MECHANICS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

5.6. MECHANICS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

References: General references: The Composite Materials Handboo MIL!"#$%
Ameri&an So&iet' (or Testin) and Materials$ *est Conshoho&en$ Penn+ H'er$ Stress
Anal'sis o( Fiber!Rein(or&ed Composite Materials$% *C,-M&.ra/!Hill$ Ne/ 0or$
"112+ 3ones$ Me&hani&s o( Composite Materials$% 4d ed+$ Ta'lor and Fran&is$
Philadelphia$ "111+ Herao5i&h$ Me&hani&s o( Fibro6s Composites$% *ile'$ Ne/ 0or$
"112+ 7aniel and Ishai$ En)ineerin) Me&hani&s o( Composite Materials$% O8(ord
9ni5ersit' Press$ Ne/ 0or$ "11:+ .ibson$ Prin&iples o( Composite Material
Me&hani&s$% M&.ra/!Hill$ Ne/ 0or$ "11:+ S/anson$ Introd6&tion to 7esi)n and
Anal'sis /ith Ad5an&ed Composite Materials$% Prenti&e!Hall$ 9pper Saddle Ri5er$ N+3+$
"11#+ ;inson and Sierao/si$ The ,eha5ior o( Str6&t6res Composed o( Composite
Materials$% 4d ed+$ Martin6s Ni<ho(( P6blishers$ ,oston$ 4==4+ *ol(($ Introd6&tion to the
7imensional Stabilit' o( Composite Materials$% 7ESte&h P6bli&ations$ Lan&aster$ Penn+$
4==:+ References dealing primarily with damage tolerance and failure: Hinton$ Soden$
and >addo6r$ Fail6re Criteria in Fibre!Rein(or&ed!Pol'mer Composites$% Else5ier
P6blishers$ 4==:+ Rei(snider and Case$ 7ama)e Toleran&e and 76rabilit' o( Material
S'stems$% *ile'$ Ne/ 0or$ 4==4+
This se&tion deals /ith some o( the basi& iss6es that m6st be addressed in appl'in) the
&lassi& methods o( me&hani&s o( materials to predi&t the me&hani&al beha5ior o( fiber-
reinforced composie materials+ The se&tion deals e8&l6si5el' /ith the me&hani&al
beha5ior o( materials that &onsist o( sti(( and stron) fibers! s6&h as )lass$ &arbon$ or
aramid$ embedded in a so(ter material$ s6&h as a thermosettin) or thermoplasti& pol'mer$
no/n as the matri8 material$ or simpl'$ the m"ri#. The role o( the (iber is to &arr' the
load$ /hile the role o( the matri8 is to eep the (ibers ali)ned$ trans(er the load (rom (iber
to (iber$ and prote&t the (ibers (rom dire&t me&hani&al &onta&t and e8pos6re to
en5ironmental (a&tor+ Other (ibers$ s6&h as boron$ ha5e been emplo'ed$ and &omposite
materials that 6se metal$ s6&h as al6min6m or titani6m$ (or the matri8 ha5e been
de5eloped+ Composite materials that 6tili?e boron (ibers or a metal matri8 are m6&h less
&ommon and are @6ite e8pensi5e+ The me&hani&al beha5ior o( metal matri8 &omposite
materials &an di((er si)ni(i&antl' (rom that o( pol'mer matri8 &omposite materials in that
metals 'ield be(ore (ailin)$ /hereas the pol'mers 6sed in &omposite materials are brittle
b' &omparison and )enerall' (ail b' &ra&in)+ This di((eren&e in the t/o matri8 materials
&an lead to di((erent (ail6re &riteria and there(ore di((erent anal'sis te&hni@6es to predi&t
/hether a parti&6lar str6&t6ral &omponent /ill (ail or not+ Here emphasis /ill be on
pol'mer matri8 &omposite materials+ Ho/e5er$ some o( the ass6mptions and &al&6lations
are appli&able to metal matri8 &omposite materials i( the stresses in the matri8 are belo/
the 'ield le5el+
The appli&ation o( the &lassi&al methods o( the me&hani&s o( materials to the anal'sis and
desi)n o( str6&t6ral &omponents s6&h as beams$ plates$ &6r5ed panels$ and &'linders
(abri&ated (rom (iber!rein(or&ed &omposite materials re@6ires &onsiderabl' more steps
than the anal'sis and desi)n o( a similar &omponents made o( &on5entional materials
s6&h as al6min6m or steel+ The primar' reasons (or this are A"B the la'ered nat6re o(
&omponents (abri&ated o( (iber!rein(or&ed &omposite materials and A4B the (a&t that (ibers
in the la'ers res6lt in sti((ness and stren)th properties that are dire&tionall' dependent$
not onl' (or that la'er$ b6t also (or the o5erall str6&t6ral &omponent+ *hen material
beha5ior is not dire&tionall' dependent$ the material beha5ior is said to be isotropic.
E8&ept (or sli)ht rollin) or other e((e&ts d6e to (abri&ation or &onsolidation$ /hi&h are
)enerall' i)nored$ &on5entional materials s6&h as al6min6m or steel e8hibit isotropi&
beha5ior+ *hen material properties are dire&tionall' dependent$ material beha5ior is said
to be anisotropic, or nonisotropi&+ There are spe&ial &lasses o( anisotropi& material
beha5ior$ and one /hi&h /ill be de(ined shortl' is orthotropic material beha5ior+ To
rea&h a point /here the onl' t/o di((eren&es bet/een a &omponent (abri&ated (rom a
(iber!rein(or&ed &omposite material and one (abri&ated (rom a &on5entional material are
the la'ered nat6re and anisotropi& beha5ior$ se5eral steps and ass6mptions ha5e to be
&onsidered+ Spe&i(i&all'$ the (iber and matri8 materials ea&h ha5e their o/n sti((ness and
stren)th properties+ *hen these t/o &onstit6ents are &ombined$ the res6ltin) mi8t6re$ or
&omposite$ has its o/n sti((ness and stren)th properties$ &alled composie properies.
Composite properties depend not onl' on the properties o( ea&h &onstit6ent$ b6t also on
the @6antit' o( ea&h &onstit6ent in the &omposite material+ A e' meas6re o( the @6antit'
o( a &onstit6ent is the $o%&me fr"cion o( that &onstit6ent in a )i5en 5ol6me o( &omposite
material+ There are models (or predi&tin) the properties o( a &omposite material based on
the properties and 5ol6me (ra&tion o( ea&h &onstit6ent$ in parti&6lar$ the 5ol6me (ra&tion
o( (ibers and the 5ol6me (ra&tion o( matri8 material+ These models are re(erred to as
micromec'"nic"% mode%s. Se5eral mi&rome&hani&al models /ill be introd6&ed here (or
&omp6tin) s6&h properties as o5erall sti((ness or the o5erall thermal e8pansion properties
o( a la'er o( &omposite material+ These models are based on ass6mptions re)ardin) the
me&hani&al beha5ior o( the indi5id6al (ibers$ the matri8 s6rro6ndin) them$ and
importantl'$ ass6mptions re)ardin) the intera&tion bet/een the (ibers and matri8+ The
res6lt is a &olle&tion o( models ea&h /ith its o/n ass6mptions and ea&h representin) the
&ombined sti((ness and thermal e8pansion e((e&ts o( all the (ibers and the a&&ompan'in)
matri8 material+ A la'er o( &omposite material is ass6med to e8hibit these &ombined
e((e&ts$ and it is ass6med the &ombined e((e&ts are 6ni(orml' distrib6ted thro6)ho6t the
5ol6me o( the la'er+ The ass6mption o( ha5in) a 6ni(orm distrib6tion o( &omposite
properties$ despite the (ibers and matri8 ha5in) indi5id6al properties$ is the &on&ept o(
'omo(eni)"ion! or sme"rin(! o( &onstit6ent properties+ On&e the smeared &omposite
properties are predi&ted$ the indi5id6al (ibers and the matri8 material lose their identities
and a la'er is treated as a sin)le material /ith a sin)le set o( properties+ Ea&h la'er ma'
ha5e di((erent properties$ be&a6se one la'er ma' 6se )lass (ibers and another la'er ma'
6se &arbon (ibers$ or there ma' be a mi8t6re o( )lass and &arbon (ibers /ithin one la'erC
b6t /ithin a la'er$ the properties are ass6med to be 6ni(orm+ Homo)eni?ation is an
important &on&ept+ I( this &on&ept /ere not a&&epted$ it /o6ld be impossible to st6d' the
me&hani&al beha5ior o( (iber!rein(or&ed &omposite materials$ as it /o6ld be an
ins6rmo6ntable tas to eep tra& o( the beha5ior o( ea&h (iber and the matri8 material
s6rro6ndin) ea&h (iber+
A(ter the e((e&ts o( the (ibers and matri8 ha5e been homo)eni?ed$ be(ore desi)n and
anal'sis &an pro&eed$ the &on&ept o( homo)eni?ation m6st be 6tili?ed a se&ond time to
represent the &ombined e((e&ts o( all the la'ers on the o5erall beha5ior o( a str6&t6ral
&omponent+ This se&ond step is ne&essar' be&a6se a &omponent &o6ld be &onstr6&ted o(
man'$ man' la'ers o( material+ The assembla)e o( all the la'ers is re(erred to as a
%"min"e. It be&omes a lar)e &hore to eep tra& o( the beha5ior o( ea&h la'er in a
laminate /hen interest ma' &enter on the o5erall beha5ior o( the laminated &omponent$
e+)+$ s6&h as its lo/est nat6ral (re@6en&' or its b6&lin) load+ The steps (or
homo)eni?ation at this le5el also depend on ass6mptions re)ardin) the beha5ior o( the
indi5id6al la'ers and ass6mptions re)ardin) ho/ ea&h la'er intera&ts /ith the
s6rro6ndin) la'ers+ The st6d' o( the indi5id6al la'ers in a laminate and ho/ the' intera&t
is o(ten re(erred to as m"cromec'"nics. The beha5ior o( a laminate /hen loadin)$
s6pport$ and other &onditions are &onsidered is o(ten re(erred to as composie sr&c&r"%
mec'"nics. Man' o( the tools o( me&hani&s appl' to &omposite materials and str6&t6res
be&a6se the tools are based on prin&iples that do not depend on material beha5ior+
9ltimatel'$ ho/e5er$ material properties m6st be de(ined$ and it is at this step that the
desi)n and anal'sis o( &omposite str6&t6res and o( isotropi& str6&t6res di5er)e+
5.6.*. MICROMECHANICS OF A LA0ER
The pra&ti&e o( 6sin) (iber and matri8 properties to estimate the homo)eni?ed response o(
a &omposite material has re&ei5ed lots o( attention$ and some treatment is )i5en in almost
all introd6&tor' &omposite materials te8ts+ Pra&ti&al reasons (or s6&h an in5esti)ation
in&l6de the abilit' to per(orm tradeo(( st6dies$ s6&h as 5ar'in) the amo6nt and t'pe o(
(iber 6sed$ and the abilit' to estimate$ d6rin) the initial desi)n pro&ess$ @6antities that are
di((i&6lt to determine e8perimentall'+ Three prin&ipal approa&hes ha5e been emplo'ed in
de5elopin) these models (or homo)eni?ation: A"B me&hani&s o( materials te&hni@6es$ A4B
elasti&it' sol6tions$ and ADB empiri&al or semiempiri&al te&hni@6es+ In the me&hani&s o(
materials approa&hes$ simpli(ied )eometries and simpli(ied material beha5ior models are
6s6all' emplo'ed+ In )eneral$ these models do not &apt6re the details o( the stress and
strain distrib6tions /ithin the (iber and matri8$ and as a res6lt$ details o( the a&t6al (iber
arran)ement /ithin the &omposite are 6nimportant+ In the elasti&it' sol6tions$ an attempt
is made to determine the a&t6al stresses and strains in the (iber and matri8 materials$ and
as a res6lt$ the (iber pa&in) arran)ement /ithin the &omposite be&omes important+ In
s6&h a &ase$ the a&t6al (iber pa&in) is o(ten represented b' ideali?ed pa&in)s$ as sho/n
in Fi)+ E+F+"+
Fi)6re E+F+"+ Photomi&ro)raph o( a&t6al &omposite &ross se&tion Ale(tB$ and ideali?ed
representations o( (iber pa&in): he8a)onal A&enterB and s@6are Ari)htB+
It is important to eep in mind$ ho/e5er$ that these models are estimates o( the a&t6al
material beha5ior$ and that there is no s6bstit6te (or dire&t e8perimental meas6rement o(
the desired properties+ As a res6lt$ the models presented in this se&tion are sele&ted (or the
balan&e bet/een ease o( 6se and a&&6ra&'+
,e(ore /e dis&6ss the mi&rome&hani&s models in detail$ it is ne&essar' to be)in /ith a
des&ription o( the thermal!me&hani&al response o( a sin)le la'er o( 6nidire&tional
&omposite material+ In dis&6ssin) this response$ it is &on5enient to 6se an ortho)onal
&oordinate s'stem that has one a8is ali)ned /ith the dire&tion o( the (iber rein(or&ement$
a se&ond a8is that lies in the plane o( the la'er$ and a third a8is thro6)h the thi&ness o(
the la'er$ as ill6strated in Fi)+ E+F+4+ S6&h a &oordinate s'stem is re(erred to as the
princip"% m"eri"% coordin"e s+sem Aor o(ten the "!4!D &oordinate s'stemB+ In this
&ase$ the " dire&tion is the (iber dire&tion$ /hile the 4 and D dire&tions are trans5erse
dire&tions$ o(ten re(erred to as matri8 dire&tions+ At this point$ it is &lear that the material
properties /ill not be the same in all dire&tions+ For e8ample$ it is reasonable to e8pe&t
the &omposite to be stron)er and sti((er in the " dire&tion than in either the 4 or D
dire&tions+ It mi)ht also be e8pe&ted that the 4 and D dire&tions ha5e similar b6t not
ne&essaril' identi&al properties be&a6se the' are both dire&tions perpendi&6lar to the (iber
dire&tion+ A&&ordin)l'$ the response o( an element o( material at a point /ithin the
Fi)6re E+F+4+ La'er o( &omposite material ill6stratin) prin&ipal material &oordinate
s'stem+
Fi)6re E+F+DE+F+4++ Ill6stration o( stresses a&tin) on the small element o( &omposite
material (rom la'er that has di((erent properties in the di((erent dire&tions is to be
des&ribed+ S6&h an element &an be a&ted on b' si8 stress &omponents$ as sho/n in Fi)+
E+F+D+
In Fi)+ E+F+D$
"
$
4
$ and
D
are the normal stresses$ in the prin&ipal material dire&tionsC
"4
is the in!plane shear stressC
"D
and
4D
are thro6)h!thi&ness shear stresses+ The
&orrespondin) normal strains are )i5en as
"
$
4
$ and
D
C the en)ineerin) shear strains are
)i5en as
"4
$
"D
$ and
4D
$ The strains &an then be related to the stresses as
AE+F+"B
In E@+ AE+F+"B$ E
"
is the e8tensional mod6l6s in the (iber dire&tion$ E
4
is the e8tensional
mod6l6s in the trans5erse 4 dire&tion$ and E
