PHYSICS LAB NOTES

FOR
MECHANICS, HEAT
AND
SOUND
EXPERIMENTS
PHYSICS 6
Los Angeles Harbor College
J. C. FU R. F. WHITING
199
Eighteenth Edition
August !!"
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Measurement..................................................................... 1
2. Acceleration Due to Gravity.............................................. 7
3. The Addition of Vectors.....................................................10
4. ro!ectile Motion................................................................14
". #e$ton%s &econd 'a$.......................................................17
(. )entri*etal +orce Thistle Tu,e Method..........................20
7. The )oefficient of +riction.................................................23
-. )onservation of Mechanical .ner/y.................................27
0. The 1allistic endulum......................................................30
10. Tor2ue and )enter of Mass..............................................34
11. Archimedes3 rinci*le........................................................37
12. The )oefficient of 'inear .4*ansion.................................41
13. The 5eat of +usion of 6ce..................................................44
14. &tandin/ 7aves on &trin/s...............................................47
1". The &*eed of &ound in Air................................................"0
The set of la, e4*eriments that you $ill ,e doin/ this semester $ill8 ho*efully
elucidate for you some a,stract conce*ts8 ena,le you to test a fe$ hy*otheses or theories
usin/ the scientific method8 reali9e the ca*a,ilities or limitations of certain e2ui*ment and
*rocedures8 and to thin: analytically.
.ach la, *eriod $ill ,e/in $ith a *resentation ; discussion of the e4*eriment
indicated in your la, notes. )ome *re*ared8 havin/ read the references /iven. An attem*t
has ,een made to have the la,s run in *arallel $ith lecture. &hare $or: $ith your *artner
so that each *erson $ill have an o**ortunity to have hands<on e4*erience.
=. ). +u8 h.D.
>. +. 7hitin/8 M.&.
E#$e%i&ent '( MEASUREMENT
PURP!S"#
To determine the *recision of measurements made usin/ different devices for
measurin/ len/th8 mass and time8 and to learn to re*ort data $ith the a**ro*riate num,er
of si/nificant +i/ures.
INTR!$UCTI!N#
The three ,asic units in the &6 system of units are the meter8 :ilo/ram8 and second.
+or measurement of len/th $e $ill use micrometers8 vernier cali*ers8 and ta*e
measures. 7hen usin/ the micrometer8 ,e sure to ta:e account of the 9ero readin/ of the
instrument. +or all the various measurin/ devices8 $ith the e4ce*tion of the vernier
cali*er8 estimate to the nearest tenth of a division in order to /et the most out of the
instrument. +or measurement of mass8 $e $ill use the dou,le *an ,alance. 6f the mass of
your o,!ect e4ceeds the ca*acity of the ,alance8 use a counter mass on the other *an.
The electric sto* cloc: $ill ,e used to measure time. The (0<5ert9 oscillations
assure the accuracy of these devices.
6t is /ood *ractice to ta,ulate ?*ut in ta,le form@ your data $henever *ossi,le.
#o$ to say somethin/ a,out *recision and accuracy. recision is a measure of ho$
re*roduci,le a measurement is8 for e4am*le8 if one measures an eraser 3 times8 usin/ the
same ruler8 and /ets the follo$in/ readin/sA ".2 cm8 ".1 cm8 and ".3 cm8 the result can ,e
e4*ressed as ".2 B 0.1 cm. The B 0.1 indicates the *recision of the result. The accuracy
of a measurement is an indication of ho$ close the measurement is to the true or acce*ted
value.
SUPPLI"S % "&UIP'"NT A
Ta*e measure Micrometer Metric ruler
Vernier cali*er Metal cylinder Meter stic:
7ire /au/e 7ire and nail sam*les Dou,le *an ,alance
Metronome >oc: sam*les .lectronic ,alance
100</ram slotted mass .lectric sto* cloc:
PR!C"$UR" A
A. '.#GT5
1. Determine the area of the classroom floor in s2uare meters. Ma:e three se*arate
measurements of ,oth the len/th and $idth and re*ort your result $ith the avera/e
deviation.
< 1 <
2. Measure the diameter and len/th of a metal cylinder usin/ the micrometer and a ruler.
Then measure it a/ain ,y usin/ the vernier cali*er. )alculate the volume. C,serve the
rules for the use of si/nificant +i/ures.
3. Dsin/ a $ire /au/e8 measure the diameter of a len/th of $ire. Measure it a/ain8 this
time $ith a micrometer. )om*are the results8 and num,er of si/nificant +i/ures that
can ,e recorded in each case.
1. MA&&
1. Determine the mass of a 100</ram slotted mass on the ,alance and record your result
$ith the a**ro*riate uncertainty. >e*eat the measurement on the electronic ,alance.
2. Determine the mass of an irre/ularly<sha*ed o,!ect such as a roc:.
). T6M.
1. 7ith the electric sto* cloc:8 time "0 ,eats of the metronome set at 120. )alculate the
,eats *er second and the ,eats *er minute. >e*eat three times and calculate the
avera/e value.
2. 7ith the electric sto* cloc:8 time "0 ,eats of your o$n or your la, *artner3s *ulse.
)alculate the ,eats *er second and the *ulse rate ?,eats ; min.@. >e*eat three times
for the same *erson and determine an avera/e value.
< 2 <
M6)>CM.T.>

