Index stylistic figures

figures of speech
turns of phrase, schemes, tropes, ornaments, colors, flowers
overview | groupings index | schemes and tropes
Overview
Like wildflower seeds tossed on fertile ground, the figures of speech, sometimes called the "flowers of
rhetoric" (flores rhetoricae), have multiplied into a garden of enormous variety over time. As the right
frame of this we resource illustrates, the numer of figures of speech can seem !uite imposing. And
indeed, the numer, names, and groupings of figures have een the most variale aspect of rhetoric
over its history.
Naming the Figures
"he figures first ac!uired their names from the #reeks and $omans who catalogued them. Although
attempts have een made to anglici%e or update the figures& names, this sometimes proves to confuse
things, even though the #reek and Latin terms are odd to modern ears. 'ronunciation guides and
etymologies have een provided to clarify the #reek terms, in particular. And ecause there are so
many synonyms or close synonyms among the figures, each entry contains e!uivalent and comparative
terms from #reek, Latin, and (nglish. "o view the terms from )ust one of these languages, see viewing
options.
Categorizing the Figures
*ver time these figures have een organi%ed in a variety of different ways in order to make sense of
them and to learn their various !ualities +much as a scientist might classify the flora of a forest,
grouping like species into families. ,arious kinds of groupings for the figures can e found here (cross
references at the ottom of each figure&s page can also lead one to related figures). "he simplest (and
oldest) arrangement for the figures divides them into two road categories, "schemes" and "tropes"+
useful starting points.
Situating the Figures within Rhetoric
As rich and interesting as the figures are, they do not constitute the whole of rhetoric, as some have
mistakenly surmised. -uch a view is a vast reduction of the discipline of rhetoric, which has )ust as much
to do with the discovery of things to say (.nvention), their arrangement (Arrangement), commital to
memory (/emory), and presentation (0elivery) as it has to do with the figures of speech, which are
typically categori%ed under the third of these canons of rhetoric, -tyle.
Figures of Thought / Toics of Invention
"he word "figure" has sometimes een used to refer not only to means of expression, ut to strategies
of argument. -ome theorists distinguish etween "figures of speech" and "figures of thought" (see
1igures of -peech and "hought). "hese latter "figures" are etter known as topics of invention.
.n this resource, a serious attempt has een made to show the close relationship etween figures of
speech and topics of invention. "hat relationship is something of a micro2macro relationship3 what
occurs on a local level with language to express an idea can in fact occur at a larger level, in an heuristic
method, to discover ways of constructing arguments.
1or example, the most identifiale tropes include metaphor and simile. "hese are simply comparisons3
"Life is a )ourney"4 "5atching ", is like taking a visual anaesthetic." 6ut "comparison" itself is a topic of
invention, a commonplace to which one may turn to generate ideas aout something3 "Let us compare
life to a )ourney. 5e set out at irth, travel through various regions, and arrive at the leak destination
of death..." "he difference etween a figure and a topic of invention, then, may sometimes simply e a
matter of degree, or it may e a matter of whether one views the strategy as one of expression of an
idea (an issue of style) or the composition or discovery of an idea or argument (an issue of invention).
"he point is, we should recogni%e the close proximity of the figures and the topics of invention.
"o this end, at the ottom of each page on which a figure is explained are listed 7) related figures and
8) related topics of invention. "hus, "9omparison" (the topic of invention) is listed at the ottom of the
page explaining "metaphor," and is also at the ottom of the page on "simile." $eciprocally, "metaphor,"
1
"simile" and other comparative figures are listed at the ottom of the page that explains the topic of
invention, "9omparison."
!rouings of Figures
Among the least consistent ut most important aspects of the rhetorical tradition is the systematic
arrangement of figures. "he simplest arrangements have een road dichotomies3
7. figures of speech
8. figures of thought
(-ee 1igures of -peech and "hought)
*r
7. schemes
2. tropes
(-ee -chemes and "ropes)
5ithin Silva Rhetoricae3 "he 1orest of $hetoric, the figures are associated with larger rhetorical
categories to which they are related (1or example, figures of division are listed with the "opic of
.nvention3 0ivision, etc.)4 also, the figures are grouped according to function or strategy3
of Amplification
of Arrangement (see 1igures of *rder)
of 6alance
of 0efinition
of 0escription
of 0ivision
of (thos
of #rammar
of .nterruption
of :aming
of *mission
of *rder
of *verstatement
of 'arallelism
of 'athos
of 'lace
of 'lay
of $easoning
of $efutation
of $epetition
of $hythm
of -ound
of -ustitution
of -ummary
of "ime
of 5ordplay
-emantic .nversions
,ices
#rammatical -chemes
#roupings y rhetorical category
#roupings made y well;known authorities (authors and texts)
1igures of #rammar
Original suggestions for other kinds of groupings are invited.
Please contact Gideon Burton
Figures of Seech" !rouings #y rhetorical category
2
$udience"
1igures in which an audience is addressed3
o asteismus
%ersuasive $eals"
1igures of $easoning ( logos )
1igures of 'athos
1igures of (thos
Figures of Seech" !rouings made #y well&'nown authorities (authors and texts)
7. 1rom Anti!uity
o #orgias
o Ad <erennium (ca. 7== 6.9.)
o >uintilian (ca. 7== A.0.)
8. 1rom the /iddle Ages
o #eoffrey of ,insauf (787=)
?. 1rom the $enaissance
o Leonard 9ox (7@8A;?=B)
o Coannes -usenrotus (7@D=)
o "homas 5ilson (7@A=)
o $ichard $ainolde (7@A?)
o 0udley 1enner (7@ED)
o Araham 1raunce, he !rcadian Rhetoricke (7@EE)
o 9harles 6utler (7@FE)
o Cohn <oskins (7@FF;7A==B)
o $ichard -herry (7@@=)
o <enry 'eacham, he Garden of "lo#uence , (7@GG)
o #eorge 'uttenham (7@EF)
o Angel 0ay, he "nglish Secretary (7@FF)
D. 1rom the 7Gth and 7Eth 9enturies
@. 1rom the 7Fth 9entury