D
is the e8tensional mod6l6s in the trans5erse
D dire&tion o( the &omposite material+ PoissonGs ratios are de(ined so that HAv
i
-E
i
B
i
is
the strain in the dire&tion d6e to a stress applied in the i dire&tion+ The three shear
mod6li are G
4D
$ G
"D
$ and G
"4
+ The e8tensional mod6li$ the shear mod6li$ and PoissonGs
ratios are &olle&ti5el' re(erred to as engineering properties. The s@6are F!b'!F matri8 in
E@+ AE+F+"B is re(erred to as the comp%i"nce m"ri# and is normall' denoted b' !+ The
stress!strain relations$ in terms o( !$ are then )i5en as
AE+F+4B
A dire&t &omparison o( E@s+ AE+F+"B and AE+F+4B sho/s that the &omplian&es ma' be
&al&6lated in terms o( the en)ineerin) properties as
AE+F+DB
The in5erse o( the &omplian&e matri8 is &alled the siffness m"ri# and is normall'
denoted b' ". On&e this in5erse has been de(ined$ the stress!strain relations &an be
/ritten as
AE+F+:B
The (orms o( E@s+ AE+F+4B and AE+F+:B s6))est that "4 &omplian&e or "4 sti((ness
&omponents are re@6ired to des&ribe the stress!strain response o( an element o( &omposite
material+ Ho/e5er$ it &an be sho/n that the &omplian&e matri8 is s'mmetri&$ i+e+$ !
i
I !
i
+ For that to be tr6e$ (rom E@+ AE+F+DB the (ollo/in) relations m6st hold:
AE+F+EB
The relations in E@+ AE+F+EB are re(erred to as the reciproci+ re%"ions. Th6s$ onl' nine
independent en)ineerin) properties are needed to des&ribe the elasti& response o( a la'er
o( &omposite material+
In addition to the strains d6e to the stresses$ e8pansional strains d6e to temperat6re
&han)es and moist6re absorption are o(ten present+ For s6&h a &ase$ the strains are related
to the stresses b' a modi(i&ation o( E@+ AE+F+"B as
AE+F+FB
In the abo5e e@6ation$ #
"
$ #
4
$ and #
D
are &oe((i&ients o( thermal e8pansionC $
"
$ $
4
$ and
$
D
are &oe((i&ients o( moist6re e8pansionC J% is the &han)e in temperat6re (rom a
re(eren&e temperat6reC and J& is the &han)e in moist6re &ontent /ithin the material (rom
a re(eren&e moist6re &ontent+ AThis re(eren&e moist6re &ontent is normall' taen as ?ero+B
Note that there are no thermall' ind6&ed or moist6re!ind6&ed shear strains in the
prin&ipal material &oordinate s'stem+ The (orm o( the stress!strain relations in E@+ AE+F+FB$
and E@s+ AE+F+"B$ AE+F+4B$ and AE+F+:B$ de(ines or'oropic m"eri"% beha5ior+ S6&h
beha5ior is &hara&teri?ed b' A"B a de&o6plin) o( shear and normal responses$ res6ltin) in
man' o( the o((!dia)onal terms bein) ?ero$ and A4B di((erent material properties in the
three m6t6all' perpendi&6lar dire&tions+ Spe&i(i&all'$ the =s represent the (a&t that /ith
orthotropi& material beha5ior$ normal strains and normal stresses are relatedC ea&h
parti&6lar shear strain is related to the &orrespondin) shear stress$ b6t there are no
relations bet/een normal strains and shear stresses$ or bet/een shear strains and normal
stresses+ Also$ as noted$ there are no thermal! or moist6re!ind6&ed shear strains+ The (orm
o( the stress!strain relations (or isotropi& materials is the same as the (orm o( E@+ AE+F+FB$
the di((eren&e bein) that the material properties are the same in all dire&tions$ and onl'
t/o en)ineerin) properties are needed Ae+)+$ the e8tensional mod6l6s E and PoissonGs
ratio vB to (6ll' des&ribe the response+ That is$ (or the en)ineerin) properties E
"
I E
4
I E
D
I E$ v
4D
I v
"D
I v
"4
I v$ G
4D
I G
"D
I G
"4
I G I E-4A" K vB /hile (or the e8pansional
properties #
"
I #
4
I #
D
I # and $
"
I $
4
I $
D
I $+
E@6ation AE+F+FB represents the )eneral response o( a la'er o( &omposite material
s6b<e&ted to a three!dimensional stress state+ In man' pra&ti&al sit6ations in5ol5in) the
6se o( &omposite materials$ it ma' be ass6med that the &omposite is in a state o( plane
stress, a state in /hi&h three o( the stress &omponents are so m6&h smaller than the other
three that the' ma' be ass6med to be e@6al to ?ero (or s6bse@6ent stress anal'sis+ Some
sit6ations in /hi&h the plane!stress ass6mption ma' be emplo'ed arise /hen 'o6 are
&onsiderin) beams$ plates$ and &'linders in /hi&h one dimension is at least an order o(
ma)nit6de )reater than the other dimensions+ As an e8ample$ &onsider a plate in /hi&h
the thi&ness dire&tion$ /hi&h is ali)ned /ith the D dire&tion$ is m6&h less than the in!
plane dimensions+ The o6t!o(!plane stress &omponents
D
$
4D$
and
"D
/ill then be m6&h
smaller than the in!plane stress &omponents
"
$
4
$ and
"4
+ As a res6lt$ E@+ AE+F+FB &an
be simpli(ied &onsiderabl'+
,e(ore /e e8amine the simpli(ied stress!strain relations (or the &ase o( a plane stress
state$ a n6mber o( &a6tions are in order+ First$ the plane stress ass6mption &an lead to
ina&&6ra&ies+ For e8ample$ delamination o( laminates o(ten initiates at (ree ed)es d6e to
the presen&e o( o6t!o(!plane stressesLe8a&tl' the stress &omponents i)nored in a plane
stress anal'sis+ Se&ond$ lo&ations o( dis&ontin6ities in str6&t6res$ s6&h as at bonded <oints$
sti((eners$ or pl' drops$ res6lt in three!dimensional stress states+ Finall'$ in man' &ases
the thro6)h!thi&ness stresses are @6ite small in &omparison to the in!plane stresses
Aparti&6larl'
"
B$ b6t ma' still be lar)e eno6)h in &omparison to the &orrespondin)
stren)th 5al6es that (ail6re ma' o&&6r+
To see /h' the plane stress ass6mption is important$ the e((e&ts o( this ass6mption on the
stress!strain relations )i5en in E@+ AE+F+FB &an be e8amined+ For the &ase o( plane stress in
/hi&h
D
$
4D
$ and
"D
are taen to be identi&all' ?ero$ the stress!strain relationship
red6&es to
AE+F+#B
The D!b'!D matri8 is re(erred to as the red&ced comp%i"nce m"ri#! altho6)h the
e8pressions (or the elements o( the red6&ed &omplian&e matri8 in terms o( the
en)ineerin) properties are identi&al to those in the (6ll F!b'!F &omplian&e matri8+ In
addition$ it is important to remember that /hile the normal stress
D
is e@6al to ?ero (or
the plane stress &ondition$ the &orrespondin) normal strain
D
is non?ero and is )i5en b'
AE+F+2B
Th6s$ to anal'?e the plane stress response o( a la'er o( &omposite material to me&hani&al$
thermal$ and moist6re loads$ it is ne&essar' to determine (o6r en)ineerin) properties as
/ell as the in!plane &oe((i&ients o( thermal and moist6re e8pansion+ To determine these$
the approa&h taen is to mae 6se o( models based primaril' on the me&hani&s o(
materials$ and 6se other models /hen the me&hani&s o( materials models do not 'ield
res6lts o( s6((i&ient a&&6ra&' Aor /hen the more a&&6rate models res6lt in e8pressions
nearl' as simple as the me&hani&s o( materials res6ltsB+
The basi& startin) point (or the me&hani&s o( materials model is the representati5e
5ol6me element sho/n in Fi)+ E+F+:+ This 5ol6me element &onsists o( eno6)h (iber and
matri8 that the 5ol6me (ra&tion o( (iber /ithin the 5ol6me is the same as the a5era)e
5al6e in the &omposite+ A model (or the (iber!dire&tion e8tensional mod6l6s E
"
&an be
de5eloped b' ass6min) that /hen a load is applied in the " dire&tion$ the strains in the
(iber and matri8 are the same+ This isosr"in ass6mption leads to the res6lt
AE+F+1B
/here '
f
is the (iber 5ol6me (ra&tion$ is the e8tensional mod6l6s o( the (iber alon) its
len)th Athe " dire&tionB$ and is the matri8 e8tensional mod6l6s in the " dire&tion+
E@6ation AE+F+1B is o(ten re(erred to as the r&%e-of-mi#&res ,ROM- mode% (or E
"
be&a6se the res6lt is simpl' the (ra&tional amo6nt o( (iber m6ltiplied b' the (iber
e8tensional mod6l6s added to the (ra&tional amo6nt o( matri8 m6ltiplied b' its
e8tensional mod6l6s+ Lie/ise$ i( an isostrain model is 6sed to estimate PoissonGs ratio o(
the &omposite material$ the res6ltin) e8pression is
AE+F+"=B
/here is the (iber Poisson ratio and is PoissonGs ratio o( the matri8+ 7espite
representin) a ro6nd (iber /ith a s@6are &ross se&tion$ n6meri&al res6lts to be presented
later in this se&tion /ill <6sti(' re&ommendin) the 6se o( r6le!o(!mi8t6res estimates (or E
"
and v
"4
+
An inspe&tion o( the representati5e 5ol6me sho/n in Fi)+ E+F+: re5eals that the isostrain
ass6mption is not appropriate (or estimatin) the e8tensional mod6l6s E
4
+ Rather$ a (irst
estimate /o6ld be that the stress
4
is the same in the (iber and the matri8$ and is
6ni(orm$ /hen a trans5erse load is applied+ This isosress "ss&mpion res6lts in an
estimate (or E
4
o( the &omposite )i5en b'
Fi)6re E+F+:+ Representati5e 5ol6me element (or mi&rome&hani&s anal'sis+
AE+F+""B
/here are the (iber and matri8 trans5erse e8tensional mod6l6s 5al6es$
respe&ti5el'+ *hile this res6lt based on the isostress ass6mption is o(ten presented in
introd6&tor' &omposite materials te8tboos$ it prod6&es relati5el' ina&&6rate res6lts$ as
/ill be sho/n later+ An impro5ed estimate ma' be de5eloped b' &onsiderin) the
representati5e 5ol6me element sho/n in Fi)+ E+F+E+ The anal'sis o( this 6nit element is
&ond6&ted b' ass6min) that the &entral (iber-matri8 element has an e((e&ti5e e8tensional
mod6l6s that ma' be &al&6lated b' 6sin) the r6le o( mi8t6res+ From there$ an anal'sis o(
the de(ormation o( the total element leads to the res6lt
AE+F+"4B
Fi)6re E+F+E+ Representati5e 5ol6me element (or impro5ed me&hani&s o( materials model+
This impro$ed mec'"nics of m"eri"%s mode% 'ields res6lts that are in m6&h better
a)reement /ith e8a&t elasti&it' anal'ses than those in E@+ AE+F+""B$ and it is the
re&ommended model (or &al&6latin) E
4
+
For the &ase o( shear loadin)$ the simple me&hani&s o( materials anal'sis /ith an isostress
ass6mption )i5es
AE+F+"DB
As /ith the &omposite e8tensional mod6l6s in the 4 dire&tion$ o(ten re(erred to as the
trans5erse e8tensional mod6l6s$ this isostress model )i5es poor estimates o( the
&omposite shear mod6l6s G
"4
+ It is possible to de5elop an analo)o6s e8pression to E@+
AE+F+"4B (or the shear mod6l6s+ Ho/e5er$ there is an "ppro#im"e e%"sici+ so%&ion (or
a simpli(ied )eometr' A&on&entri& &'linders o( (iber and matri8B a5ailable in &losed (orm+
The res6ltin) e8pression (or the &omposite shear mod6l6s is
AE+F+":B
This model )i5es res6lts that are e8tremel' a&&6rate in &omparison to e8a&t res6lts (or
he8a)onall' and s@6are!pa&ed arra's o( (ibers+
In addition to these models that des&ribe the response o( a la'er o( &omposite materials to
me&hani&al loadin) &onditions$ it is o(ten 6se(6l to ha5e mi&rome&hani&s models (or the
e8pansional &oe((i&ients Ms6&h as the thermal e8pansion &oe((i&ients and moist6re
e8pansion &oe((i&ients that appear in E@+ AE+F+#BN+ ,' 6sin) the me&hani&s o( materials
representati5e 5ol6me element o( Fi)+ E+F+:$ it is possible to de5elop e8pressions (or the
&oe((i&ient o( thermal e8pansion in the " dire&tion #
"
as
AE+F+"EB
The e8pression (or the &oe((i&ient o( moist6re e8pansion $
"
is de5eloped b' analo)'+ The
&oe((i&ient o( thermal e8pansion in the 4 dire&tion #
4
is )i5en b'
AE+F+"FB
/here E
"
is the r6le!o(!mi8t6res e8pression (or the (iber dire&tion e8tensional mod6l6s
)i5en b' E@+ AE+F+1B+ On&e a)ain the &oe((i&ient o( moist6re e8pansion in the 4 dire&tion
ma' be de5eloped b' analo)'+
In addition to the me&hani&s o( materials$ impro5ed me&hani&s o( materials$ and elasti&it'
models des&ribed abo5e$ semiempiri&al models ha5e been de5eloped (or &al&6latin)
en)ineerin) properties o( a la'er based 6pon (iber and matri8 properties+ The most /idel'
6sed are the H"%pin-Ts"i e.&"ions
AE+F+"#B
in /hi&h
AE+F+"2B
/here & I &omposite mod6l6s E
4
or G
"4
&
f
I
&orrespondin) (iber mod6l6s or
&
m
I &orrespondin) matri8 mod6l6s E
m
or v
m
and ( is a parameter ha5in) admissible 5al6es = O ( P ) /hi&h ma' be di((erent (or E
4
and G
"4
+ A simpli(ied (orm o( E@s+ AE+F+"#B and AE+F+"2B$ obtained b' s6bstit6tion o( E@+
AE+F+"2B into E@+ AE+F+"#B$ is )i5en b'
AE+F+"1B
A 5al6e o( ( I " )i5es e8&ellent res6lts (or G
"4
Lan identi&al res6lt to that )i5en b' E@+
AE+F+":B+ A 5al6e o( ( I 4 has been (o6nd to )i5e )ood res6lts (or E
4
+
An assessment o( the a&&6ra&' o( ea&h o( the models presented in this se&tion ma' be
obtained b' &omparin) the res6lts (rom these simple models to res6lts (rom e8a&t
elasti&it' sol6tions+ S6&h a &omparison re@6ires properties (or the (iber and matri8
materials+ Representati5e properties (or )lass (ibers$ )raphite (ibers$ and pol'mer matri8
materials are taen as the 5al6es )i5en in Table E+F+"+ Tables E+F+4 and E+F+D
Table E+F+"+ Representati5e Properties (or .raphite Fiber$ .lass Fiber$ and Pol'meri&
Matri8 Materials
/r"p'ie fiber /%"ss fiber0 Po%+mer m"ri#0
0 Ass&med o be isoropic.
E
"
A.PaB 4DD #D+" :+F4
E
4
A.PaB 4D+" #D+" :+F4
G
"4
A.PaB 2+1F D=+= "+F11
v
"4
=+4== =+44 =+DF
#
"
A-QCB H=+E:= R "=
H

