1

Mitigation of Acid Forming Materials

Active Treatment Active Treatment
Passive Treatment Passive Treatment
Other Water Quality Mitigation Alternatives Other Water Quality Mitigation Alternatives
Acid Soils Acid Soils
2
ACTIVE Water Treatment Unit Operations
Neutralization
Aeration
Precipitation
Settling (solid/liquid separation)
Sludge dewatering
Sludge disposal
3
Modern Hydrated Lime Treatment Plant
Treats 30,000 L/minute air asamtambang
4
Chemical Treatment Reagents
Reagent Cost NP Quantity Solubility Comments
Limestone low low high very low coats w/ iron,
CaCO
3
slow reactions
Quicklime high requires slaking
CaO generally small
flows
Hydrated lime moderate requires careful
Ca(OH)
2
mixing, high flows
mild to high acidity
Caustic Soda high freezing problems,
NaOH generally used for
high acidity, Mn, Fe
2+
Soda Ash high high low low labor intensive ,
Na
2
CO
3
low flow, low acidity
5
Aeration and Oxidation
6
Settling (Solid/Liquid Separation)
Inclined Plate Clarifiers
Dissolved Air Flotation
Thickeners
Ponds or Basins
Clarifiers
7
Pond Desludging Manure Pump
8
A. Passive Treatment Concepts
A. Passive Treatment Concepts

Aerobic Wetlands
Aerobic Wetlands

Settling Ponds/Basins
Settling Ponds/Basins

Anoxic Limestone Drains (
Anoxic Limestone Drains (
ALD
ALD
)
)

Vertical Flow Wetlands (
Vertical Flow Wetlands (
VFW or SAPS
VFW or SAPS
)
)

Open Limestone Channels
Open Limestone Channels

Diversion Wells
Diversion Wells

Oxic
Oxic
or
or
Pyrolusite
Pyrolusite
Limestone Beds
Limestone Beds
9
Advantages of Passive Treatment
Advantages of Passive Treatment

Low operational and maintenance costs

Low operational and maintenance costs

Materials are not hazardous

Materials are not hazardous

Removal of metals
Removal of metals

Can be implemented in remote locations

Can be implemented in remote locations
10
Disadvantages of Passive Treatment
Disadvantages of Passive Treatment

Treatment area (hectares) needed
Treatment area (hectares) needed

Highly acidic
Highly acidic (>500 mg/l) (>500 mg/l)
mine water problematic
mine water problematic

It is
It is
still
still
a developing science & technology
a developing science & technology

Does not work well on large flows

Does not work well on large flows
(design flows < 2000 L/minute)
(design flows < 2000 L/minute)

High construction costs at beginning (lot of

High construction costs at beginning (lot of
rupiah
rupiah
)
)

Some maintenance required (some

Some maintenance required (some
rupiah
rupiah
)
)
11
Designing a Passive System
Designing a Passive System
Water Chemistry
Water Chemistry
:
:
-
-
Determines the design or technique
Determines the design or technique
Net Alkaline Water Aerobic Treatment
Net Acidic Water Anaerobic Treatment
Discharge Flow Rate
Discharge Flow Rate
:
:
-
-
Determines the size
Determines the size
12
Monitoring AMD Discharges
13
Classifying Mine Water
Classifying Mine Water

Net Alkaline
Net Alkaline
, Fe contaminated
, Fe contaminated

Net Alkaline
Net Alkaline,
Fe and
Fe and
Mn
Mn
contaminated
contaminated

Neutral pH net Acid

Neutral pH net Acid
, Fe and
, Fe and
Mn
Mn
contaminat
contaminat

Low pH Acidic
Low pH Acidic,
Fe and
Fe and
Mn
Mn
contaminated
contaminated

Low pH Acidic
Low pH Acidic,
Fe,
Fe,
Mn
Mn
, Al contaminated
, Al contaminated
14
Aerobic Treatment of Alkaline, Iron
contaminated Mine Waters
Aerobic Treatment of Alkaline, Iron
contaminated Mine Waters

Fe precipitates at rates between 10 and
Fe precipitates at rates between 10 and
40 g m
40 g m
- -2 2
d
d
- -1 1

Iron oxidation kinetics define the rate of iron
Iron oxidation kinetics define the rate of iron
oxidation
oxidation

Oxidation ponds can generally oxidize
Oxidation ponds can generally oxidize
30
30
-
-
50 mg/l of ferrous iron.
50 mg/l of ferrous iron.