o (.5. 6ullinger, $igures of Speech in the Bi%le (7EFE)
A. 1rom the 8=th 9entury
o Lee A. -onnino (7FAE)
o 5arren "aylor (7FG8)
o Arthur >uinn (7FE8)
o 6ernard 0uprie% (7FED)
o $ichard Lanham (7FF7)
Schemes and Troes
-chemes and tropes oth have to do with using language in an unusual or "figured" way3
"rope3 An artful deviation from the ordinary or principal signification of a word.
-cheme3 An artful deviation from the ordinary arrangement of words.
(xamples
". work like a slave" Htrope3 simileI
". don&t know if .&m working my )o or my )o, me" Hschemes3 antimetaole, ellipsis, personificationI
Categories of troes and schemes*
9lick on a category to see specific figures of speech, or proceed directly to the tropes page or the
3
schemes pages to see them all. "o see other organi%ational methods for the figures of speech, click
here.
+inds of Troes
7. $eference to *ne "hing as Another
8. 5ordplay and puns
?. -ustitutions
D. *verstatement2Jnderstatement
@. -emantic .nversions
+inds of Schemes
7. -tructures of 6alance
8. 9hange in 5ord *rder
?. *mission
4. $epetition
Figures of Seech" Troes
Troe" $n artful deviation from the ordinary or rincial signification of a word*
,* Reference to One Thing as $nother
o /etaphor $eference to one thing as another, implying a comparison.
o -imile (xplicit comparison of one thing to another.
o -ynecdoche A whole is represented y naming one of its parts.
o /etonymy $eference to something or someone y naming one of its attriutes.
o 'ersonification $eference to astractions or inanimate o)ects as though they had
human !ualities or ailities.
-* .ordlay and uns
o Antanaclasis $epetition of a word in two different senses.
o 'aronomasia Jsing words that sound alike ut that differ in meaning (punning).
o -yllepsis Jsing a word differently in relation to two or more words that it modifies or
governs (sometimes called %eugma).
o *nomatopoeia Jse of words whose sound correspond with their semantic value.
/* Su#stitutions
o Anthimeria -ustitution of one part of speech for another.
o 'eriphrasis -ustitution of a descriptive word or phrase for a proper name or of a
proper name for a !uality associated with the name.
0* Overstatement/1nderstatement
o <yperole Jse of exaggerated terms for emphasis or effect.
o Auxesis $eference to something with a name disproportionately greater than its nature
(a kind of hyerole).
o Litotes Jnderstatement used delierately.
o /eiosis $eference to something with a name disproportionately lesser than its nature
(a kind of litotes).
2* Semantic Inversions
o $hetorical >uestion Asking a !uestion for a purpose other than otaining the
information re!uested.
o .rony Jsing language in such a way as to convey a meaning opposite of what the
terms used denote (often y exaggeration).
o *xymoron 'lacing two ordinarily opposing terms ad)acent to one another. A
compressed paradox.
o 'aradox An apparently contradictory statement that contains a measure of truth.
Figures of Seech" Schemes
Scheme" $n artful deviation from the ordinary arrangement of words*
,* Structures of 3alance
o 'arallelism -imilarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, or
clauses.
4
.socolon A series of similarly structured elements having the same length.
"ricolon "hree parallel elements of the same length occurring together.
o Antithesis Cuxtaposition of contrasting ideas (often in parallel structure).
o 9limax #enerally, the arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses in an order of
increasing importance, often in parallel structure.
-* Changes in word order
o Anastrophe .nversion of natural word order.
o 'arenthesis .nsertion of a veral unit that interrupts normal syntactical flow.
o Apposition Addition of an ad)acent, coordinate, explanatory element.
/* Omission
o (llipsis *mission of a word or words readily implied y context.
o Asyndeton *mission of con)unctions etween a series of clauses.
o 6rachylogia *mission of con)unctions etween a series of words.
o ('olysyndeton) *pposite of asyndeton, a superaundance of con)unctions
0* Reetition
o Alliteration $epetition of initial or medial consonants in two or more ad)acent words.
o Assonance $epetition of similar vowel sounds, preceded and followed y different
consonants, in the stressed syllales of ad)acent words.
o 'olyptoton $epetition of words derived from the same root.
o Antanaclasis $epetition of a word in two different senses.
o Anaphora $epetition of the same word or group of words at the eginning of
successive clauses.
o (pistrophe $epetition of the same word or group of words at the ends of successive
clauses.
o (panalepsis $epetition at the end of a clause of the word that occurred at the
eginning of the clause.
o Anadiplosis $epetition of the last word of one clause at the eginning of the following
clause.
o 9limax $epetition of the scheme anadiplosis at least three times, with the elements
arranged in an order of increasing importance.
o Antimetaole $epetition of words, in successive clauses, in reverse grammatical order.
(-ometimes mistaken as chiasmus)
o 9hiasmus $epetition of grammatical structures in reverse order in successive phrases
or clauses (not to e mistaken with antimetaole).
1igures of speech main page
*ther groupings of figures
metaphor
metK;a;phor from meta Leyond, overM and pherein Lto carryM
metaphora
translatio
translation, figure of transport
A comparison made y referring to one thing as another.
(xamples
:o man is an island +Cohn 0onne
1or ever since that time you went away
.&ve een a rait urrowed in the wood +/aurice -ceve
Life is a each.
5ho captains the ship of stateB
$elated 1igures
5
simile
Like a metaphor, a simile involves making a comparison (except it does so explicitly).
catachresis
allegory
An allegory is an extended metaphor that goes through a whole narrative.
$elated "opics of .nvention
9omparison
-ince a metaphor is ased on an implied comparison, it is most closely related to this topic
of invention.
-imilarity 2 0ifference
-ince this topic of invention often takes the form of arguing y analogy, it is related to the
figure metaphor since a metaphor is a kind of analogy.
-ee Also
'athos
6ecause metaphors are often concrete and sensory, they can affect the audience&s
emotions.
simile si&;mi;lee L. LlikeM similitudo
An explicit comparison, often (ut not necessarily) employing "like" or "as."