F
E+=: R "=
H

F
:"+: R "=
H

F
#
4
A-QCB "=+"= R "=
H

F
E+=: R "=
H

F
:"+: D "=
H

F
Table E+F+4+ Mi&rome&hani&s Model Res6lts (or .raphite!Pol'mer Composite Material
Fiber $o%&me fr"cion
1.1 1.* 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.5
E
"
A.PaB$ E@+ AE+F+1B :+F4 4#+E E=+D #D+" 1F+= ""2+2 ":"+F "F:+E
E
"
A.PaB$ elasti&it' :+F4 4#+E E=+D #D+4 1F+= ""2+1 ":"+# "F:+E
v
"4
$ E@+ AE+F+"=B =+DF= =+D:: =+D42 =+D"4 =+41F =+42= =+4F: =+4:2
v
"4
$ elasti&it' =+DF= =+D:D =+D4# =+D"" =+41# =+424 =+4F1 =+4EF
E
4
A.PaB$ E@+ AE+F+""B :+F4 E+=4 E+E= F+=2 F+#1 #+#= 2+22 "=+E=
E
4
A.PaB$ E@+ AE+F+"4B :+F4 E+F" F+:2 #+:= 2+:E 1+F# ""+"E "4+12
E
4
A.PaB$ E@+ AE+F+"1B :+F4 E+:F F+:" #+:1 2+#D "=+"F ""+2E "D+2F
E
4
A.PaB$ elasti&it' :+F4 E+#2 F+E: #+:= 2+:D 1+#= ""+41 "D+4#
G
"4
A.PaB$ E@+ AE+F+"DB "+F11 "+2:2 4+=D 4+4: 4+E" 4+2F D+D" D+1D
G
"4
A.PaB$ E@+ AE+F+":B "+F11 "+1:# 4+4D 4+E# 4+1# D+:E :+=E :+2=
G
"4
A.PaB$ elasti&it' "+F11 "+1:# 4+4D 4+E# 4+1# D+:F :+=E :+24
#
"
A-QCB R "=
F
$ E@+ AE+F+"EB :"+: E+2" 4+E: "+D"E =+F#" =+4#E #+"# "=
H

D
H=+"2FF
#
"
A-QCB R "=
F
$ elasti&it' :"+: E+1F 4+F2 "+::= =+##1 =+DFE #+2# R "=
H

4
H=+"D4D
#
"
AQ-CB R "=
F
$ E@+ AE+F+"FB :"+: :1+# :F+4 :4+= D#+F DD+" 42+E 4D+1
#
"
AQ-CB R "=
F
$ elasti&it' :"+: :2+1 ::+1 :=+D DE+# D"+4 4F+# 44+:
pro5ide a &omparison o( &omposite properties as a (6n&tion o( (iber 5ol6me (ra&tion 6sin)
the 5ario6s relations dis&6ssed+
ESAMPLE "+ E5al6ate the en)ineerin) and thermal e8pansion properties o( a la'er o(
)lass!(iber!rein(or&ed pol'mer ha5in) a (iber 5ol6me (ra&tion o( F= per&ent+
APPROACH+ Mae 6se o( the properties )i5en in Table E+F+" alon) /ith the
mi&rome&hani&s models des&ribed abo5e+
SOL9TION+ The (iber properties are obtained (rom Table E+F+" as
The matri8 properties are obtained (rom Table E+F+" as
The (iber 5ol6me (ra&tion is )i5en as '
f
I =+F=+
For E
"
$ 6sin) E@+ AE+F+1B$
This 5al6e &ompares (a5orabl' /ith the e8a&t 5al6e o( :E+# .Pa (o6nd b' 6sin) an
elasti&it' sol6tion Asee Table E+F+DB+
For v
"4
$ 6sin) E@+ AE+F+"=B$
This 5al6e &ompares (a5orabl' /ith the e8a&t 5al6e o( =+4F1 (o6nd b' 6sin) an elasti&it'
sol6tion Asee Table E+F+DB+
For E
4
$ 6sin) E@+ AE+F+""B$
This 5al6e is in relati5el' poor a)reement /ith the e8a&t 5al6e o( "E+EF .Pa (o6nd b'
6sin) the elasti&it' sol6tion+ For the impro5ed me&hani&s o( materials model$ 6sin) E@+
AE+F+"4B$
Table E+F+D+ Mi&rome&hani&s Model Res6lts (or .lass!Pol'mer Composite Material
Fiber $o%&me fr"cion
1.1 1.* 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.5
E
"
A.PaB$ E@+ AE+F+1B :+F4 ""+:# "2+D4 4E+4 D4+= D2+1 :E+# E4+F
E
"
A.PaB$ elasti&it' :+F4 ""+:2 "2+DD 4E+4 D4+= D2+1 :E+# E4+F
v
"4
$ E@+ AE+F+"=B =+DF= =+D:F =+DD4 =+D"2 =+D=: =+41= =+4#F =+4F4
v
"4
$ elasti&it' =+DF= =+D:D =+D4# =+D"" =+41# =+424 =+4F1 =+4EF
E
4
A.PaB$ E@+ AE+F+""B :+F4 E+"= E+F1 F+:D #+D1 2+F1 "=+EE "D+:4
E
4
A.PaB$ E@+ AE+F+"4B :+F4 F+4E #+EF 1+=4 "=+#2 "D+=D "F+=# 4=+E
E
4
A.PaB$ E@+ AE+F+"1B :+F4 E+22 #+D1 1+4D ""+ED ":+:1 "2+:4 4D+1
E
4
A.PaB$ elasti&it' :+F4 E+## F+2: 2+": 1+24 "4+"F "E+EF 4=+#
G
"4
A.PaB$ E@+ AE+F+"DB "+F11 "+2#E 4+=1 4+D# 4+#D D+4" D+1" E+==
G
"4
A.PaB$ E@+ AE+F+":B "+F11 4+=D 4+:: 4+1: D+E1 :+:: E+F4 #+DF
G
"4
A.PaB$ elasti&it' "+F11 4+=D 4+:: 4+1: D+E2 :+:: E+F: #+:#
#
"
AQ-CB R "=
F
$ E@+ AE+F+"EB :"+: "2+44 "4+D2 1+#" 2+"1 #+4= F+E" F+==
#
"
AQ-CB R "=
F
$ elasti&it' :"+: "2+EF "4+#E "=+=F 2+E= #+:F F+#4 F+"F
Fiber $o%&me fr"cion
1.1 1.* 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.5
#
4
AQ-CB R "=
F
$ E@+ AE+F+"FB :"+: :E+= :4+4 D2+4 DD+2 41+" 4:+: "1+F4
#
4
AQ-CB R "=
F
$ elasti&it' :"+: :D+1 :=+D DE+2 D"+" 4F+: 4"+2 "#+D2
This model )i5es better a)reement /ith the e8a&t 5al6e (or this &ase Aand others as /ellB
and is the re&ommended model (or E
4
+ The semiempiri&al Halpin!Tsai e8pression$ E@+
AE+F+"1B$ /ith ( I 4 res6lts in
For G
"4
$ 6sin) E@+ AE+F+"DB$
This 5al6e &ompares poorl' /ith the e8a&t 5al6e o( E+F: .Pa obtained (rom the elasti&it'
sol6tion+ The &on&entri& &'linders appro8imate elasti&it' model$ E@+ AE+F+":B$ )i5es
This model )i5es )ood a)reement /ith that o( the e8a&t sol6tion$ and it is the
re&ommended model (or G
"4
+
For #
"
$ 6sin) E@+ AE+F+"EB$
This 5al6e &ompares (a5orabl' /ith the e8a&t res6lt o(
For #
4
$ 6sin) E@+ AE+F+"FB$
This 5al6e &ompares (a5orabl' /ith the e8a&t res6lt o( 4"+2 R "=
HF
-QC
NOTE: It is important to note that in the abo5e e8amples and all to (ollo/ /e ass6me that
the (iber and matri8 properties are @6anti(ied e8a&tl' b' 6sin) three si)ni(i&ant (i)6res$ as
in Table E+F+"+ All s6bse@6ent n6meri&al &al&6lations are &arried o6t b' startin) /ith
these properties$ and these s6bse@6ent n6meri&al &al&6lations /ill be reported ro6nded to
three si)ni(i&ant (i)6res+ Also note that in all n6meri&al e8amples to (ollo/$ a )lass!
rein(or&ed &omposite /ith F= per&ent (iber 5ol6me (ra&tion is 6sed+ ,e&a6se o( their
simpli&it' and a&&6ra&'$ the en)ineerin) properties are &omp6ted b' emplo'in) E@s+
AE+F+1B$ AE+F+"=B$ AE+F+"4B$ AE+F+":B$ AE+F+"EB$ and AE+F+"FB+
Additional e8ample res6lts ma' be &onstr6&ted b' e8aminin) di((erent (iber 5ol6me
(ra&tion or &han)in) the (iber t'pe$ and &omparin) the res6lts /ith the 5al6es )i5en in
Table E+F+4 or Table E+F+D$ as appropriate (or the (iber t'pe &hosen+ For the )raphite
(ibers$ &are m6st be taen to 6se the appropriate e8tensional mod6li and e8pansion
&oe((i&ients$ as these (ibers are orthotropi&+
Altho6)h it has not been ne&essar' to this point to des&ribe the thi&ness o( a la'er$ in the
s6bse@6ent n6meri&al e8amples a la'er thi&ness h o( =+==="4E m$ or =+"4E mm$ /ill be
6sed+
5.6.2. 7ESCRI,IN. A LAMINATE
*ith details o( the properties o( a la'er &onsidered$ /e t6rn o6r attention to des&ribin)
the beha5ior o( a n6mber o( la'ers$ bonded to)ether$ one ne8t to the other$ to (orm a
laminate+ An important part o( the des&ription o( a laminate is the spe&i(i&ation o( its
s"c6in( se.&ence. The sta&in) se@6en&e is a list that de(ines the thro6)h!thi&ness
lo&ations and (iber orientations o( all the la'ers in a laminate+ Re(errin) to Fi)+ E+F+F$
/hi&h sho/s the e8ploded 5ie/ o( a laminate and the %"min"e coordin"e s+sem! the
*y+ &oordinate s'stem$ the sta&in) se@6en&e lists the la'er (iber orientations relati5e to
the K* a8is o( the laminate &oordinate s'stem$ startin) /ith the la'er at the ne)ati5emost
+ position+ The sta&in) se@6en&e MTD=-=N
!
des&ribes the si8!la'er laminate sho/n in Fi)+
E+F+F /hi&h has KD=Q la'ers on the o6tside$ HD=Q la'ers inside o( those$ and t/o =Q la'ers
in the &enter+ The sta&in) se@6en&e &o6ld ha5e been /ritten as MKD=HD=-=-=-HD=-KD=N
%
$
/here % si)ni(ies that the total laminate has been des&ribed$ b6t the shorthand notation
/ith the s6bs&ript ! is more &on5enient and implies that the (iber orientation arran)ement
is s'mmetri& /ith respe&t to the *y plane$ i+e+$ the + I = lo&ation+ The (ormal de(inition o(
a s'mmetri& laminate /ill be )i5en shortl'+ Other short!hand notation &an be 6sed$ s6&h
MATD=-=B
D
-A1=-=B
4
N
!
as to des&ribe a 4F!la'er s'mmetri& laminate /hi&h has t/o
s6bse@6en&es that repeat$ one D times$ the other t/i&e+ The notation MTD=N
4