Aerobic Wetlands can decrease Fe to < 2
Aerobic Wetlands can decrease Fe to < 2
mg/L
mg/L
15
Typical Section of an
Aerobic Wetland
16
Aerobic Wetland Treatment System - Westmoreland County, PA
Net Alkaline Discharge Treatment
17
Making Acid Water Alkaline
Making Acid Water Alkaline
1. Anoxic Limestone Drain (ALD)
1. Anoxic Limestone Drain (ALD)
2. Vertical Flow Wetland (VFW)
2. Vertical Flow Wetland (VFW)
3. Diversion Wells
3. Diversion Wells
4. Open Limestone Channels
4. Open Limestone Channels
5.
5.
Oxic
Oxic
(
(
Pyrolusite
Pyrolusite

) Limestone Beds
) Limestone Beds
18
How is alkalinity generated?
Limestone + Acidity Calcium ion + Bicarbonate Alkalinity
CaCO
3
+ H
+
Ca
2+
+ HCO
3
-
Organic Carbon + Sulfate Hydrogen sulfide + Bicarbonate
Alkalinity
2 CH
2
O + SO
4
-
H
2
S + 2 HCO
3
-
Sulfate Reducing Bacteria (SRBs)
(2 H
+)
(H
2
CO
3
*)
19
Limestone Dissolution is Slow
and Solubility Limited
Limestone Dissolution is Slow
and Solubility Limited

12
12
-
-
18 hours of contact time
18 hours of contact time
Rule Of Thumb
Rule Of Thumb
:
:
0.3
0.3
-
-
0.6 metric ton Limestone/hour of contact/Liter
0.6 metric ton Limestone/hour of contact/Liter
minute of flow
minute of flow

Maximum concentration of alkalinity is
Maximum concentration of alkalinity is
generally 150
generally 150
-
-
350 mg/L
350 mg/L
(
(
actual value is
actual value is
dependent on limestone source and water quality)
dependent on limestone source and water quality)

Need large quantities of limestone
Need large quantities of limestone
(1,000
(1,000

2,000 metric tons not uncommon)

2,000 metric tons not uncommon)
*
20
Typical Section of an ALD
21
Anoxic Limestone Drain Under Construction
22
Water that is Suited for an ALD
Water that is Suited for an ALD

Net Acidity
Net Acidity
<
<
300 mg/L
300 mg/L

Fe
Fe
3+ 3+
<
<
1 mg/L
1 mg/L

Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved Oxygen
<
<
1 mg/l
1 mg/l

Al
Al
3+ 3+
< 1 mg/L
< 1 mg/L
23
ALD SIZING CRITERIA

Retention time (
Retention time (typically 16 hrs) typically 16 hrs)
Limestone
Limestone
dissolution losses
dissolution losses

Typical
Typical
ALD dimensions & configurations
ALD dimensions & configurations
Limestone bed depth: 1 Limestone bed depth: 1- -2 meters 2 meters
Drain width: 3 Drain width: 3- -20 1 20 1- -6 meters 6 meters
Length to Width ratio: L:W = 2 Length to Width ratio: L:W = 2 - - 20:1 20:1
PVC or plastic liner PVC or plastic liner
Impervious soil (clay) cap (1 meter) Impervious soil (clay) cap (1 meter)
Consider settling basin at ALD outlet for metals collection Consider settling basin at ALD outlet for metals collection
*
24
2. Vertical Flow Wetlands
(VFWs)
2. Vertical Flow Wetlands
(VFWs)

Overcomes limitations of
Overcomes limitations of
ALDs
ALDs
for
for
generating alkalinity
generating alkalinity

Vertical flow through an organic layer and an
Vertical flow through an organic layer and an
underlying limestone bed
underlying limestone bed

Adds alkalinity through bacterial sulfate
Adds alkalinity through bacterial sulfate
reduction and limestone dissolution
reduction and limestone dissolution