(xamples

/y love is like a red, red rose +$oert 6urns
<er hair was like gravy, running rown off her head and clumping up on her shoulders.
"he day we passed together for a while
-eemed a right fire on a winter&s night +/aurice -ceve
Nou are like a hurricane3 there&s calm in your eye, ut .&m getting lown away +:eil Noung
"he air;lifted rhinoceros hit the ground like a garage ag filled with split pea soup.
$elated 1igures

metaphor
$elated "opics of .nvention
9omparison

Sources" Aristotle ?.77.774 >uintilian E.A.E4 /elanchthon aEr
synecdoche
si;nek&;do;kee #k. "to take with something else"
Also sp. syndoche
intellectio, subintellectio, pars pro toto
intelleccion, figure of quick conceite
A whole is represented y naming one of its parts (genus named for species), or vice versa (species
named for genus).

6
(xamples

"he rustler ragged he&d asconded with five hundred head of longhorns.
Both &head& and &longhorns& are parts of cattle that represent them as wholes
Listen, you&ve got to come take a look at my new set of wheels.
One refers to a vehicle in terms of some of its parts, &wheels&
"<e shall think differently," the musketeer threatened, "when he feels the point of my steel."
! sword, the species, is represented %y referring to its genus, &steel&
$elated 1igures

metonymy
$elated "opics of .nvention

5hole2'arts
#enus2-pecies

Sources" Ad <erennium D.??.DD;D@ ("intellectio")4 >uintilian
E.A.7F;884 "rei%ond A7r ("intellectio")4 -usenrotus
(7@D=) G;E ("synecdoche," "intellectio"4 -herry
(7@@=) D8 ("synecdoche," "intellectio,"
"intelleccion")4 'eacham (7@GG) 9?r4 1raunce (7@EE)
7.E;774 'utt. (7@EF) 7FA, 8=@ ("synecdoche," "figure
of !uick conceite")4 0ay 7@FF GE4 <oskins 7@FF 774
/elanchthon (7@?7) 7r
metonymy
me;ton&;y;my from meta, "change" and onoma, "name"
Also sp. metonimia
hypallage
denominatio, transmutatio, transnominatio
the misnamer, change of noun or name,
transmutation of a word
$eference to something or someone y naming one of its attriutes.

(xamples

"he pen is mightier than the sword
he pen is an attri%ute of thoughts that are written with a pen' the sword is an attri%ute of military
action
5e await word from the crown.
.&m told he&s gone so far as to giver her a diamond ring
"he .$- is auditing meB #reat. All . need is a couple of suits arriving at my door.
$elated 1igures

synecdoche
metalepsis
$elated "opics of .nvention

'art and 5hole
-u)ect and Ad)uncts
7

Sources" !d (erennium D.?8.D? ("denominatio")4
>uintilian E.A.8?;8G4 -usenrotus (7@D=)
E;F ("metonymia," "transnominatio"4
5ilson (7@A=) 8== (""ransmutation of a
5ord")4 1raunce (7@EE) 7.8;@4 'utt.
(7@EF) 7F7 ("metonimia," "the
misnamer")4 0ay 7@FF GE ("metonymia,"
"transnominatio")4 <oskins 7@FF 7=
("metonymia")
personification
the counterfait in personation
$eference to astractions or inanimate o)ects as though they had human
!ualities or ailities. "he (nglish term for prosopopeia or ethopoeia.
(xamples
* eware, my lord, of )ealousyO
.t is the green;ey&d monster which doth mock
"he meat it feeds on.
+.ago in -hakespeare&s Othello ?.?.7A@;AG
"he insatiale hunger for imagination preys upon human life
+-amuel Cohnson
$elated 1igures
prosopopoeia
ethopoeia
antiprosopopoeia
enargia
-ee Also
ethos
'rogymnasmata3 .mpersonation
Sources" >uintilian F.8.?A4 'eacham (7@GG) *?r ("prosopeia")4 'utt. (7@EF) 8DA
("prosopopeia," "the counterfait in personation")4 0ay 7@FF F= ("prosopopoeia")

antanaclasis
an&;ta;na;cla&;sis from #k. anti Lagainst or ack,M
ana LupM and klasis L a reakingM
Also sp. anaclasis
refractio
the rebounde, word-clashing
"he repetition of a word or phrase whose meaning changes in the second instance.