!
is
interpreted to mean MATD=B
4
N
!
+ O( &o6rse it is ne&essar' to spe&i(' the material properties
and thi&ness o( ea&h la'er to &ompletel' des&ribe a laminate+
Fi)6re E+F+F+ E8ploded 5ie/ o( a MTD=-=N S laminate and laminate &oordinate s'stem+
5.6.3. STRESS!STRAIN ,EHA;IOR OF A LA0ER: PRINCIPAL MATERIAL
COOR7INATE S0STEM
*ithin the &onte8t o( the ma&rome&hani&al theor' presented here to st6d' laminate
de(ormations and stresses$ re(erred to as c%"ssic"% %"min"ion 'eor+! or CLT! a la'er is
ass6med to be in a state o( plane stress+ S6&h a &ondition /as pre5io6sl' des&ribed+
A&&ordin)l'$ (rom E@+ AE+F+#B$ the stress!strain beha5ior o( a la'er /ritten in terms o( the
stresses and strains in the prin&ipal material$ or "!4!D$ &oordinate s'stem$ in&l6din) the
e((e&ts o( thermal e8pansion$ &an be /ritten as
AE+F+4=B
/here
AE+F+4"B
The , matri8 is the red&ced siffness m"ri#. The term reduced is 6sed to distin)6ish
the D!b'!D sti((ness matri8 o( E@+ AE+F+4=B (rom the (6ll F!b'!F sti((ness matri8 o( E@+
AE+F+:B that m6st be 6sed /hen all si8 &omponents o( stress and strain are &onsidered+ It is
important to re&o)ni?e that /hile the n6meri&al 5al6es in the red6&ed &omplian&e matri8
are identi&al to those in the (6ll F!b'!F &omplian&e matri8$ the n6meri&al 5al6es in the
red6&ed sti((ness matri8 are di((erent (rom those in the (6ll F!b'!F sti((ness matri8+
A)ain$ the (orm o( the red6&ed sti((ness matri8 in E@+ AE+F+4=B is said to represent
orthotropi& material beha5ior+ For simpli&it'$ moist6re &ontent e((e&ts ha5e not been
in&l6ded in E@+ AE+F+4=B+ The' &an be in&l6ded in the same manner as thermal e8pansion
e((e&ts+
ESAMPLE 4+ Comp6te the n6meri&al 5al6es o( the red6&ed sti((ness matri8 (or a )lass!
(iber!rein(or&ed &omposite+
APPROACH+ S6bstit6te the en)ineerin) properties dire&tl' into E@+ AE+F+4"B+
MAs noted$ all e8amples are based on 6sin) a F= per&ent 5ol6me (ra&tion o( )lass (ibers
and$ be&a6se o( their simpli&it' and a&&6ra&'$ emplo'in) E@s+ AE+F+1B$ AE+F+"=B$ AE+F+"4B$
AE+F+":B$ AE+F+"EB$ and AE+F+"FB to &al&6late the material properties$ as presented in Table
E+F+D+N
SOL9TION
The re&ipro&it' relation o( E@+ AE+F+EB /as 6sed to &omp6te v
4"
+ *e emphasi?e that in
nearl' all &ases v
"4
U v
4"
+
5.6.4. STRESS!STRAIN ,EHA;IOR OF A LA0ER: LAMINATE COOR7INATE
S0STEM
Sin&e there &an be man' (iber orientations /ithin a laminate$ /ith ea&h orientation ha5in)
its o/n prin&ipal material &oordinate s'stem$ it is more &on5enient to des&ribe laminate
beha5ior in terms o( one &oordinate s'stem$ namel'$ the laminate$ or *y+$ &oordinate
s'stem sho/n in Fi)+ E+F+F+ The stresses and strains in the laminate &oordinate s'stem$
in&l6din) thermal strains$ &an be e8pressed in terms o( those in the prin&ipal material
&oordinate s'stem b' r"nsform"ion re%"ions! namel'$
AE+F+44B
/here
AE+F+4DB
and /here m I &os - and n I sin -$ /ith - bein) the an)le meas6red (rom the K* a8is to
the K" a8is o( the la'er+ In E@+ AE+F+4DB$ the D!b'!D matri8$ denoted as %
"
$ is re(erred to as
the in$erse r"nsform"ion m"ri#. The /ord inverse is 6sed be&a6se the stresses and
strains o( importan&e /ithin a laminate are those parallel and perpendi&6lar to the (ibers$
namel'$ those in the prin&ipal material &oordinate s'stem+ The prin&ipal material
&oordinate s'stem stresses and strains are 6sed to determine at /hat load le5el a la'er
/ill (ail+ The relationship in E@+ AE+F+44B trans(orms those important stresses and strains
into stresses and strains in the *y+ &oordinate s'stem+ The latter @6antities are neither
parallel nor perpendi&6lar to the (ibers$ so it is more di((i&6lt to e5al6ate /hether the
stresses and strains are hi)h eno6)h to &a6se$ e+)+$ (ail6re o( a la'er d6e to e8&ess stress in
the (iber dire&tion+ Note /ell in the abo5e relations to (a&tor o( "-4 asso&iated /ith the
sheer strain+
The abo5e relations &an be in5erted and re/ritten as
AE+F+4:B
/here
AE+F+4EB
The abo5e D!b'!D matri8$ denoted as %$ is re(erred to as the r"nsform"ion m"ri#.
As a res6lt o( the (ibers bein) at an an)le relati5e to the laminate &oordinate s'stem$
stresses and strains meas6red in the laminate &oordinate s'stem are @6ite di((erent (rom
those meas6red in the prin&ipal material &oordinate s'stem+ E8ample D demonstrates the
interestin) strain response o( a sin)le la'er &a6sed b' a temperat6re &han)e$ b6t meas6red
in the laminate &oordinate s'stem+
ESAMPLE D+ The temperat6re o( an element &6t (rom a sin)le la'er o( )lass epo8' /ith
its (ibers at KD=Q is de&reased b' H"==QC+ *hat shear strain is meas6red in the laminate
&oordinate s'stem d6e to this temperat6re de&reaseV Note that this temperat6re de&rease
is similar in ma)nit6de to the de&rease (rom the &6rin) temperat6re o( the material to
room temperat6re+
APPROACH+ The thermall' ind6&ed strains in the laminate &oordinate s'stem &an be
&omp6ted (rom the no/n 5al6es o( the thermall' ind6&ed strains in the prin&ipal
material &oordinate s'stem (rom Table E+F+D and the trans(ormation relations o( E@s+
AE+F+44B and AE+F+4DB+
SOL9TION+ Sin&e - ID=Q$
or
7ISC9SSION+ *hat is important to note is that altho6)h there is no shear strain in the
prin&ipal material &oordinate s'stem$ i+e+$ #
"4
J% I =$ a shear strain as /ell as &ontra&tion
strains in the * and y dire&tions are meas6red in the laminate &oordinate s'stem+ Sin&e
pol'mer matri8 &omposites are &6red at an ele5ated temperat6re and then &ooled$ /hen a
la'er is part o( a laminate$ the thermall' ind6&ed strains in a la'er &a6sed b' &oolin) the
laminate (rom its &6rin) temperat6re &an prod6&e resid6al thermal stresses+ I( the element
is s@6are and =+" m R =+" m in dimensions be(ore the temperat6re &han)e$ a(ter &oolin)
the len)th in the * and y dire&tions /o6ld be less+ In addition$ the ori)inal ri)ht an)les
/o6ld be &han)ed b' "$EE" mi&roradians$ denoted as "$EE" .rad$ or =+=222 de)$ as
sho/n in e8a))erated (ashion in Fi)+ E+F+#$ /ith the ri)ht an)les o( t/o opposite &orners
in&reasin) and the ri)ht an)les o( the other t/o opposite &orners de&reasin)+ This ma' not
seem lie m6&h o( an an)le &han)e$ b6t it &an &a6se si)ni(i&ant stresses i( resisted+ The
strains in the * and y dire&tions are W"$=11 and W"$11: mi&rostrain$ denoted$ respe&ti5el'$
as W"$=11 and W"$11: .+ The de(ormed element /o6ld ha5e dimensions =+=111 and
=+=112 m in the * and y dire&tions$ respe&ti5el'+
Fi)6re E+F+#+ Coolin) de(ormations o( an element /ith (ibers as oriented at K D=Q+
As it is &on5enient to trans(orm the stresses and strains (rom ea&h o( the prin&ipal
material &oordinate s'stems o( the 5ario6s la'ers to the sin)le laminate &oordinate
s'stem$ it is &on5enient to trans(orm the stress!strain relation o( ea&h la'er to the laminate
&oordinate s'stem+ This &an be a&&omplished b' startin) /ith the stress!strain relation o(
E@+ AE+F+4=B and appl'in) the trans(ormation relations o( E@+ AE+F+44B+ As a res6lt$ the
stress!strain relation e8pressed in the laminate &oordinate s'stem is /ritten as
AE+F+4FB
/here
AE+F+4#B
As mentioned$ m I &os - and n I sin -$ so the terms are (6n&tions o( -+ The D!b'!D
matri8 is re(erred to as the r"nsformed red&ced siffness m"ri#. As &an be obser5ed$
be&a6se o( (iber orientation$ &ompared to &on5entional isotropi& materials or the
orthotropi& beha5ior o( E@+ AE+F+4=B$ 6n6s6al relations bet/een stresses and strains o&&6r+
Spe&i(i&all'$ the shear stress is related to the t/o normal strains$ and the t/o normal
stresses are related to the shear strain+ There are no ?eros in the matri8 as there are /ith
the , matri8 in E@+ AE+F+4=B+ The beha5ior represented b' E@+ AE+F+4#B is re(erred to as
"nisoropic be'"$ior. A /ord o( &a6tion: Note &are(6ll' the (a&tors o( "-4 and 4 that
o&&6r in some relations b6t not in others+ This is d6e to the 6se o( en)ineerin) shear
strains "4 and
8'
$ as opposed to tensor shear strains$ /hi&h are )i5en b' "-4
"4
and "-4
8'
$
ESAMPLE :+ A normal stress o( E= MPa is applied in the * dire&tion to a s@6are element
o( &omposite material /ith its (ibers at D=Q relati5e to the K * a8is /hile the temperat6re
is ept &onstant$ i+e+$ J% I = No other stresses are present+ *hat strains res6lt (rom this
applied stressV
APPROACH AN7 SOL9TION+ S6bstit6tin) dire&tl' into the stress!strain relation
e8pressed in the laminate &oordinate s'stem$ E@+ AE+F+4FB$ )i5es
/here the are &omp6ted b' 6sin) E@+ AE+F+4#B /ith - I D=Q namel'$
res6ltin) in
/hi&h leads to
As sho/n in Fi)+ E+F+2$ the element o( material stret&hes in the * dire&tion and &ontra&ts
in the y dire&tion$ as an element o( &on5entional material s6&h as al6min6m or steel
/o6ld$ the &ontra&tion bein) d6e to Poisson e((e&ts+ 9nlie an element o( &on5entional
material$ ho/e5er$ the element e8perien&es a shear strain+ This res6lts in &orner an)les
that are not ri)ht an)les /hen the s@6are element de(orms+
Fi)6re E+F+2+ 7e(ormations d6e to appli&ation o( E=!MPa normal stress in 8 dire&tion+
To be noted is the (a&t that there is distin&t di((eren&e bet/een statin) that the element o(
material is stressed in the * dire&tion and statin) that the element o( material is strained in
the * dire&tion+ I( the element is strained in the * dire&tion b'$ e+)+$ "$=== .$ /ith the
element e8perien&in) no other strains$ then the stresses re@6ired are )i5en b' a)ain 6sin)
E@+ AE+F+4FB$ namel'$
or
It &an be &on&l6ded that to prod6&e this rather simple state o( de(ormation$ a tensile stress
in the y dire&tion and a positi5e shear stress$ in addition to a tensile stress in the *
dire&tion$ are re@6ired+ These stresses are ill6strated in Fi)+ E+F+1+ For a &on5entional
material$ altho6)h a tensile stress in the y dire&tion /o6ld be re@6ired$ the shear stress
/o6ld not be re@6ired be&a6se there is no tenden&' (or the &orner ri)ht an)le to &han)e+
I( the (iber an)le /ere HD=Q$ the same tensile stresses in the * and y dire&tions /o6ld be
re@6ired$ b6t the shear stress re@6ired /o6ld be W"=+=E MPa$ a ne)ati5e shear stress+
Fi)6re E+F+1+ Stresses re@6ired to prod6&e strain o( "$=== XY in the 8 dire&tion+
5.6.5. MACROMECHANICS OF A LAMINATE
*hen la'ers are &ombined to (orm a laminate$ the 6n6s6al beha5ior in the 5ario6s la'ers
&an intera&t to prod6&e res6lts that are e5en more 6n6s6al than the beha5ior o( a sin)le
la'er+ To st6d' the beha5ior o( a laminate$ it is ass6med that /ithin a laminate the la'ers
are per(e&tl' bonded to)ether and do not slip relati5e to one another+ Onl' small
de(ormations are &onsidered$ m6&h the same as in st6d'in) the me&hani&s o(
&on5entional materials+ Lie a la'er$ a laminate o&&6pies a 5ol6me in three!dimensional
spa&e$ so the anal'sis and the desi)n o( laminates are tr6l' a three!dimensional problem+
Ho/e5er$ the plane stress ass6mption eliminates some o( the three!dimensionalit' o( the
problem$ as does one other e' ass6mption$ namel'$ the 7irc''off '+po'esis. As a
dire&t res6lt o( the >ir&hho(( h'pothesis$ the strains
*
$
y
$ and
*y
5ar' linearl' thro6)h
the thi&ness o( the laminate+ I( the no!slip &ondition /ere not tr6e$ the >ir&hho((
h'pothesis &ertainl' /o6ld not be 5alid+ The >ir&hho(( h'pothesis ass6mes that /hen the
laminate de(le&ts o6t o( plane in the + dire&tion$ all points thro6)h the thi&ness o( the
laminate at a )i5en * and y lo&ation de(le&t o6t o( plane the same amo6nt+ That is$ the o6t!
o(!plane displa&ement o( a point /ithin a laminate is independent o( the + lo&ation o( the
point+ The ass6med de(ormation &hara&teristi&s o( a laminate are (6rther ill6strated in Fi)+
E+F+"=$ /here the de(ormation is 5ie/ed in the *+ plane+ The (i)6re sho/s that strai)ht
line //0 thro6)h the thi&ness o( the laminate be(ore de(ormation remains strai)ht a(ter
de(ormation$ a res6lt that leads to a linear 5ariation o( strains thro6)h the thi&ness o( the
laminate+ Spe&i(i&all'$ the displa&ements in the *$ y$ and + dire&tions o( a )eneri& point 1
at lo&ation *$ y$ + /ithin the laminate are ass6med to ha5e the (ollo/in) (orms:
AE+F+42B
/here the s6pers&ript o denotes the displa&ements o( &orrespondin) point 12 on the
(eomeric midp%"ne o( the laminate$ /hi&h is also re(erred to as the reference s&rf"ce.
Onl' small displa&ements and rotations are &onsidered in the de5elopment o( E@+
AE+F+42B+ As /ill be seen$ i( the de(ormation o( the re(eren&e s6r(a&e is no/n$ i+e+$ i( the
strains and &6r5at6res o( the re(eren&e s6r(a&e are no/n$ then the strains$ and
s6bse@6entl' the stresses$ in e5er' la'er &an be determined+ The re(eren&e s6r(a&e is
some/hat lie the ne6tral a8is in simple beam anal'sis$ e8&ept /ith &omposite materials
the stresses are not ne&essaril' ?ero at the re(eren&e s6r(a&e lo&ation+
Fi)6re E+F+"=+ Impli&ations o( >ir&hho(( h'pothesis (or laminate de(ormations+
To be noted in Fi)+ E+F+"= is the notation +
=
$ +
"
$ +
4
$ Z /hi&h des&ribes the + lo&ations o(
the inter(a&es bet/een la'ers$ or alternati5el'$ the + lo&ations o( the lo/er and 6pper
s6r(a&es o( the la'ers+ A&&ordin)l'$ +
=
I HH-4 $ /ith 3 bein) the total laminate thi&ness$
and the thi&ness o( the 4th la'er h
4
is )i5en b' [