.ach division is 0.01 mm
E 0. 00001 m
4 0
4 "
0
"
.ach division is 1 mm
E 0. 001 m
C,!ect to ,e measured
0 1 2 3 4

@
>ead the line at the contact
*oint.
6f there is no line there8 read
the
line !ust ,efore the contact
*oint.
?
An e4am*le of ho$ to read the micrometer $hen ma:in/ a measurementA
4
4 . " m m
0 . 4 7" m m
4 . 0 7 " m m
F
0
4 "
0
4 "
4 7." div. G 0.01 mm;div. E 0.47"
mm
>ead to the nearest hundredth of a millimeter.
< 3 <
V.>#6.> )A'6.>

C,!ect to ,e measured
0 1 2 3 4 " (
0 " 10
" on the vernier scale
The 9ero line on the vernier scale lines u* $ith the
main scale at 2.1 cm *lus a fraction of a millimeter.
2.1 on the main scale
>ead to the nearest tenth of a millimeter.

An e4am*le of ho$ to read the vernier cali*er $hen ma:in/ a measurementA
1. The 9ero line on the lo$er or vernier scale *oints u* to 2.1 cm ?*lus a fraction of a
millimeter@ on u**er or main scale. ?#ote $here the lon/ arro$ is *ointin/ on the
dia/ram a,ove.@
2. The "
th
line on the vernier scale ha**ens to line u* $ith a main scale line ?any line@8
therefore the last di/it is ". ?#ote $here the short arro$ is *ointin/ on the dia/ram
a,ove.@
3. Any line on the vernier scale that lines u* $ith a main scale line is the last di/it. Thus8
the len/th of the o,!ect is 2.1" cm
76>. GADG.

Place wire here
Gau/e H
+rontA
1ac:A
Diameter
in inches
1 .00 inch = 2.54 cm
< 4 <
$ATA# MEASUREMENT
6. '.#GT5
a@ Ta*e MeasureIA +loor
7idth Deviation E J 7idth < Avera/e 7idth J
7
7idth ?m@
7
Avera/e 7idth ?m@
7
Deviation ?m@
7
Avera/e Deviation ?m@
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK
'en/th Deviation E J 'en/th < Avera/e 'en/th J
'
'en/th ?m@
'
Avera/e 'en/th ?m@
'
Deviation ?m@
'
Avera/e Deviation ?m@
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK
I Measure to the nearest millimeter ?'ess than 10 m 4 si/. fi/s.@
?Greater than 10 m " si/. fi/s.@
Area )alculationsA
Avera/e area A E ' G 7 E KKKKKKKKKKKK m
2
ositive deviation of AreaA A
F
E ?
7
F
7
@ ?
'
F
'
@ E KKKKKKKKKKKK m
2
#e/ative deviation of AreaA A

E ?
7

7
@ ?
'

