources as food.
Decomposers-release nutrients in dead organisms back into the environment. Uses the
energy left in the dead organisms i.e. fungi
At every step of the food chain some energy is lost from the chain due to the organisms own
energy requirements, which may include hunting for prey or water.
Photosynthesis and Respiration
What is photosynthesis?
The process of photosynthesis is a chemical reaction. It is the most important chemical
reaction of our planet.
What is the Equation for the Chemical equation of Photosynthesis?
Light energy
Carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
Describe Photosynthesis
The process of changing light energy to chemical energy
Energy stored as sugar
Occurs in plants and some algae
Plants need light energy, CO2 and H2O
Takes place in chloroplasts, using chlorophyll, the green pigment in plants
Plants are called autotrophs (self-feeding)
What happens during photosynthesis?
Plants capture light energy and use that energy to make glucose
Sunlight provides the energy needed by chlorophyll to change molecules of carbon
dioxide and water into glucose
Oxygen is also released in this reaction
Carbon dioxide enters the leaf through holes called stomata.
CO2 combines with the stored energy in the chloroplasts through a chemical
reaction to make glucose
The sugar is moved through tubes in the leaf to the roots, stems end fruits of the
plants
Some of the sugar is used right away by the plant for energy, some is stored as starch,
and some is built into plant tissue
Why is this important to us?
We cannot make our own food (glucose, energy), we must get our food from plants. Plants
are the first step in the food chain. The oxygen released during photosynthesis is necessary
for all living things.
What is Cellular Respiration?
The release of chemical energy for use by cells. Once the energy that was in sunlight is
changed into chemical energy by photosynthesis, an organism has to transform the
chemical energy into a form that can be used by the organism. This process is called cellular
respiration.
Describe cellular respiration
The breakdown of glucose molecules to release energy
Takes place in all living things
Is a step by step process
What is the chemical equation for Cellular Respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O
Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
Parts of a plant
- Roots
- Stems
- Leaves
Roots
Functions of Roots
1. Roots absorb water and minerals from the soil and pass them to the stem
2. Roots anchor the plant firmly in the soil
3. The roots of some plant can also store food; e.g. carrot, corn and turnip

Fibrous Roots-a system of fine roots which spread out to absorb more water and nutrients
Taproot-a central tapering root going down
Structure of Roots
- Tip of each root is protected by a root cap-dead cells
- On the outside there are root hairs-provides a very large surface area
Stems
Functions of Stems
1. Support the leaves, buds, flowers and fruit of a plant.
2. Contains bundles of special water-conducting tissue.
Monocots-conducting tissues arranged irregularly. Stems are often soft and hollow.
Dicots-conducting tissues arranged in a ring shape. Stems are woody
Leaves
Functions of Leaves
1. Contain veins which are channels for transporting materials to and from the leaf.
Xylems carry water and nutrients through the plant
Phloems carry food for Photosynthesis to other non-synthesising parts of the plants

Stomates control the loss of water. They are located on the underside of the leaf.











Carbon-oxygen cycle









Position of Starch and Chlorophyll
Starch is found in the regions of the leaf that can photosynthesise. (Starch is the storage
form of glucose).
Factors affecting survival of Organisms in An Ecosystem
An organisms environment is anything that affects its survival.
Physical Environment Living Environment
Temperature Availability of food
Light Predators
Availability of water Competitors
Soil fertility Disease
The survival of an organism depends on its characteristics that help it to survive in its habitat.
These characteristics are called adaptaions.
Structural adaptations: refer to the shape and size of the organism and how the various
parts of the body are put together. E.g. fish are streamlined with limbs of fins to help them
move through water.
Physiological adaptations: refer to the working of an organisms body. E.g. many desert
dwelling organisms have the ability to make concentrated urine to conserve water.
Behavioural adaptations: refer to how the organism behaves. E.g. Lizards (cold-blooded) lie
flat in the sun to raise body temperature so they may become active.
3 purposes of fire
Resprouting plants for medication
Attracting animals to unburnt areas to catch them
Food source
Aborigines burn to ensure:
There would be fresh foliage
There would be new fruits to eat
The fertility of the soil with ash.
Plant adaptations to bushfires
1. Epicormic buds-They are buds that lie dormant beneath the bark, and under certain
conditions, they develop into active shoots
2. Coppicing-Coppicing is cutting down the stump or roots of plants to make new
growth.
3. Seed banks-An adaptation in which seeds are protected by hard fruit, when under
intense heat, will open to allow the seeds inside to germinate

