H [
?H"
+
The strains at an' lo&ation /ithin the laminate &an be /ritten in terms o( the
displa&ements as
AE+F+41B
/here
AE+F+D=B
The @6antities $ and are re(erred to as the midp%"ne or reference s&rf"ce
sr"ins. The @6antities $ $ and are the midp%"ne or reference s&rf"ce
c&r$"&res and are the bendin) &6r5at6res o( the * and y dire&tions$ and the t/ist
&6r5at6re$ respe&ti5el'$ o( the re(eren&e s6r(a&e+ ,' no/in) the midplane strains and
&6r5at6res$ the state o( strain at an' + lo&ation /ithin an' la'er &an be &omp6ted tho6)h
the 6se o( E@+ AE+F+41B+ These strains$ in t6rn$ &an be trans(ormed to determine the strains
in the prin&ipal material &oordinate s'stem o( the la'er at this + lo&ation b' 6sin) the
se&ond e@6ation o( E@+ AE+F+4:B+ The stresses in the laminate &oordinate s'stem at this +
lo&ation &an then be &omp6ted 6sin) E@+ AE+F+4=B+ As &an be seen$ then$ no/in) the
midplane strains and &6r5at6res is e' to determinin) the stresses an'/here thro6)h the
thi&ness o( the laminate+ The plane stress ass6mption and the >ir&hho(( h'pothesis are
e's to the anal'sis simpli('in) to this de)ree+ *itho6t these ass6mptions$ the desi)n and
anal'sis o( &omposite laminates /o6ld be intra&table+
Sin&e the midplane strains and &6r5at6res are the e's to determinin) the stresses /ithin
a laminate$ it is important to be able to &omp6te these midplane @6antities in terms o( the
loads applied to a laminate+ In the appli&ation o( &omposite materials$ most o(ten loads$ in
the (orm o( press6res$ (or&es$ or bendin) moments$ are spe&i(ied rather than midplane
strains and &6r5at6res$ or rather than the stresses+ A relationship bet/een the spe&i(ied
loads and the midplane strains and &6r5at6res is there(ore ne&essar'+ So (ar all that has
been dis&6ssed are strains and stresses+ There(ore$ relationships bet/een loads and the
stresses or bet/een loads and the midplane strains and &6r5at6res need to be de5eloped to
be able to pro&eed /ith st6d'in) the beha5ior o( laminates in pra&ti&al appli&ations+ To
de5elop these relations$ the loads are de(ined in terms o( the stresses as (ollo/s:
AE+F+D"B
The 5s are the force resultants and the &s are the moment resultants+ The 6nits o( the
(or&e and moment res6ltants are (or&e per unit length and moment per unit length$
respe&ti5el'+ Colle&ti5el' the si8 @6antities are the stress resultants+ The introd6&tion o(
the stress res6ltants (6rther red6&es the three!dimensional nat6re o( the problem+ The per
unit length part o( the de(inition o( the stress res6ltants is 5er' important+ The res6ltant 5
8
is the (or&e in the * dire&tion per 6nit len)th o( the laminate in the y dire&tionC 5
y
is the
(or&e in the y dire&tion per 6nit len)th o( laminate in the * dire&tion+ Similar
interpretations are asso&iated /ith the moment res6ltants &
*
and &
y
. Sin&e it is based on
stress &omponent
*y
$ the (or&e res6ltant 5
*y
is the (or&e in the * dire&tion per 6nit len)th
o( laminate in the y dire&tion+ Ho/e5er$ it is also the (or&e in the y dire&tion per 6nit
len)th o( laminate in the * dire&tion$ dependin) on /hi&h ed)e o( the laminate is bein)
dis&6ssed+ A similar d6al de(inition is asso&iated /ith &
*y
+ It sho6ld be emphasi?ed that
it is impossible (rom e@6ilibri6m &onsiderations to ha5e 5
*y
and &
*y
a&tin) on one ed)e
o( an element o( material and not ha5e the same 5al6es o( 5
*y
and &
*y
a&tin) on the
ad<a&ent ed)e+ It is important to be a/are o( the positi5e sense o( the stress res6ltants$
/hi&h are ill6strated in Fi)+ E+F+""+
Fi)6re E+F+""+ Ill6stration o( positi5e sense o( (or&e and moment res6ltants+
I( the three &omponents o( stress (rom E@+ AE+F+4FB are s6bstit6ted into the inte)rands o(
the de(initions o( the si8 stress res6ltants$ the inte)ration /ith respe&t to + &an be &arried
o6t+ Considerin) 5
*
as an e8ample$ s6bstit6tion o( the (irst e@6ation o( the stress!strain
relation (rom E@s+ AE+F+4FB into the (irst e@6ation o( E@s+ AE+F+D"B res6lts in
AE+F+D4B
Re)ro6pin) )i5es
AE+F+DDB
The se&ond inte)ral is spe&ial+ It is de(ined as the effeci$e 'erm"% force res&%"n in
the * dire&tion$ i+e+$
AE+F+D:B
/here the s6pers&ript % identi(ies that the res6ltant is d6e to thermal e((e&ts+ I( the
temperat6re &han)e is not a (6n&tion o( +$ i+e+$ i( the temperat6re &han)e is 6ni(orm
thro6)h the thi&ness o( the laminate$ then J% &an be remo5ed (rom the inte)ral to 'ield
AE+F+DEB
The inte)ral /ithin the bra&ets is &alled the unit effective thermal force resultant+ It is
onl' a (6n&tion o( material properties and the laminate )eometr' and is de(ined as
AE+F+DFB
Note that in the de(inition o( the 6nit e((e&ti5e thermal (or&e res6ltant$ the &oe((i&ients o(
thermal e8pansion &ombine /ith the red6&ed sti((nesses+ This indi&ates that the
ma)nit6de o( the thermal e((e&ts depends not onl' on the thermal e8pansion or
&ontra&tion o( the indi5id6al la'ers d6e to temperat6re &han)es$ b6t also on ho/ resistant
the la'ers are to de(ormation$ i+e+$ ho/ sti(( the' are+ ,' 6sin) the nomen&lat6re o( E@+
AE+F+DFB$ E@+ AE+F+DDB &an be /ritten as
AE+F+D#B
/here the re(eren&e s6r(a&e strains and &6r5at6res ha5e been remo5ed (rom the inte)ral
be&a6se the' are not (6n&tions o( + and are there(ore not in5ol5ed in the inte)ration /ith
respe&t to ++ This is a 5er' important point$ and it is a dire&t res6lt o( the >ir&hho((
h'pothesis+ As a (inal step$ E@+ AE+F+D#B is /ritten as
AE+F+D2B
The /s and 6s are de(ined as the inte)rals o( the red6&ed sti((nesses thro6)h the thi&ness
o( the laminate$ and hen&e the' represent sme"red! ine(r"ed! or o$er"%% siffnesses o(
the laminate+ The red6&ed sti((nesses o( e5er' la'er &ontrib6te to the smeared sti((nesses
o( the laminate+ In the same spirit$ the e((e&ti5e thermal (or&e res6ltant represents
smeared$ inte)rated$ or o5erall e((e&ts+ Note that E@+ AE+F+D2B relates the three re(eren&e
s6r(a&e strains and three re(eren&e s6r(a&e &6r5at6res to the (or&e res6ltant and to thermal
e((e&ts+ This relationship and the other (i5e to (ollo/ are @6ite important and absol6tel'
ne&essar' i( the stresses /ithin the 5ario6s la'ers are to be &omp6ted (rom the loads+
,e(ore pro&eedin)$ it sho6ld be noted$ as /as stated at the onset$
that smearin) o( properties is 6sed (or a se&ond time /ith the de(inition o( the /s$ 6s$ and
the e((e&ti5e thermal (or&e res6ltant+ The smearin) o( properties$ be it at the
mi&rome&hani&s le5el or at the ma&rome&hani&s$ or laminate$ le5el$ is essential i(
pro)ress is to be made in modelin) and predi&tin) beha5ior+
I( the other (i5e inte)rals in E@+ AE+F+D"B are treated in a similar (ashion and the res6lts
&ombined /ith E@+ AE+F+D2B$ the (ollo/in) relationship res6lts:
AE+F+D1B
The F!b'!F matri8 is re(erred to as the %"min"e siffness m"ri# or$ more simpl'$ the
/67 matri*+ This matri8 relates the stress res6ltants$ or loads$ to the de(ormations$ or
strains and &6r5at6res$ o( the re(eren&e s6r(a&e+ Sin&e the red6&ed sti((nesses do not 5ar'
thro6)h the thi&ness o( an' parti&6lar la'er$ the inte)rals that de(ine the elements o( the
/67 matri8 red6&e to s6mmations$ namel'$
AE+F+:=B
/here the +
4
are de(ined in Fi)+ E+F+"= and 5 is the n6mber o( la'ers in the laminate+
Sin&e the &oe((i&ients o( thermal e8pansion also do not 5ar' thro6)h the thi&ness o( an'
parti&6lar la'er$ the 6nit e((e&ti5e thermal stress res6ltants be&ome s6mmations )i5en b'
AE+F+:"B
An inspe&tion o( the 5ario6s elements o( the /67 matri8 re5eals that not onl' do their
de(initions depend on the red6&ed sti((nesses o( e5er' la'er$ b6t also their de(initions
in&l6de the lo&ation /ithin the laminate o( e5er' la'er b' 5irt6e o( +
4
and +
4