(xamples
Nour argument is sound...all sound. +6en)amin 1ranklin
he meaning of &sound& first appears to %e &solid& or &reasona%le&' in its repetition, it means
something very different, &all air& or &empty&
.n thy youth learn some craft that in thy age thou mayest get thy living without craft.
he meaning of &craft& first means &vocation&' in its repetition, it means &fraud& or &cunning.&
5hile we live, let us live.
)n the following example, antanaclasis occurs with an entire phrase whose meaning alters upon
repetition*
8
".f you aren&t fired with enthusiasm, you will e fired with enthusiasm." +,ince Lomardi
$elated 1igures

antistasis
1igures of $epetition.
-ee Also



Sources"
>uintilian F.?.AE4 -herry (7@@=) A= ("anaclasis," "refractio")4 'eacham (7@GG) P8v4
'utt. (7@EF) 87A ("antanaclasis," "the reounde")
paronomasia
pa;ro;no;ma&;si;a
from #k. para, "alongside" and onomos, "name"
("to alter slightly in naming")
prosonomasia
adnominatio or agnominatio, allusio
the nicknamer, allusion
Jsing words that sound alike ut that differ in meaning (punning).
"he !d (erennium author further specifies that this is rought aout through various kinds of
metaplasm.

(xamples
A )esting friar punned upon the name of the famous humanist (rasmus, "(rrans mus" Herring mouseI.
+'uttenham
A pun is its own reword.
1or a plethora of puns (of mixed !uality, ut plenty of !uantity), see this internet pun resource.
$elated 1igures
1igures that play on language
$elated "opics of .nvention
:otation and 9on)ugates
Sources" !d (erennium D.87;88.8F;?7 ("adnominatio")4 $util. 7.?4 .sidore 7.?A.784 1raunce (7@EE)
7.8D ("paronomasia," "agnominatio," "allusion")4 'utt. (7@EF) 878 ("prosonomasia," "the nicknamer")4
0ay 7@FF EA ("prosonomasia")4 <oskins (7@FF)7@
syllepsis
sil;lep&;sis from #k. syn, "together" and lepsis, "taking"
Also sp. sillepsis, silepsis, syllempsis
conceptio, conglutinata conceptio, concepcio
double supply, change in concord
5hen a single word that governs or modifies two or more others must e understood differently
with respect to each of those words. A comination of grammatical parallelism and semantic
incongruity, often with a witty or comical effect. :ot to e confused with %eugma.
9

:ote3 *riginally, syllepsis named that grammatical incongruity resulting when a word governing two
or more others could not agree with oth or all of them4 for example, when a singular ver serves
as the predicate to two su)ects, singular and plural ("<is oat and his riches is sinking"). .n the
rhetorical sense, syllepsis has more to do with applying the same single word to the others it
governs in distinct senses (e.g., literal and metaphorical)4 thus, "<is oat and his dreams sank."
(xamples

)n the following example, &rend& governs %oth o%+ects, %ut the first rending is figurative' the
second, literal*
$end your heart, and not your garments. Coel 837?
Nou held your reath and the door for me
+Alanis /orissette
"1ix the prolem, not the lame." +0ave 5einaum
he ver% &fix& governs %oth &pro%lem& and &%lame.& )n its first instance, &fix& means &solve,& %ut
this ver% shifts its meaning when applied to its second o%+ect, where the understood &fix& ,
&assign.&
$elated 1igures

%eugma
ellipsis
-yllepsis is a form of ellipsis, and like ellipsis the sense of the word is repeated, ut not the
word itself. "he difference from ellipsis is that the sense varies in its repetition.
metaphor
1igures of 0ivision
$elated "opics of .nvention
0ivision

Sources" .sidore 7.?A.@;A4 /osellanus ("syllepsis& "conglutinata
conceptio") a@r4 -herry (7@@=) ?= ("silepsis," "concepcio")4
'eacham (7@GG) 17r4 'utt. (7@EF) 7GA ("sillepsis," "the doule
supply")4 0ay 7@FF E8
onomatopoeia
on;o;mat;o;pee&;a from #k. onomos, "name" and poein, "to make"
nominatio, nominis confictio
the new namer
Jsing or inventing a word whose sound imitates that which it names (the union of phonetics and
semantics).

(xamples

"he u%%ing of innumerale ees
he &--& and &mm& sounds in these words imitate the actual sounds of %ees.
$elated 1igures

1igures of -ound
$elated "opics of .nvention
:otation and 9on)ugates

Sources" !d (erennium D.?7.D8 ("nominatio")4
>uintilian E.A.?7;??4 -usenrotus
10
(7@D=) 7=;77 ("onomatopoeia,"
"nominis confictio")4 'eacham (7@GG)
9Dr4 'utt. (7@EF) 7F8 ("onomatopeia,"
"the new namer")4 0ay 7@FF GF
anthimeria
an;thi;mer&;i;a from #k. anti; Linstead ofM and mereia La partM
antimereia
-ustitution of one part of speech for another (such as a noun used as a ver).