'
@ E KKKKKKKKKKKK m
2
Avera/e deviation of area
A
E
2
A A
+

E KKKKKKKKKKK m
2
Area of room E KKKKKKKKKKKKK KKKKKKKKKKKKK m
2

Avera/e area Avera/e deviation
A E A A
,@ Micrometer ?diameter@ ?4 si/nificant +i/ures@L >uler ?len/th@ ?3 si/nificant +i/ures@
6tem 'en/th ?m@ Diameter ?m@ >adius ?m@ Volume ?m
3
@
Metal )ylinder
< " <
c@ Vernier )ali*er ?3 si/nificant +i/ures@
6tem 'en/th Diameter >adius Volume
Metal )ylinder
cm cm cm m
3
m m m cm
3
d@ 7ire Gau/eI ?3 si/. +i/ures@ M MicrometerII ?3 si/. +i/ures@
6tem
7ire Gau/e Micrometer
Diameter Diameter
7ire
?inches@ ?cm@ ?m@ ?mm@ ?m@
I 1.00 inch E 2."4 cm II To the nearest 0.01 mm
66. MA&& ?+or 100 /m. or moreA an 1alanceA 4 si/nificant +i/ures
.lectronic 1alanceA " si/nificant +i/ures
+or less than 100 /mA an 1alanceA 3 si/nificant +i/ures
.lectronic 1alanceA 4 si/nificant +i/ures@
6tem
an 1alance .lectronic 1alance
Mass ?/@ Mass ?:/@ Mass ?/@ Mass ?:/@
&lotted Mass
>oc:
666. T6M. .lectric &to* cloc: ?3 si/nificant +i/ures@
C,!ect H 1eats Time ?s@ 1eats;second 1eats;minute Ave. 1eats;min.
Metronome
KKKKKKKKKKKK
C,!ect H 1eats Time ?s@ 1eats;second
ulse >ate E
1eats;minute
Ave.ulse >ate
1eats;min.
ulse
KKKKKKKKKKKK
< ( <
E#$e%i&ent ( ACCELERATION DUE TO )RA*ITY
PURP!S"#
6n this e4*eriment8 the numerical value of the acceleration due to /ravity $ill ,e
determined ,y a /ra*hical techni2ue.
INTR!$UCTI!N A
6f one ne/lects the effects of air friction8 o,!ects relatively close to the .arth3s
surface under/o uniformly accelerated motion. +or our *ur*oses8 $e $ill ta:e this value of
acceleration to ,e 0.-0 m;s
2
.
6n this e4*eriment8 the data are o,tained ,y analy9in/ a $a4 *a*er ta*e that has a
series of s*ar: dots. The a**aratus that *roduces the ta*e s*ar:s every 1;(0 of a second
as the free<fall ,ody descends. Thus a time<distance record of the o,!ect in free fall is
*roduced and the acceleration due to /ravity can ,e calculated.
1y definition8 acceleration is the time rate of chan/e of velocity8 so a *lot of the
instantaneous velocity vs. time should yield a strai/ht line8 the slo*e of $hich is the
acceleration. +or each s*ar: interval8 the avera/e velocity is readily calculated8 ,ein/ the
distance the o,!ect falls in the interval divided ,y time it ta:es to fall that interval distance.
Dse the fact that the avera/e velocity is e2ual to the instantaneous velocity at the mid*oint
in time of the interval.
SUPPLI"S % "&UIP'"NT#
Demonstration free fall a**aratus Meter stic: &*ar: ta*e
lastic trian/le Metric ruler Mas:in/ ta*e

0
Distance E 4 t E second
1
2
4
4
t
t
0
0
1
1
1
30

Avera/e velocity E v E
t
4

E
i
i
t t
4 4
f
f

< 7 <
PR!C"$UR"#
1. C,tain a s*ar: ta*e8 secure it to the ta,le $ith mas:in/ ta*e and dra$ a strai/ht line
*er*endicular to the lon/ direction of the ta*e8 throu/h every other dot. &tart at the
third or fourth dot do$n from the to*. Nou should o,tain a,out ten intervals. #um,er
the *er*endicular lines 0 throu/h 10.

t E 0 1;(0 1;30 2;30 3;30
&*ar:

4
6nterval H 0 1 2 3
Ta*e
2. Measure and record the interval distances ,et$een each three successive dots8
startin/ $ith 0 < 18 then 1 < 2 and so forth. .nter your data in the ta,le.
3. )alculate the avera/e velocity for each of your intervals ,y dividin/ the interval
distance 4 ,y the ela*sed time for each interval. The ela*sed time is 1;30 second.
lot these avera/e velocities on the y<a4is vs the corres*ondin/ mid*oint in time on the
4<a4is. Dra$ the ,est strai/ht line for the data *oints ,y fittin/ the line so that the line
is the closest it can ,e to all the data *oints. #ote that the line does not necessarily
have to *ass throu/h any *articular *oint.