!"
+ The
elements o( the /67 matri8 are th6s /ei)hted and smeared sti((ness @6antities$ the
/ei)htin) (a&tor bein) the thi&ness and lo&ation o( the 5ario6s la'ers /ithin the
laminate+ Stri&tl' speain)$ the 5al6es o( the /s in5ol5e onl' the la'er thi&nesses$ i+e+$ +
4
H +
4
H
"
I h
4
$ the thi&ness o( the 4th la'er$ /hile the 5al6es o( the 6s and 7s in5ol5e
la'er thi&nesses and lo&ations+ Ph'si&all'$ the /s are the in!plane sti((nesses o( the
laminate$ the 7s are the bendin) sti((nesses$ and the 6s are 6ni@6e to &omposite materials
and are re(erred to as the 8ending9stretching stiffnesses+ This nomen&lat6re re(ers to the
(a&t that thro6)h these terms$ bendin) e((e&ts$ namel'$ the &6r5at6res$ $ $ and are
&o6pled to in!plane (or&e res6ltants 5
*
$ 5
y
$ and 5
*y
$ and &on5ersel'$ the in!plane strains
$ and are &o6pled to the bendin) moment res6ltants &
*
$ &
y
$ and &
*y
+ The 6nit
e((e&ti5e thermal stress res6ltants are also (6n&tions o( sti((nesses and &oe((i&ients o(
thermal e8pansion /ei)hted b' )eometr'+ *ith the elements o( the /67 matri8 and the
6nit e((e&ti5e thermal stress res6ltants dependin) on la'er thi&ness and lo&ation$ a la'er
&an ha5e )reater or less in(l6en&e on the o5erall beha5ior o( a laminate$ dependin) on its
lo&ation /ithin the sta&in) se@6en&e and its thi&ness+ It is important to reali?e that on&e
the lo&ation$ material properties$ and (iber orientation o( ea&h la'er are no/n$ the s6ms
de(inin) the /67 matri8 and the 6nit e((e&ti5e thermal stress res6ltants &an be &omp6ted
and n6meri&al 5al6es obtained+
5.6.5.*. Spe&ial Cases o( Laminate Sta&in) Se@6en&es
For so!&alled s+mmeric %"min"es$ all elements o( the 6 matri8 are =$ as are the three
6nit e((e&ti5e thermal moment res6ltants i( the temperat6re &han)e J% is 6ni(orm thro6)h
the thi&ness o( the laminate+ A s'mmetri& laminate is de(ined as (ollo/s: I($ (or e5er'
la'er at a spe&i(i& lo&ation and /ith a spe&i(i& thi&ness$ material properties$ and (iber
orientation lo&ated on one side o( the )eometri& midplane$ there is a la'er /ith identi&al
thi&ness$ material properties$ and (iber orientation at the mirror!ima)e lo&ation on the
other side o( the )eometri& midplane$ then the laminate is said to be s'mmetri&+ For
b"%"nced %"min"es$ /
"F
$ /
4F
$ and are ?ero+ A balan&ed laminate is de(ined as
(ollo/s: I($ (or e5er' la'er /ith a spe&i(i& thi&ness$ material properties$ and (iber
orientation$ there is a la'er somewhere /ithin the laminate /ith the same spe&i(i&
thi&ness and material properties$ b6t /ith the opposite (iber orientation$ then the
laminate is said to be balan&ed+ S'mmetri& and balan&ed laminates are 5er' &ommon$ and
the relation o( E@+ AE+F+D1B simpli(ies &onsiderabl' to
AE+F+:4B
It is important to note that 7
"F
and 7
4F
are not ?ero+ It is also important to remember that
i( the temperat6re is not 6ni(orm thro6)h the thi&ness o( the laminate$ e5en tho6)h the
laminate is s'mmetri&$ E@+ AE+F+:4B does not appl'+ ,e&a6se o( the simpli(i&ations$ E@+
AE+F+:4B &an be /ritten as t/o separate e@6ations$ namel'$
AE+F+:DB
AE+F+::B
/here it is seen that (or s'mmetri& laminates$ bendin) e((e&ts A&
*
$ &
y
$ &
*y
and $ $
B and in!plane e((e&ts A5
*
$ 5
y
$ 5
*y
and $ $ B de&o6ple+ A&t6all'$ E@+ AE+F+:DB
&an be (6rther simpli(ied to t/o other e@6ations as
AE+F+:EB
AE+F+:FB
Cross-p%+ %"min"es are laminates &onstr6&ted o( la'ers /ith (iber orientations o( onl'
1=Q+ For s6&h laminates$ be&a6se b' E@+ AE+F+4#B are ?ero (or e5er' la'er$ all "F
and 4F terms and in E@+ AE+F+D1B are ?ero+ For a s'mmetri& &ross!pl' laminate$
the relations o( E@+ AE+F+D1B simpli(' e5en more to )i5e /hat &an be /ritten as (o6r
separate e@6ations:
AE+F+:#B
AE+F+:2B
AE+F+:1B
AE+F+E=B
The e8isten&e o( the (o6r separate relations si)ni(ies a hi)h de)ree o( 6n&o6plin) o(
5ario6s stress res6ltants and re(eren&e s6r(a&e de(ormations+ A)ain as a reminder$ i( the
temperat6re is not 6ni(orm thro6)h the thi&ness o( the laminate$ then E@s+ AE+F+:#B to
AE+F+E=B do not appl'+ I( the la'ers are all isotropi&$ or (or a sin)le isotropi& la'er$ the
(orm o( E@+ AE+F+D1B red6&es to the (orm o( E@s+ AE+F+:#B to AE+F+E=B+
To (ollo/ are n6meri&al e8amples o( the /$ 6$ and 7 matri&es (or a n6mber o( &ommon
laminates+ The n6meri&al e8amples are based 6pon the properties (or a )lass!(iber!
rein(or&ed pol'mer ha5in) a (iber 5ol6me (ra&tion o( F= per&ent$ as )i5en in E8ample 4+
ESAMPLE E MT:E-=1=N
!
+ The s6bs&ript ! si)ni(ies that the laminate is s'mmetri&$ and
be&a6se there is a H:EQ la'er (or ea&h :EQK la'er$ the laminate is balan&ed+ Neither the =
nor la'ers &ontrib6te to an' o( the "F terms or the 6nit e((e&ti5e thermal stress res6ltants+
This ei)ht!la'er laminate is &alled a :uasi9isotropic laminate be&a6se the in!plane
e8tensional sti((nesses /
""
and /
44
are e@6al$ b6t the in!plane shear sti((ness /
FF
is not
related to /
""
AI/
44
B$ as it /o6ld be (or a tr6l' isotropi& material+ In addition$ the
bendin) sti((ness 7
""
and 7
44
are not e@6alC nor are 7
"F
and 7
4F
?ero$ as the' /o6ld be
(or a tr6l' isotropi& material$ b6t the' are e@6al+ Note also that are e@6al+ Herein$
as stated be(ore$ the thi&ness o( a la'er is taen to be =+==="4E m A=+"4E mmB+
ESAMPLE F MTF=-=N
!
This si8!la'er laminate is also @6asi!isotropi&+ The bendin) sti((nesses 7
"F
and 7
4F
are
not ?ero+
ESAMPLE # MTD=-=N
!
It is interestin) to note the e@6alit' o( some o( the terms in this laminate and the MTF=-=N
!
laminate abo5e+
ESAMPLE 2 MTD=N
4

!
+ This ei)ht!la'er laminate is a s'mmetri& and balan&ed angle9ply
laminate+
It is interestin) to &ompare the properties o( this laminate /ith the MTD=-=N
!
abo5e$ /hi&h
di((ers in thi&ness and the presen&e o( =Q la'ers+
ESAMPLE 1 MTF=-=-1=N
!
ESAMPLE "= M=-1=N
4

!
+ This is an ei)ht!la'er s'mmetri& &ross!pl' laminate+
This laminate &o6ld be &onsidered @6asi!isotropi& also+ It is interestin) to note the
di((eren&e in 7
""
and 7
44
+ The o6ter =Q la'ers pro5ide most o( the &ontrib6tion to 7
""
$
/hile the 1=Q la'ers pro5ide most o( the &ontrib6tion to 7
44
+ Sin&e the 1=Q la'ers are
&loser to the re(eren&e s6r(a&e than the =Q la'ers$ the bendin) sti((ness in the y dire&tion$
7
44
$ is less than the bendin) sti((ness in the * dire&tion$ 7
""
+ On the other hand$ the (o6r
=Q la'ers and the (o6r 1=Q la'ers pro5ide the same resistan&e to e8tension in the * and y
dire&tions$ respe&ti5el'$ so /
44
I /
""
+
ESAMPLE "" M=
:
-1=
:
N
%
+ This an ei)ht!la'er antisymmetric &ross!pl' laminate+
The onl' terms in the 6 matri8 are 6
""
$ /hi&h e@6als H6
44
$ b6t this sin)le &o6plin) term
&an &a6se interestin) e((e&ts+ There are also thermall' ind6&ed moments$ /hi&h &a6se this
laminate to &6rl o6t o( plane /hen &ooled (rom its ele5ated &6rin) temperat6re+ The t/o
6nit e@6i5alent thermal moment res6ltants are e@6al in ma)nit6de and opposite in si)n+
Note that the / matri8 is the same as (or the pre5io6s &ross!pl' laminate$ E8ample "=+
5.6.6. IN;ERSE RELATIONS
.enerall' the (or&e and moment res6ltants and temperat6re &han)e are no/n (or an
element o( laminate$ and it is o( interest to &omp6te the strains and stresses in indi5id6al
la'ers$ or thro6)ho6t the entire thi&ness o( the laminate i( a &omplete stress anal'sis is
desired+ It is &on5enient to in5ert the relations pre5io6sl' dis&6ssed so the re(eren&e
s6r(a&e strains and &6r5at6res &an be &omp6ted more easil'+ For a )eneral laminate$ (rom
E@+ AE+F+D1B$ the in5erse relation is
AE+F+E"B
/here
AE+F+E4B
is the %"min"e comp%i"nce m"ri# or A89 in$erse m"ri#.
For a s'mmetri& balan&ed laminate$ the in5erses o( E@s+ AE+F+::B to AE+F+:FB are
AE+F+EDB
AE+F+E:B
AE+F+EEB
/here
AE+F+EFB
The in5erse matri&es$ namel' the &omplian&e matri&es$ are a&t6all' more 6se(6l than the
sti((ness matri&es (or &omp6tin) the re(eren&e s6r(a&e strains and &6r5at6res (rom the
(or&e and moment res6ltants+ For a s'mmetri& &ross!pl' laminate$ the in5erse relations
are determined (rom E@s+ AE+F+:#B to AE+F+E=B as
AE+F+E#B
AE+F+E2B
AE+F+E1B
AE+F+F=B
/here the &omplian&e matri&es are )i5en b'
AE+F+F"B
The n6meri&al 5al6es o( the &omplian&e matri&es (or the laminates dis&6ssed in E8amples
E to "" abo5e are as (ollo/s:
ESAMPLE "4 MT:E-=-1=N
!
/here$ (or e8ample$
ESAMPLE "D MTF=-=N
!
ESAMPLE ": MTD=-=N
!
ESAMPLE "E MTD=N
4