(xamples

.&ve een Reu#licaned all . care to e this election year.
.oun used as ver%.
0id you see the way those lockers defenced on that last playB
.oun used as ver%.
1eel adB -trike up some music and have a good sing.
/er% used as noun.
$elated 1igures

1igures of -ustitution
paronomasia
enallage
-ee Also
1our 9ategories of 9hange3 -ustitution
periphrasis
per;if&;ra;sis from #k. peri, "around" and phrasein "to declare"
Also sp. perifrasis
antonomasia, circumlocutio, circumitio
the figure of ambage
"he sustitution of a descriptive word or phrase for a proper name (a species of circumlocution)4 or,
conversely, the use of a proper name as a shorthand to stand for !ualities associated with it.
(xamples
.n the ", show "0inosaurs" the infant dino called his father, ":ot;the;/ama."
<e&s no 1aio to look at4 ut then, he&s no 5oody Allen, either.
-aid of Aristotle3 ""he prince of 'eripatetics" +Angel 0ay
$elated 1igures
1igures of -ustitution
1igures of Amplification
antonomasia
circumlocutio
$elated "opics of .nvention
11
-u)ect and Ad)uncts
-ee Also

Sources" !d (erennium D.?8.D? ("circumitio")4 >uintilian
E.A.8F;?= ("antonomasia")4 6ede A7D4 -herry
(7@@=) DD ("periphrasis," "circuitio")4 'eacham
(7@GG) <7v, P?r4 'utt. (7@EF) 8=? ("periphrasis,"
"the figure of amage")4 0ay 7@FF ED
hyperole
hy;per&;o;lee from hyper, "over" and %ollein, "to throw"
QAlt -pellingR
suerlatio4 excessus
over reacher or the loud lyer
$hetorical exaggeration. <yperole is often accomplished via comparisons, similes, and metaphors.

(xamples
.&ve told you a million times not to exaggerate.
$elated 1igures

1igures of (xcess and -uperfluity
1igures of Amplification
auxesis
litotes
omphiologia
metalepsis
metaphor
-ee Also
#eneral $hetorical -trategy3 Amplification


Sources"
Aristotle ?.77.7@;7A4 Ad <erennium D.??.DD
("superlatio")4 >uintilian E.A.AG;GA4 6ede A7@4
"rei%ond A7v ("superlatio," "hyperole")4
-usenrotus (7@D=) 7G;7F ("hyerole,"
"superlatio," "dementiens superiectio,"
"eminentia," "excessus")4 -herry (7@@=) G74
'eacham (7@GG) 0Dv4 'utt. (7@EF) 8=8
("hiperole," "over reacher or the loud lyer")4
0ay 7@FF E=4 6utler 67r;v
auxesis
ok;see&;sis #k. "increase, amplification"
incrementum
the avancer
1. Arranging words or clauses in a se!uence of increasing force. .n this sense, auxesis is
comparale to climax and has sometimes een called incrementum.
8. A figure of speech in which something is referred to in terms disproportionately large (a kind
of exaggeration or hyperole).
12
3. Amplification in general.
"his figure (in its second meaning) is often paired with its opposite, meoisis.
(xamples

Said of a scratch3
Look at this woundO
$elated 1igures

1igures of 0efinition
.n its second definition, auxesis functions as a kind of redefinition, associating it generally
with the topic of invention 0efinition.
hyperole
meiosis
"he opposite of auxesis (8)+referring to something with a name disproportionately lesser
than its nature.
1igures of Amplification

Sources" >uintilian E.D.? ("incrementum")4 /elanch. ($
0Dr4 'eacham (7@GG) :Dr (S8)4 'utt. (7@EF)
88A (S7+"auxesis," "the avancer")4 0ay 7@FF
F7 (S7+"auxesis," "incrementum")
litotes
li;to&;tees from #k litos, "plain, small, meagre"
Also sp. lyptote, liptote
antenantiosis
diminutio (deminutio), extenuatio
the moderatour
0elierate understatement, especially when expressing a thought y denying its opposite.

"he !d (erennium author suggests litotes as a means of expressing modesty (downplaying one&s
accomplishments) in order to gain the audience&s favor (estalishing ethos).
(xamples

.t isn&t very serious. . have this tiny little tumor on the rain. +C.0. -alinger, he 0atcher in the
Rye
$unning a marathon in under two hours is no small accomplishment.
$elated 1igures

meiosis
irony
hyperole
sarcasmus
1igures of ethos
1igures of $efutation
$elated "opics of .nvention