Highly acid water can be treated by passage
Highly acid water can be treated by passage
through a series of
through a series of
VFWs
VFWs
25
Typical VFW Cross-Section
26
Typical VFW Treatment System
Sed. Pond
Vertical
Flow
Wetland
Sed. Pond
Aerobic
Wetland
(optional)*
discharge
AMD Source
* Typically a sediment pond/vertical flow wetland system
combination is 80-90 % efficient in removing iron; therefore,
an aerobic wetland is recommended for further iron removal.
Flush
Pond
27
VFW Treatment System - Centre County, PA
AMD source (influent)
Sed. Pond #1
Aerobic Wetland #1
VFW #1
Sed. Pond #2
Aerobic Wetland #2
VFW #2
Sed. Pond #3
Treated effluent
28
12
Typical Parameters:
a. Water depth = 0.15 1.5m
b. Organic layer = 0.15 0.6 m
c. Limestone depth = 0.45 1.5 m
29
Example Decision Tree For Passive Treatment
Net Alkaline Net Acidic
Water Water




DO <1 mg/L, DO >1 mg/L and
Fe
+3
<10% of t. dis. and Fe
+3
<10% or Al >1 mg/L
Al <1 mg/L (pretreatment alkalineaddition or dilution)




Net Acid Net Acid
<40 mg/L >40 mg/L






Net
Acidic
Water

Net
Alkaline
Water



Yes Discharge

No
No


No Yes


Discharge

Passive Treatment System Decision Tree Based on Water Chemistry
Field Assessment
AMD
Characterization
Determent Flow &
Contaminant Loading
Oxidation
and/or
Settling
Pond
Aerobic
Wetland
ALD or
Limestone
Pond
Diversion
Well, OLC,
or Anaerobic
Wetland
VFP or
Anaerobic
Wetland
Does Water Q Meet
Effluent Limits?
ManganeseRemoval
Bed and/or
Anaerobic Wetland
Settling
Pond
Aerobic
Wetland
Does Water Q Meet
Effluent Limits?
Other
than Mn
or Sulfate
Because
of Mn or
Sulfate
30
Typical Treatment System Costs, U.S.

Alkaline Discharges
Alkaline Discharges

$490 per ton of iron treated per year
$490 per ton of iron treated per year

Moderately Acidic discharges (acid loads <
Moderately Acidic discharges (acid loads <
100 tons/year)
100 tons/year)

$980 per ton of acid treated per year
$980 per ton of acid treated per year
Acidic Discharges (acid loads > 100
Acidic Discharges (acid loads > 100
tons/year)
tons/year)

$295 per ton of acid treated per year
$295 per ton of acid treated per year
Anoxic Limestone Drains
Anoxic Limestone Drains

$600 per ton of acid treated per year
$600 per ton of acid treated per year
31
Treatment System
Construction Costs,U.S.

Aerobic wetlands and settling ponds
Aerobic wetlands and settling ponds

$50,000
$50,000
-
-
$100,000 / hectare
$100,000 / hectare
Compost
Compost
wetlands and SAPS
wetlands and SAPS

$100,000
$100,000
-
-
$150,000 / hectare
$150,000 / hectare

Anoxic Limestone Drains
Anoxic Limestone Drains

~$15
~$15
-
-
$30 / ton of LS Placed
$30 / ton of LS Placed
32
ACTIVE MINE PIT-Water Management
33
WATER MANAGEMENT

Erosion and Sediment Control
Erosion and Sediment Control

Infiltration Barriers
Infiltration Barriers

Caps: synthetic, grouts, clays
Caps: synthetic, grouts, clays

Ground water interceptors
Ground water interceptors

Drains and trenches
Drains and trenches

Induced Recharge
Induced Recharge

Direct recharge through alkaline material
Direct recharge through alkaline material
34
Acid Mine Soils
Add Lime, Soil Cover or Both
35
Root Growth Stopped in Acid Minesoils
36
Lime Application to Acid Minesoil
37
Lime Placed One meter Deep in Acid Minesoil
38
Water Quality for Treatment
2031 2031 346 346 277 277 Acidity Acidity
2462 2462 2998 2998 1972 1972 Sulfate Sulfate
2.9 2.9 1.58 1.58 5.15 5.15 Manganese Manganese
88.7 88.7 0.02 0.02 24.29 24.29 Aluminum Aluminum
240 240 0.01 0.01 0.50 0.50 Ferric Iron Ferric Iron
224 224 128.03 128.03 47.52 47.52 Ferrous Iron Ferrous Iron
3.0 3.0 < 0.1 < 0.1 0.5 0.5 Dis Dis Oxygen Oxygen
0 0 610 610 0 0 Alkalinity Alkalinity
2.99 2.99 7.05 7.05 3.2 3.2 pH pH
25 25 5500 5500 50 50 Flow (L/Min) Flow (L/Min)
Site 3 Site 3 Site 2 Site 2 Site 1 Site 1