!
ESAMPLE "F MTF=-=-1=N
!
ESAMPLE "# M=-1=N
4

!
ESAMPLE "2 M=
:
-1=
:
N
%
It is interestin) to note that /hile a
"F
and a
4F
are al/a's ne)ati5e$ the si)n and e8isten&e
o( d
"F
and d
4F
5ar' /ith the laminate+ This has impli&ations re)ardin) the dire&tions o(
the &6r5at6res prod6&ed b' applied moments$ parti&6larl' the t/ist @6antities+
5.6.5. LAMINATE STRESS ANAL0SIS
*ith /hat has been presented$ it is no/ possible to &omp6te the stresses in an element o(
a laminate that is loaded b' no/n applied (or&e and moment res6ltants and that is
s6b<e&ted to a temperat6re &han)e+ The material properties$ (iber orientation$ and +
&oordinates o( ea&h la'er lead to n6meri&al 5al6es (or the elements o( the /$ 6$ and 7
matri&es and 6nit e((e&ti5e thermal stress res6ltants+ .i5en the ma)nit6de and dire&tion o(
the applied loads and the dimensions o( the element$ the (or&e and moment res6ltants &an
be determined+ The strains and &6r5at6res o( the re(eren&e s6r(a&e &an be &omp6ted b'
6sin) the 5ario6s in5erse relations o( the pre5io6s se&tion$ dependin) on the parti&6lar
laminate+ The strains at e5er' + lo&ation thro6)h the thi&ness o( the laminate &an be
determined (rom E@+ AE+F+41B+ These strains$ in t6rn$ &an be trans(ormed b' 6sin) E@+
AE+F+4:B to determine the strains in the prin&ipal material &oordinate s'stem at e5er' +
lo&ation+ These strains &an then be 6sed in E@+ AE+F+4=B to &omp6te the stresses in the
prin&ipal material &oordinate s'stem at e5er' + lo&ation+ The approa&h is 5er' s'stemati&$
the pro&ed6res to emplo' at ea&h step are strai)ht(or/ard and /ell de(ined$ and
n6meri&al 5al6es &an be determined+ It )oes /itho6t sa'in) that these steps are best
e8e&6ted b' pro)rammin) a &al&6lator or &omp6ter to deal /ith the man' al)ebrai&
relations+ E8e&6tin) the man' al)ebrai& steps b' hand is 5er' error!prone+ Ho/e5er$ an'
pro)ram sho6ld be thoro6)hl' &he&ed to be s6re it is &omp6tin) /hat is intended be(ore
the res6lts o( the pro)ram are 6sed (or anal'sis and desi)n+ On&e &he&ed (or a&&6ra&'$
the pro)ram &an be 5er' 6se(6l+
,elo/ are se5eral e8amples that demonstrate the 6se o( the steps des&ribed abo5e to
&omp6te the stresses /ithin a laminate+
ESAMPLE "1+ Consider a (lat si8!la'er MTD=-=N
!
laminate /ith in!plane dimensions =+DE
m b' =+4E m s6b<e&ted to a (or&e o( "E$=== N in the * dire&tion 6ni(orml' distrib6ted
alon) opposite ed)es$ as sho/n in Fi)+ E+F+"4+ The temperat6re &han)e (rom the &6re
&ondition is J% I H "==QC+ Comp6te the stresses in ea&h la'er+
Fi)6re E+F+"4+ Laminate loaded in 8 dire&tion+
APPROACH+ The relations bet/een stress res6ltants and de(ormations and the
de(ormations and stresses$ and the trans(ormation relations$ all o6tlined abo5e are applied
to the problem to determine the desired ans/ers+ Note that the laminate is s'mmetri& and
balan&ed$ so E@s+ AE+F+EDB to AE+F+EEB appl'$ and onl' a sin)le (or&e is applied+ This
sho6ld &onsiderabl' simpli(' the &al&6lations+
SOL9TION. E8&ept (or the e((e&ti5e thermal stress res6ltants$ 5
*
is the onl' stress
res6ltant$ and sin&e the (or&e is 6ni(orml' distrib6ted$ it is )i5en b'
The 6nit e((e&ti5e thermal stress res6ltants &onsist o( <6st t/o &omponents )i5en b'
E8ample #$ namel'$
Sin&e there are no moment res6ltants$ the re(eren&e s6r(a&e &6r5at6res are ?ero+ The t/o
re(eren&e s6r(a&e strains are )i5en b' dire&t appli&ation o( E@s+ AE+F+EDB and AE+F+E:B$
/ith n6meri&al 5al6es (rom E8ample ":$ to 'ield
or
The (irst term a(ter the (irst e@6als si)n is the strains d6e to the applied (or&e$ and the
se&ond term is the strains d6e to the de&rease in temperat6re+ 76e to the applied (or&e$ the
element o( laminate stret&hes in the dire&tion o( the applied (or&e$ &ontra&ts perpendi&6lar
to that dire&tion$ and e8perien&es no shear strain+ 76e to thermal e((e&ts$ the element o(
laminate &ontra&ts in both dire&tions$ b6t more in the y dire&tion+ The net e((e&t is
stret&hin) in the dire&tion o( the applied (or&e and &onsiderable &ontra&tion perpendi&6lar
to that dire&tion$ mostl' d6e to thermal e((e&ts+
Trans(ormin) the strains to the prin&ipal material &oordinate s'stem (or ea&h (iber
orientation (rom E@+ AE+F+4:B res6lts in
In the prin&ipal material &oordinate s'stem there are s6bstantial shear strains in the TD=Q
la'ers$ and the' are o( opposite si)n+ The e8tensional strains are identi&al+ O( &o6rse$ no
trans(ormation is ne&essar' (or the =Q la'ers+ S6bstit6tin) the strains (or ea&h la'er into
the stress!strain relation o( E@+ AE+F+4=B pro5ides the desired stresses:
As mi)ht be e8pe&ted$ the stress in the (iber dire&tion in the =Q la'ers is the hi)hest+ The
TD=Q la'ers e8perien&e a shear stress+ I( thermal e((e&ts /ere i)nored$ J% /o6ld be taen
to be ?ero$ res6ltin) in
It &an be seen that resid6al thermal e((e&ts in&rease some stress &omponents and de&rease
others+ E5en tho6)h some stress &omponents are small &ompared to others$ e+)+$
4
&ompared to
"
$ the material is m6&h /eaer perpendi&6lar to the (ibers than in the (iber
dire&tion+ The small stress ma' be approa&hin) le5els to &a6se (ail6re perpendi&6lar to
the (ibers+
Fi)6re E+F+"D sho/s the 5ariation thro6)h the thi&ness o( the three &omponents o( stress
in the prin&ipal material &oordinate s'stem+ The stresses are &onstant /ithin ea&h la'er$
b6t the o5erall distrib6tions thro6)h the thi&ness are dis&ontin6o6s$ a &hara&teristi&
/hi&h maes &omposite materials di((erent (rom &on5entional materials s6&h as
al6min6m or steel+ For al6min6m or steel$ (or e8ample$ the stress distrib6tions thro6)h
the thi&ness /o6ld be &ontin6o6s and there /o6ld be no shear stress+ Note that there is
no net shear strain (or the laminate$ altho6)h there are shear strains$ b6t o( opposite si)n$
(or the TD=2 la'ers+ This &hara&teristi& is d6e to the balan&ed nat6re o( the laminate+
Fi)6re E+F+"D+ Thro6)h!thi&ness distrib6tion o( stresses: \ "$ solidC \ 4$ dottedC ] "4$
dashed+
ESAMPLE 4=+ A (lat ei)ht!la'er MT:E-=-1=N
!
@6asi!isotropi& laminate =+" b' =+: m is
loaded b' a =+# moment$ as sho/n in Fi)+ E+F+":+ The thro6)hthi&ness distrib6tion o( the
stresses in the prin&ipal material &oordinate s'stem is o( interest+ The temperat6re &han)e
(rom the &6re temperat6re &ondition is H"==QC
APPROACH+ The s'mmetri& and balan&ed nat6re o( the laminate$ alon) /ith the (a&t
that onl' a sin)le moment is applied$ simpli(ies the &omp6tations &onsiderabl'+ E@6ations
AE+F+EDB to AE+F+EEB and the material properties (rom E8amples E and "4 appl'+
Fi)6re E+F+":+ Laminate loaded b' moment+
SOL9TION+ I( it is ass6med that the applied moment is 6ni(orml' distrib6ted alon) the
opposite ed)es$ the moment res6ltant is )i5en b'
The 5al6es o( &
y
and &
*y
are ?ero+ There are no 6nit e@6i5alent thermal moment
res6ltants$ and the 6nit e@6i5alent thermal (or&e res6ltants are )i5en in E8ample E as
The re(eren&e s6r(a&e strains are d6e onl' to the e@6i5alent thermal (or&e res6ltants and
are &omp6ted as (ollo/s b' /a' o( E@s+ AE+F+EDB and AE+F+E:B$ /ith n6meri&al 5al6es
(rom E8ample "4$ as
The re(eren&e s6r(a&e &6r5at6res are d6e to the applied moment and are &omp6ted b' /a'
o( E@+ AE+F+EEB and E8ample "4 as
Note that in addition to prod6&in) &6r5at6re &omponent as e8pe&ted$ the sin)le
moment &
*
prod6&es &6r5at6re &omponents and + The (ormer &6r5at6re /o6ld e8ist
i( this /ere a &on5entional material s6&h as al6min6m or steel$ and it is &alled the
anticlastic &6r5at6re+ It is d6e to PoissonGs ratio$ /hi&h is re(le&ted in the 5al6e o( d
"4
and
is related to + The t/ist &6r5at6re is d6e to the e8isten&e o( /hi&h &an be related to
the e8isten&e o( non?ero 5al6es in the T:E^ la'ers+ T/ist &6r5at6re /o6ld not e8ist i(
this /ere a &on5entional material+
The strain as a (6n&tion o( + in the laminate &oordinate s'stem is )i5en b' E@+ AE+F+41B as
These relations are 5alid (or the (6ll ran)e o( +$ H=+===E== m O + O K=+===E== m
Trans(ormin) these strains to the prin&ipal material &oordinate s'stem b' /a' o( E@+
AE+F+4:B (or the 5ario6s (iber orientations )i5es the (ollo/in):
For H=+===E== m O + O H=+===D#E m and H=+===D#E m O + O =+===E== m$
For H=+===D#E m O + O H=+===4E= m =+===4E= m O + O =+===D#E m$
For H=+===4E= m O + O H=+==="4E m and =+==="4E m O + O =+===4E= m$
For H=+==="4E m O + O =+==="4E m$
Note that ea&h e@6ation is 5alid (or t/o ran)es o( +$ the ran)es dependin) on the +
lo&ation o( the la'ers /ith the di((erent (iber orientations+ The stresses in the 5ario6s
la'ers in the prin&ipal material &oordinate s'stem &an be &omp6ted dire&tl' (rom E@+
AE+F+4=B b' 6sin) the abo5e strains+ A)ain there is a ran)e o( + (or ea&h relation$
dependin) on the la'er+ The stresses in the prin&ipal material &oordinate s'stem are as
(ollo/s:
For H=+===E== m O + O H=+===D#E m and =+===D#E m O + O =+===E== m$
For H=+===D#E m O + O H=+===4E= m and =+===4E= m O + O =+===D#E m$
For H=+===4E= m O + O H=+==="4E m =+==="4E m O + O =+===4E= m$
For H=+==="4E m O + O =+==="4E m$
The (irst term in the e8pressions (or the stresses are the stresses d6e to thermal e((e&ts+
,e&a6se o( the @6asi!isotropi& nat6re o( the laminate$ e5er' la'er e8perien&es identi&al
thermall' ind6&ed stresses$ and the stress perpendi&6lar to the (iber dire&tion
4
is e@6al
to b6t opposite in 5al6e to the stress in the (iber dire&tion
"
+ There are no thermall'
ind6&ed shear stresses+ The se&ond terms$ the terms linear in +$ are the stresses d6e to the
applied moment+ These stresses 5ar' linearl' /ith + /ithin ea&h la'er$ b6t are
dis&ontino6s (rom la'er to la'er+ The thro6)h!thi&ness distrib6tions o( the thermall'
ind6&ed and moment!ind6&ed stresses are plotted separatel' in Fi)s+ E+F+"E and E+F+"F$
respe&ti5el'+
Fi)6re E+F+"E+ Thro6)h!thi&ness distrib6tion o( stresses d6e to thermal e((e&ts: \ "$
solidC \ 4$ dottedC ] "4 I =+
It is seen that the lar)est tensile and &ompressi5e stresses in the prin&ipal material
&oordinate s'stem d6e to the applied moment o&&6r in la'ers D and F$ respe&ti5el'$ not in
the o6ter la'ers+ This is 5er' m6&h 6nlie the stress distrib6tions in a &on5entional
material s6&h as al6min6m or steel$ /here the stresses /ith the lar)est ma)nit6de o&&6r at
+ ; T3<4+ This &hara&teristi& o( la'ered materials is o(ten o5erlooed+
5.6.:. EN.INEERIN. PROPERTIES OF A LAMINATE
O(ten there is interest in /hat &an be &onsidered smeared en)ineerin) properties (or a
laminate+ For e8ample$ it ma' be desirable to treat a laminate as a bar or beam made o( a
homo)eneo6s material /ith an e@6i5alent mod6l6s+ Sin&e a bar is 6s6all' asso&iated /ith
tension$ or &ompression$ and a beam is 6s6all' asso&iated /ith bendin)$ the e@6i5alent
mod6l6s (or a laminated &omposite bar &o6ld be di((erent (rom the e@6i5alent mod6l6s
(or a laminated &omposite beam+ This maes sense$ sin&e the /s depend di((erentl' on the
thi&nesses and lo&ations o( the la'ers than the 7s+ .i5en a bar and a one!dimensional
state o( stress$ the stress!strain beha5ior &an be des&ribed b'
AE+F+F4B
/here is the e8tensional mod6l6s o( the material+ I( a material is homo)eneo6s$ then the
stress /ill be 6ni(orm thro6)h the thi&ness+ Ho/e5er$ it has been sho/n in the e8amples
that$ in )eneral$ (or a laminated material the stress is not 6ni(orm thro6)h the thi&ness+
There(ore$ &onsider the stress in E@+ AE+F+F4B to be the average stress Then$
&onsiderin) that 6nder tension or &ompression the strain in a bar &onstr6&ted o( a
s'mmetri& balan&ed laminate /o6ld be that )i5en b' the )eometri& mid s6r(a&e$ or
re(eren&e s6r(a&e$ strain$ E@+ AE+F+F4B &an be re/ritten as
AE+F+FDB
The inte)ral de(inition o( the stress res6ltant in E@+ AE+F+D"B /o6ld red6&e to
AE+F+F:B
Fi)6re E+F+"F+ Thro6)h!thi&ness distrib6tion o( stresses d6e to applied moment: \ "$
solidC \ 4$ dottedC ] "4$ dashed+
/here$ re&all$ 3 is the thi&ness o( the laminate+ For a bar and /o6ld be ?ero$ res6ltin) in$
(rom E@+ AE+F+EDB$
AE+F+FEB
Combinin) E@s+ AE+F+FDB to AE+F+FEB leads to
AE+F+FFB
,' e@6atin) the se&ond and (o6rth parts o( the relationship$ the e@6i5alent e8tensional
mod6l6s &an th6s be de(ined as
AE+F+F#B
In a similar (ashion$ i($ instead o( tension$ bendin) is &onsidered$ then (or a homo)eneo6s
material the /ell!no/n moment!&6r5at6re relation (or bendin) o( a beam in the *
dire&tion &an be /ritten as
AE+F+F2B
/here = is the se&ond moment o( area o( the re&tan)6lar &ross se&tion beam and is )i5en