9ontraries T 9ontradictions
-imilarity T 0ifference

Sources" !d (erennium D.?E.@= ("deminutio")4 -herry
(7@@=) A7 ("liptote," "extenuatio")4 'eacham
(7@GG) <8v4 'utt. (7@EF) 7F@ ("liptote," "the
moderatour")4 0ay 7@FF ED ("liptote")
13
meiosis
mei;o&;sis from #k. mei1o1o Lto make smallerM
extenuatio, detractio, diminutio
the disabler, belittling
$eference to something with a name disproportionately lesser than its nature (a kind of litotes).
"his term is e!uivalent to tapinosis.
(xample
Said of an amputated leg.3 ".t&s )ust a flesh wound"
+/onty 'ython and the <oly #rail
$elated 1igures
irony
/eiosis, as a kind of understatement, names one of the two principle means of communicating
through irony (the other eing overstatement + see hyperole, elow).
litotes
Like meiosis, litotes is also a kind of delierate understatement. <owever, this term more often
names understatement done y denying something contrary to what one means.
tapinosis
Like meiosis, tapinosis involves calling something y a name that diminishes its importance, or
gives an understatement of its !ualities.
auxesis "he exact opposite of meiosis (overstates rather than understates for ironic effect).
hyperole "he general term for exaggeration, including auxesis. :ot limited to ironic uses.
charientismus "his figure shares with meiosis a similar strategy + to mollify or lighten (though
not ironically). 9harientismus usually involves reducing the effect of a threat through teasing
or mockery.
$elated "opics of .nvention
0egree
/eiosis does not work as a figure unless one senses the degree of difference etween the lael
and the thing it laels. .t is thus related to this kind of comparative strategy.
-ee Also
-utraction
Sources" 9icero 0e *r. ?.@?.8=8 ("extenuatio")4 >uintilian E.?.@=4 A!uil. DA ("elleipsis" HUmeiosisI,
"detractio")4 /elanch. ($ 0Dv ("meiosis" "tapinosis" "diminutio")4 -herry (7@@=) A7
("miosis," "diminutio")4 'eacham (7@GG) :Dv4 'utt. (7@EF) 7F@, 88G ("meiosis," "the
disaler")
rhetorical !uestions

"he rhetorical !uestion is usually defined as any !uestion asked for a purpose other than to
otain the information the !uestion asks. 1or example, "5hy are you so stupidB" is likely to e a
statement regarding one&s opinion of the person addressed rather than a genuine re!uest to
know. -imilarly, when someone responds to a tragic event y saying, "5hy me, #odBO" it is
more likely to e an accusation or an expression of feeling than a realistic re!uest for
information.
Apart from these more oviously rhetorical uses, the !uestion as a grammatical form has
important rhetorical dimensions. 1or example, the rhetorical critic may assess the effect of
asking a !uestion as a method of eginning discourse3 "-hall . compare thee to a summer&s
dayB" says the persona of -hakespeare&s 7Eth sonnet. "his kind of rhetorical !uestion, in which
one asks the opinion of those listening, is called anacoenosis. "his rhetorical !uestion has a
definite ethical dimension, since to ask in this way generally endears the speaker to the
audience and so improves his or her crediility or ethos. "he technical term for rhetorical
!uestions in general is erotema.
$elated 1igures
14
erotema
anacoenosis
Asking the opinion or )udgment of the )udges or audience.
anthypophora
A figure of reasoning in which one asks and then immediately answers one&s own
!uestions. $easoning aloud. Anthypophora sometimes takes the form of asking the
audience or one&s adversary what can e said on a matter.
dianoea
"he use of animated !uestions and answers in developing an argument
aporia
0elierating with oneself as though in dout over some matter4 asking oneself (or
rhetorically asking one&s hearers) what is the est or appropriate way to approach
something.
epiplexis
Asking !uestions in order to chide, to express grief, or to inveigh.
exuscitatio
-tirring others y one&s own vehement feeling (sometimes y means of a rhetorical
!uestion).
pysma
"he asking of multiple !uestions successively (which would together re!uire a complex
reply).
ratiocinatio
$easoning (typically with oneself) y asking !uestions.
-ee Also
"ropes3 -emantic .nversions
.nvention
-tasis
>uestions for determining the issue (status)
'rogymnasmata3 "hesis or "heme
Arguing two sides of a !uestion3 in utrum!ue partes
6asic !uestions for doing rhetorical analysis
irony
i&;ron;ee #k., "affectation of ignorance"
ironia, illusio
dissimulatio, simulatio
the dry mock
-peaking in such a way as to imply the contrary of what one says, often for the purpose of derision,
mockery, or )est.

(xamples

he 2ews said of 0hrist*
<ail, Ping of the CewsO
$elated 1igures
1igures of irony3
antiphrasis
.rony of one word, often derisively through patent contradiction.
paralipsis
-tating and drawing attention to something in the very act of pretending to pass it over.
epitrope
A figure in which one turns things over to one&s hearers, either ironically, or in such a way
as to suggest a proof of something without having to state it.
sarcasmus
Jse of mockery or veral taunts.
15
mycterismus
$elated "opics of .nvention

9ontraries T 9ontradictions

Sources" >uintilian F.8.D@;@74 6ede A7@4 A!uil. G ("ironia,"
"simulatio")4 -usenrotus (7@D=) 7D;7@ ("ironia,"
"illusio")4 -herry (7@@=) D@ ("ironia," "dissimulatio")4
'eacham (7@GG) 0?r4 1raunce (7@EE) 7.A4 'utt.
(7@EF) 7FF ("ironia," "the dry mock")4 0ay 7@FF E=
("ironia")
oxymoron
ox;y;mo&;ron rom #k. oxy, "sharp" and moros, "dull"
acutifatuum
wise-folly
'lacing two ordinarily opposing terms ad)acent to one another. A compressed
paradox.