Metamorphic-rocks that
change due to heat and
pressure
Earth, Air, Fire and Water

























Rocks
Sedimentary-formed from
sediments
Igneous
Volcanic
-formed from molten rock that has
come to the earths surface e.g. in a
volcano (lava)
-lava cools rapidly
-rocks that form have tiny crystals
e.g. basalt
Plutonic
-formed when a molten rock below
the earths surface (magma) cools
and solidifies slowly
-crystals that are produced are
larger to form (not in contact with
cool air) e.g. granite
Inside the Earth

Weathering
rocks wearing down into smaller parts
slow process
can happen when plant roots gradually push the grains apart as they grow
regular flow of water
can change the rocks into soil
hundreds of years=one centimeter of soil
Chemical weathering
acidic water slowly dissolves rocks
pollution forms acid rain
Physical weathering
temperature change causing rock to contract and expand
animals travelling down same tracks can also wear rock surfaces down
Gibbers, Gulfs and Gorges Natural resource are materials and components (something that can be
used) that can be found within the environment (e.g water, coal, etc) Human made resource a resource
produced by humans that does not naturally occur. (e.g plastic, nylon, etc) Resources extracted from the
Earth oil, copper, coal, diamonds, etc Minerals o Naturally occurring o Inorganic (have never been
alive and arent made up of plants or animals) o Are solid o Made up of elements o Different minerals
make up rocks (basic building block of rocks) Rocks o Naturally occurring o Hard o Composed of one
or more minerals o Main types are: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic Minerals used as gems
jade, quartz, diamond, opal, ruby, sapphire, topaz Physical Characteristics of Minerals o Colour is not
a reliable characteristic to identify minerals as one mineral may vary in colour in various forms o Streak
colour of the mineral in powder form which is the true colour of the mineral o Hardness - a measure of
the minerals resistance to scratching, softer minerals can be scratched by harder minerals because the
forces that hold the crystals together are weaker and can be broken by the harder mineral. o Cleavage
the way a mineral breaks. It is considered perfect if it is easily obtained and the cleavage planes are easily
distinguished. It is considered good if the cleavage is produced with some difficulty but has obvious
cleavage planes. It is considered imperfect if cleavage is obtained with difficulty and some of the planes
are difficult to distinguish. o Lustre indicates how much the surface of the mineral reflects light o Taste
only soluble minerals have a taste but it is important not to put minerals in the mouth or tongue Mohs
Scale of Hardness - 1. Talc 2. Gypsum 3. Calcite 4. Fluorite 5. Apatite 6. Orthoclase 7. Quartz 8. Topaz 9.
Corundum 10. Diamond Resources extracted from the ocean salt, potassium, magnesium, sand, gravel,
limestone, gypsum, water Resources extracted from the air nitrogen, carbon dioxide, oxygen
Resources extracted from living things food such as fish, meat and vegetables, extracts/oils from plants
such as rose oil,etc Renewable sources of energy sources of energy which are continually replenished
such as wind, sun, rain, tides waves and geothermal heat Non-renewable sources of energy sources of
energy which cannot replenish themselves at a sufficient rate for sustainable economic extraction in
meaningful human timeframes such as fossil fuels (coal, petroleum and natural gas) Weathering the
breaking down of rocks due to physical changes (temperature changes, ice cracking, root action) and
chemical reactions (oxidation, water, acids) Erosion the gradual wearing a way of land surface
materials such as rocks, sediments and soils caused by agents such as moving water (e.g rivers), gravity
(e.g overhanging cliff falling), wind and moving ice (e.g glacier) Deposition - The accumulation or lying
down of matter by a natural process, as the laying down of sediments in a river or the accumulation of
mineral deposits in a bodily organ to form landforms such as sand dunes, river deltas (a landform formed
at the mouth of the river where that river flows into another body of water), alluvial fans (a fan shaped
mass of sediment and boulders deposited by a river when its flow is suddenly slowed Landforms
created by wind erosion erg, reg Landforms created by water erosion alluvial fans, river deltas
Landforms created by erosion of ice - striations, cirques, glacial horns Human activities that have
accelerated erosion agricultural practices, deforestation, roads & urbanisation, climate change How
erosion can be prevented the planting of vegetation in soil to keep the soil in place or the planting of
vegetation around an area to break and prevent the wind from blowing the soil away