b'
AE+F+F1B
The @6antit' 8 is the /idth o( the beam Adimension in the y dire&tion in Fi)+ E+F+""B that
m6st be in&l6ded /ith the moment sin&e the de(inition o( moment &
*
as 6sed herein is
moment per 6nit in!plane dimension in the y dire&tion+ For bendin) o( a beam$ &
y
and &
*y
/o6ld be ?ero$ so the &6r5at6re in the * dire&tion (or a s'mmetri& balan&ed laminate is
)i5en b'$ (rom E@+ AE+F+EEB$
AE+F+#=B
Combinin) E@s+ AE+F+F2B to AE+F+#=B res6lts in
AE+F+#"B
9sin) the third and (o6rth parts o( the relationship pro5ides the de(inition o( the bendin)
mod6l6s as
AE+F+#4B
ESAMPLE 4"+ Comp6te the e8tensional and bendin) mod6l6s in the * dire&tion (or an
ei)ht!la'er MT:E-=-1=N
s
laminate+
APPROACH+ 9se the res6lts o( E8ample "4 dire&tl' in E@s+ AE+F+F#B and AE+F+#4B+
SOL9TION
Note the bendin) mod6l6s is lo/er than the e8tensional mod6l6s be&a6se the la'ers are
near the &enter o( the laminate and ha5e less in(l6en&e on resistan&e to bendin) than on
resistan&e to e8tension+
5.6.;. FAIL9RE OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
.enerall'$ the &al&6lation o( the stresses /ithin a laminate is &arried o6t so that the 5al6es
o( the stresses &an be &ompared /ith 5al6es no/n to &a6se (ail6re+ >no/in) the le5els
o( the stresses /itho6t ha5in) a metri& to &ompare the stresses to is )enerall' not 6se(6l+
Most o(ten it is o( interest to no/ /hat 5al6e o( applied load (or a parti&6lar laminate in
a parti&6lar loadin) sit6ation &a6ses (ail6re+ As mi)ht be e8pe&ted$ (ail6re o( (iber!
rein(or&ed &omposite materials is a &omple8 pro&ess$ and histori&all' no aspe&t o( the
beha5ior o( &omposite materials has been st6died and debated more than the iss6e o(
(ail6re+ The topi& is &omple8 be&a6se o( the m6ltiple modes o( (ail6re and be&a6se the
stren)th o( a &omposite material in tension is &onsiderabl' di((erent (rom the stren)th in
&ompression+ A &omposite &an (ail d6e to e8&ess stress in the (iber dire&tion$ and the
stren)th in the (iber dire&tion in tension is )reater than the stren)th in &ompression+
Alternati5el'$ a &omposite material &an (ail be&a6se o( e8&ess stress perpendi&6lar to the
(ibers+ The stren)th perpendi&6lar to the (ibers in tension is &onsiderabl' less than the
stren)th in &ompression+ And (inall'$ a &omposite &an (ail d6e to e8&ess shear stress+ The
stren)th in shear is &onsiderable less than the stren)th in tension in the (iber dire&tion$
altho6)h the stren)th in shear does not depend on the si)n o( the shear stress+ These
iss6es are (6rther &ompli&ated b' the (a&t that /hen the (ibers are oriented at an an)le
relati5e to the loadin) dire&tion$ thro6)h the trans(ormation relations$ there is a stress
&omponent in the (iber dire&tion$ a &omponent perpendi&6lar to the (iber dire&tion$ and a
shear stress+ *hi&h &omponent o( stress leads to (ail6reV Or is it a &ombination o( the
&omponentsV I( it is a &ombination$ ho/ sho6ld the stresses be &ombined to predi&t
(ail6reV
There are man' iss6es related to (ail6re o( &omposite materials and there are a n6mber o(
(ail6re theories+ Some theories are @6ite strai)ht(or/ard$ /hile others are &ompli&ated
and re@6ire a &onsiderable n6mber o( e8periments to determine all the parameters
ne&essar' to implement the theor'+ No one theor'$ or &riterion$ /ors per(e&tl' (or all
materials in all sit6ations+ It is better to thin o( (ail6re theories as indicators o( (ail6re
rather than predictors o( (ail6re+ Also$ (ail6re in one la'er d6e to e8&ess stress
perpendi&6lar to the (ibers$ (or e8ample$ does not ne&essaril' mean &atastrophi& (ail6re o(
the entire laminate+ The other la'ers ma' be able to ass6me a )reater portion o( the load
to &ompensate (or the (ailed la'er+ Th6s the iss6e o( (ail6re reall' be&omes one o( dama)e
a&&6m6lation+ *ith this 5ie/point$ (ail6re o( a laminate /ill o&&6r /hen there is
s6((i&ient dama)e a&&6m6lation that not eno6)h 6ndama)ed material remains to s6pport
the applied load+ The le5el o( d"m"(e "cc&m&%"ion that &an be a&&epted depends on the
appli&ation+ For e8ample$ e8&ess tensile stress perpendi&6lar to the (ibers )enerall'
&a6ses &ra&in) o( a &omposite material$ the &ra&s bein) parallel /ith the (ibers+ I( some
&ra&in) is a&&eptable$ then the predi&tion o( &ra&in) does not e@6ate to (ail6re o( the
laminate+ Ho/e5er$ the e8isten&e o( an' &ra&in) at all is e@6i5alent to the a&&6m6lation
o( some de)ree o( dama)e+ Ho/ m6&h &ra&in) &an be tolerated depends 5er' m6&h on
the appli&ation+
One (ail6re theor' that is eas' to implement is the m"#im&m sress f"i%&re crierion.
The ma8im6m stress (ail6re &riterion independentl' treats tension (ail6re in the (iber
dire&tion$ &ompression (ail6re in the (iber dire&tion$ tension (ail6re perpendi&6lar to the
(iber dire&tion$ &ompression (ail6re perpendi&6lar to the (iber dire&tion$ and (ail6re in
shear+ There are th6s (i5e possible modes o( (ail6re (or a plane stress state+ A no/n le5el
o( (ail6re stress (or ea&h mode is re@6ired+ Fail6re in tension in the (iber dire&tion is a
dire&t res6lt o( (ibers (ra&t6rin) or other/ise breain)+ Fail6re in &ompression in the (iber
dire&tion is d6e to the inin) o( (ibers$ )enerall' d6e to the la& o( s6pport o( the matri8
material s6rro6ndin) the (ibers and the de5elopment o( shear$ or in$ bands /ithin the
(iber+ Fail6re in tension perpendi&6lar to the (ibers is d6e to (ail6re o( the matri8 material
bet/een the (ibers$ (ail6re o( the (ibers$ (ail6re o( the bond bet/een the matri8 material
and the (ibers$ or a &ombination o( all three (ail6res+ Fail6re in &ompression perpendi&6lar
to the (ibers is )enerall' d6e to &r6shin) o( the matri8 material+ Finall'$ (ail6re in shear is
also d6e to (ail6re o( the matri8 material bet/een the (ibers$ (ail6re o( the (ibers$ (ail6re
o( the bond bet/een the matri8 material and the (ibers$ or a &ombination o( all three+ It is
important to reali?e there is a 5ariabilit' to (ail6re stren)ths$ so the approa&h to tae is to
emplo' allo/able stress le5els (or ea&h mode that ade@6atel' a&&o6nt (or the 5ariabilit'+
I( these de(initions (or (ail6re stresses in ea&h o( the modes are 6sed then the ma8im6m
stress (ail6re &riterion states that (ail6re o&&6rs at a point in a laminate i( an' o( the
(ollo/in) si8 e@6alities are satis(ied:
I tensile (ail6re stress in the " dire&tion
I &ompression (ail6re stress in the " dire&tion Aa ne)ati5e n6mberB
I tensile (ail6re stress in the 4 dire&tion
I &ompression (ail6re stress in the 4 dire&tion Aa ne)ati5e n6mberB
I shear (ail6re stress in "!4 plane Aa positi5e n6mberB
AE+F+#DB
The last t/o e@6ations &an be repla&ed b' one$ namel'$
AE+F+#:B
ESAMPLE 44+ A thin!/alled &'lindri&al press6re 5essel /ith radi6s R I =+4E m is
&onstr6&ted 6sin) ei)ht la'ers o( )lass!(iber!rein(or&ed material and a sta&in) se@6en&e
o( MTF=-=-1=N+ The (iber an)les are spe&i(ied relati5e to the a8ial dire&tion o( the &'linder+
The end &aps o( the 5essel are s6itabl' desi)ned and rein(or&ed$ so the &on&ern is /ith
(ail6re a/a' (rom the end &aps+ The &han)e in temperat6re d6e to &6rin) is H"==QC The
le5el o( internal press6re is in&reased (rom ?ero+ In /hat la'er$ or la'ers$ does the (irst
(ail6re o&&6r$ /hat is the mode o( (ail6re$ and /hat is the press6re le5elV
APPROACH+ Sin&e interest &enters on the stresses a/a' (rom the end &aps$ the stress
res6ltants a&tin) /ithin the &'linder /all d6e to the internal press6re &an be determined
b' &onsiderin) the e@6ilibri6m o( a se&tion o( &'linder a/a' (rom the end &aps$ <6st as is
done /ith &on5entional materials+ These stress res6ltants /ill be a (6n&tion o( the
&'linder radi6s as /ell as the press6re+ ,' 6sin) the stress res6ltants$ a stress anal'sis o(
the laminate &an be &ond6&ted+
SOL9TION+ As sho/n in Fi)+ E+F+"#$ b' &onsiderin) e@6ilibri6m in the > dire&tion o(
the se&tion o( &'linder o( len)th J?$ and e@6ilibri6m in the @ dire&tion o( the (lat end &ap$
the a8ial and &ir&6m(erential stress res6ltants a&tin) on the &'linder /all &an be &omp6ted
as a (6n&tion o( press6re and &'linder radi6s+
Fi)6re E+F+"#+ For&es a&tin) on se&tion o( &'linder a/a' (rom end &aps and on end &aps+
S6mmin) (or&es in the @ dire&tion on the end &ap and in the > dire&tion o( the se&tion
&'linder res6lts in
or
/here$ (or )eneralit'$ the res6lts are le(t in term o( p and R+ These are the onl' t/o
non?ero stress res6ltants a&tin) /ithin the &'linder /all a/a' (rom the end &aps d6e to
the internal press6re+ There are no moment res6ltants+ There are$ o( &o6rse$ e@6i5alent
thermal (or&e res6ltants (rom E8ample 1 )i5en b'
As &an be seen$ the s6bs&ript y in the nomen&lat6re has been repla&ed b' the s6bs&ript -
(or this parti&6lar problem+ This problem is lie E8ample "1 as there are no moment
res6ltants$ and there(ore no re(eren&e s6r(a&e &6r5at6res$ onl' re(eren&e s6r(a&e strains+
Ho/e5er$ the problem is 6nlie E8ample "1 in that the applied load le5el$ in this &ase the
internal press6re le5el$ is not no/n+ This is not a problem+ The 6nno/n press6re &an be
&arried alon) s'mboli&all' in the &al&6lations+ A&&ordin)l'$ (rom E@s+ AE+F+EDB and
AE+F+E:B$ /ith n6meri&al 5al6es (rom E8amples 1 and "F$ the re(eren&e s6r(a&e strains are
)i5en b'
For &on5enien&e$ the press6re p in pas&als is &on5erted to atmospheres b' 6sin) the
relation
/here p
a
is the internal press6re in atmospheres+ The re(eren&e s6r(a&e strains be&ome
The strains in the prin&ipal material &oordinate s'stem (or the la'ers /ith F=Q (iber
orientation are &omp6ted (rom the trans(ormation relation o( E@+ AE+F+4:B as
Carr'in) o6t the al)ebra and doin) the same (or the other la'er orientations )i5e
The stresses in the 5ario6s la'ers &an be &omp6ted 6sin) E@+ AE+F+4=B and the abo5e
strains as (ollo/s:
Carr'in) o6t the al)ebra$ s6bstit6tin) (or the radi6s /ith R I =+4E m$ and doin) similar
&al&6lations (or the other three la'er an)les res6lt in
,' 6sin) E@+ AE+F+#DB$ the stresses in ea&h la'er are e@6ated to the (ail6re le5els (or ea&h
(ail6re mode$ and the 5al6e o( p
a
is &omp6ted (or ea&h mode+ Interest is in positi5e
5al6es o( p
a
$ &orrespondin) to the internal press6re as the problem is (orm6lated here+
Ho/e5er$ (or the sae o( &ompleteness$ all si8 (ail6re e@6ations /ill be &onsidered (or the
(o6r (iber an)les$ res6ltin) in 4: 5al6es o( p
a
+ The smallest positi5e 5al6e is the 5al6e o(
internal press6re that (irst &a6ses (ail6re as the press6re is in&reased (rom ?ero+ The
&orrespondin) la'er and the &orrespondin) mode o( (ail6re &an be determined (rom the
parti&6lar e@6ation that leads to this lo/est positi5e 5al6e o( p
a
+ For &on5enien&e$ the si8
e@6ations o( E@+ AE+F+#DB are e8pressed as
/here t'pi&al (ail6re stress le5els ha5e been 6sed+ For the F=Q la'ers$ 6sin) me)apas&als$
the abo5e si8 (ail6re e@6ations are
For the HF=Q la'ers$ the si8 (ail6re e@6ations are
For the =Q la'ers$ the si8 (ail6re e@6ations are
For the 1=Q la'ers$ the si8 (ail6re e@6ations are
From these 4: e@6ations there are "= positi5e 5al6es o( p
a
$ "= ne)ati5e 5al6es o( p
a
$ and
: 5al6es o( in(init'+ The in(inite 5al6es &ome (rom the t/o shear e@6ations (or the =Q
la'ers and the t/o shear e@6ations (or the 1=Q la'ers+ From these m6ltiple 5al6es o( p
a
$
the lo/est le5el o( the internal press6re is p
a
I =+#=: atm+ This 5al6e is obtained (rom the
sol6tion o( the se&ond e@6ation (or the positi5e (ail6re stress le5els (or the =Q la'er$ i+e+$
This is interpreted to mean that at p
a
I =+#=: atm &ra&s parallel to the (ibers o&&6r in the
=Q la'ers+ I( matri8 &ra&in) is to be a5oided$ onl' press6res belo/ this le5el are allo/ed+
The ans/er to the ori)inal @6estion is that (ail6res o&&6r /hen p
a
I =+#=: atm$ the mode
o( (ail6re is e8&ess tensile stress perpendi&6lar to the (ibers$ and it o&&6rs in the =Q la'ers+
To )o one step be'ond /hat /as ased (or$ ho/e5er$ a ne)ati5e press6re o( ma)nit6de
"=+#2 atm is obtained (rom the sol6tion o( the se&ond e@6ation (or ne)ati5e (ail6re stress
le5els (or the =Q la'ers$ i+e+$
This 5al6e is the ne)ati5e 5al6e o( p
a
/ith the lo/est ma)nit6de+ It is interpreted to mean
that an e*ternal press6re o( "=+#2 atm /ill &a6se (ail6re o( the =Q la'ers d6e to e8&essi5e
&ompressi5e stress perpendi&6lar to the (ibers$ ass6min) that the &'linder has not b6&led
d6e to the e8ternal press6re+