(xamples

...Net from those flames
:o light, ut rather darkness visile
-erved only to discover sights of woe.
+/ilton, Paradise 3ost 7.A8;AD
"he -ounds of -ilence
$estina lente (make haste slowly).
$elated 1igures

paradox
irony
synoeciosis
paradox
pa&;ra;dox from #k. para, "past, contrary to" and doxa, "opinion"
paradoxon, paradoxum
wondrer
7. A statement that is self;contradictory on the surface, yet seems to evoke a truth nonetheless.
(xample
5hosoever loses his life, shall find it.
8. U inopinatum. "he expression of one&s inaility to elieve or conceive of something4 a type of
faux wondering). As such, this kind of paradox is much like aporia and functions much like a
rhetorical !uestion or erotema.
(xample
.t seems impossile to me that this administration could so !uickly reverse itself on this issue.
16
$elated 1igures
oxymoron
A compressed paradox.
$hetorical >uestions
erotema
aporia
irony
$elated "opics of .nvention
9ontraries
Sources" /elanch. .$ cEr ("paradoxum" "inopinatum")4 0ay 7@FF F= ("paradoxon")4 'utt. (7@EF) 8??
("paradoxon," "the wondrer")
parallelism
from #k. parallelos Lside;y;sideM
-imilarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, or clauses.

(xamples
parallelism of words*
-he tried to make her pastry fluffy, sweet, and delicate.
parallelism of phrases*
-inging a song or writing a poem is )oyous.
parallelism of clauses*
'erch are inexpensive4 cod are cheap4 trout are aundant4 ut salmon are est.
$elated 1igures
1igures of 'arallelism
isocolon
tricolon
antithesis
an;tith&;e;sis from #k. anti LagainstM and thesis
La settingM or tithenai Lto set, placeM
contrarium
contentio, comparatio
contrast
Cuxtaposition of contrasting words or ideas (often, although not always, in parallel structure).

"his is closely related to the "opic of .nvention3 9ontraries, and is sometimes known as the
similarly named figure of thought, antitheton.
(xamples

".t has een my experience that folks who have no vices have very few virtues." +Araham
Lincoln
".t can&t e wrong if it feels so right" +0eie 6oone
$elated 1igures

enantiosis
antitheton
paradox
17
oxymoron
1igures of 6alance
#orgianic 1igures
$elated "opics of .nvention

9ontraries
9ontradictions
climax
cli&;max #k. "ladder"
Also sp. klimax, clymax
gradatio, incrementum
the marching figure, gradation
#enerally, the arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses in an order of increasing importance,
often in parallel structure. /ore specifically, climax is the repetition of the last word of one
clause or sentence at the eginning of the next, through several clauses or sentences (U
anadiplosis)

(xamples

/iss America was not so much interested in serving herself as she was eager to serve her
family, her community, and her nation.
he following passage from the Bi%le shows that version of climax that is synonymous with
anadiplosis*
6ut we glory also in triulations, knowing that triulation worketh patience4 and patience trial4
and trial hope4 and hope confoundeth not, ecause the charity of #od is poured forth in our
hearts, y the <oly #host, who is given to us. +-t. 'aul
$elated 1igures

anadiplosis
auxesis
catacosmesis
"he opposite of climax3 placing the most important thing first.
-ee Also

1igures of Amplification
1igures of 'arallelism
1igures of *rder
ellipsis
el;lip&;sis from #k. elleipein, "to come short"
Also sp. elipsis, elleipsis, eclipsis
defectus
figure of default
*mission of a word or short phrase easily understood in context.

(xamples

""he average person thinks he isn&t." V1ather Larry Loren%oni
he term &average& is omitted %ut understood after &isn4t.&
Cohn forgives /ary and /ary, Cohn.
.ote that the comma signals what has %een elided, &forgives&
18
$elated 1igures

syllepsis
1igures of *mission
-ee Also

1our 9ategories of 9hange3 -utraction
#eneral $hetorical -trategy3 *mission

asyndeton
a;syn&;de;ton from #k. a and sundeton Lound together
withM
Also sp. asindeton
brachiepia, articulus,
dissolutio, dissolutum, dialyton
loose language
"he omission of con)unctions etween clauses, often resulting in a hurried rhythm or
vehement effect.

(xamples
,eni, vidi, vici (9aesar3 ". came4 . saw4 . con!uered")
$elated 1igures

1igures of #rammar
1igures of *mission
1igures of $hythm
rachylogia
polysyndeton
isocolon
homoioteleuton
hirmus
-ee Also
#eneral $hetorical -trategy3 *mission
rachylogia
rach;y;lo&;gi;a from #k. %rachy, "short" and logia, "speech"
Also sp. brachiologia, brachiologa
articulus
the cutted comma
"he asence of con)unctions etween single words. 9ompare asyndeton. "he effect of
rachylogia is a roken, hurried delivery.

(xamples

'hillipO $iseO (atO LeaveO
Love, hate, )ealousy, fren%y, fury drew him from pity +Angel 0ay
$elated 1igures

asyndeton
19
1igures of *mission
-ee Also

0elivery
#eneral $hetorical -trategy3 *mission
polysyndeton
pol;y;syn&;de;ton from #k. poly; LmanyM and
syndeton Lound together withM
Also sp. polysyntheton,
polisindeton, polysindeton
acervatio
couple clause, many-ands
(mploying many con)unctions etween clauses, often slowing the tempo or rhythm.

(xamples

. said, "5ho killed himB" and he said, ". don&t know who killed him ut he&s dead all right,"
and it was dark and there was water standing in the street and no lights and windows roke
and oats all up in the town and trees lown down and everything all lown and . got a skiff
and went out and found my oat where . had her inside /ango Pey and she was all right
only she was full of water.
+(rnest <emingway, "After the -torm."
$elated 1igures

asyndeton
"he opposite of polysyndeton3 an asences of con)unctions.
periodic sentence
1igures of #rammar
1igures of $epetition
-ee Also
Addition
alliteration
al;lit&;er;a&;tion alliteratio
figure of like letter
$epetition of the same letter or sound within neary words. /ost often, repeated initial
consonants.

:ote3 "he term "alliteratio" was coined y #iovanni 'ontano in 7@7F as a further specification
of the term annominatio. 9urrent usage of this term is in its most restricted sense (repeated
initial consonants), aligning it with the vice known as homoeoprophoron or paroemion.
(xamples
.hy not waste a wild weekend at .estmore .ater 'arkB
$elated 1igures

paroemion
Alliteration taken to an extreme.
homoeoprophoron
acrostic
20
1igures of $epetition
1igures of -ound
-ee Also
Alliteration :et Link 9ollection
anaphora
an;aph&;o;ra 1rom #k. ana LagainM and phero Lto ring or
carryM
epanaphora, epembasis, epibole
adjectio, relatio, repetitio, repeticio
repeticion, the figure of report
$epetition of the same word or group of words at the eginning of successive clauses,
sentences, or lines.

(xamples

This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle,
This earth of ma)esty, this seat of /ars,
This other (den, demi;paradise,
This fortress uilt y :ature for herself
Against infection and the hand of war,
This happy reed of men, this little world,
This precious stone set in the silver sea,
5hich serves it in the office of a wall,
*r as HaI moat defensive to a house,
Against the envy of less happier lands4
This lessed plot, this earth, this realm, this (ngland,
This nurse, this teeming wom of royal kings H. . .I
This land of such dear souls, this dear dear land,
0ear for her reputation through the world,
.s now leas&d out + . die pronouncing it +
Like to a tenement or pelting farm.
+Cohn of #aunt in -hakespeare&s Richard )) (8.7.D=;@74 @G;A=)
$elated 1igures

epistrophe
(nding a series of lines, phrases, clauses, or sentences with the same word or words.
"he opposite of anaphora.
symploce
"he comination of anaphora and epistrophe.
1igures of repetition

climax
cli&;max #k. "ladder"
Also sp. klimax, clymax
gradatio, incrementum
the marching figure, gradation
#enerally, the arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses in an order of increasing
importance, often in parallel structure. /ore specifically, climax is the repetition of the last
word of one clause or sentence at the eginning of the next, through several clauses or
sentences (U anadiplosis)

(xamples
21

/iss America was not so much interested in serving herself as she was eager to serve her
family, her community, and her nation.
he following passage from the Bi%le shows that version of climax that is synonymous with
anadiplosis*
6ut we glory also in triulations, knowing that triulation worketh patience4 and patience
trial4 and trial hope4 and hope confoundeth not, ecause the charity of #od is poured forth in
our hearts, y the <oly #host, who is given to us. +-t. 'aul
$elated 1igures

anadiplosis
auxesis
catacosmesis
"he opposite of climax3 placing the most important thing first.
-ee Also

1igures of Amplification
1igures of 'arallelism
1igures of *rder
chiasmus
ki;a%&;mus #k. "a diagonal arrangement"
7. $epetition of ideas in inverted order
2. $epetition of grammatical structures in inverted order (not to e mistaken with
antimetaole, in which identical words are repeated and inverted).

(xamples

6ut *, what damned minutes tells he o&er
5ho dotes, yet douts4 suspects, yet strong loves.
+-hakespeare, Othello ?.?
he idea of affection occurs in &dotes& and &strongly loves&' the idea of dou%ting in
&dou%ts& and &suspects&. hese two ideas occur in the #uotation in an ! B B ! order,
thus repeated and inverted
.t is oring to eat4 to sleep is fulfilling
he pattern is present participle1infinitive' infinitive1present participle
$elated 1igures

1igures of $epetition
1igures of *rder
antimetaole
antimetaole
an5&ti&me&ta5&#o&lee #k. anti Lin opposite directionM
and meta%ole Lturning aoutM
Also sp. antimetavole
commutatio
22
the counterchange
$epetition of words, in successive clauses, in reverse grammatical order.
"his figure is sometimes known as chiasmus.
(xamples

5hen the going gets tough, the tough get going.
Ask not what your country can do for you4 ask what you can do for your country. +Cohn 1.
Pennedy
Nou can take the gorilla out of the +ungle, ut you can&t take the +ungle out of the gorilla.
Integrity without knowledge is weak and useless, and knowledge without integrity is dangerous
and dreadful. +-amuel Cohnson, Rasselas
5oe unto them that call evil good, and good evil4 that put dar'ness for light, and light for
dar'ness4 that put #itter for sweet, and sweet for #itterO +.saiah @38=
$elated 1igures

chiasmus parallelism 1igures of $epetition 1igures of *rder
23