&am*le Gra*h
D.&)>6T6V. T6T'.
Avera/e
Velocity
?m;s@
v
4
J J J J J J J
0 1 2 3 4 " ( 7
Time ?s@ G 1;(0 sec
4. )alculate the slo*e of your strai/ht line. This is done ,y dividin/ the rise ?chan/e in y@
,y the run ?chan/e in 4@ for any t$o *oints on the line8 not necessarily data *oints8
since it is *ossi,le that no data *oints lie on the line. )hoose the t$o *oints so that
they are $idely se*arated. &lo*e E V;t E a E / ?e4*erimental@
". )alculate the *ercent error of the value of / you o,tain from your /ra*h $hen
com*ared to the /iven value of 0.-0 m;s
2
.
O error E
2
2
erimental e4*
s ; m -0 . 0
J s ; m -0 . 0 / J
G 100 O
< - <
$ATA# ACCELERATION DUE TO )RA*ITY
Data and )alculations Ta,leA ?Measure to a fraction of a millimeter.@
6nterval H 6nterval Distance
4
?m@
6nterval Time t
?s@
Avera/e Velocity
?m;s@
Time from Pero to
Mid*oint in Time
?s@
0 Q 1 1;30 1;(0
1 Q 2 1;30 3;(0
2 Q 3 1;30 ";(0
3 Q 4
1;30
7;(0
4 Q " 1;30 0;(0
" Q (
1;30
11;(0
( Q 7 1;30 13;(0
7 Q -
1;30
1";(0
- Q 0 1;30 17;(0
0 Q 10
1;30
10;(0
Acceleration due to /ravity ?from /ra*h@ E KKKKKKKK m;s
2

O error KKKKKKKKKKK
< 0 <
E#$e%i&ent +( THE ADDITION OF *ECTORS
PURP!S"# To esta,lish the condition for e2uili,rium of a sus*ended metal o,!ect.
INTR!$UCTI!N#
The first condition for e2uili,rium is that the vector sum of the forces ?the net force@
actin/ on an o,!ect is 9eroA
F E 0
in a t$o<dimensional *ro,lem this ,ecomesA
+
4
E 08 and +
y
E 0.
SUPPLI"S % "&UIP'"NT#
+orce ta,le &lotted masses .lectronic ,alance
Metal cu,e ?,rass or iron@ Metric ruler rotractor
"0</ram mass holder )ircular ,u,,le level
PR!C"$UR"#
A. ADD6#G +C>).& 76T5 T5. &AM. MAG#6TDD. 1DT D6++.>.#T D6>.)T6C#&.
1. 'evel the force ta,le usin/ a s*irit level.
2. Determine the mass of a metal cu,e KKKKKKKKKKK /rams8 KKKKKKKKKKK :/8 on the
electronic ,alance.
3. Determine the $ei/ht of this metal o,!ect KKKKKKKKKKK #. 7 E m/8 $here / E 0.-0
m;s
2
4. )lam* three *ulleys alon/ the ed/e of the force ta,le as in fi/. 1.8 $ith
A
E 10
o
8
1
E
<10
o
8 and
c
E 1-0
o
?*osition of cu,e@.
". A**ly forces +
A
and +
1
of the same ma/nitude to ,alance the $ei/ht of
the metal cu,e ?at
)
@ ,y *lacin/ masses on the han/ers at
A
and
1
.
(. >ecord +
A
8 +
1
and in data ta,le 1.
7. >e*eat ste*s 4 and "8 $ithA

A
E 30
o
8
1
E <30
o
and
A
E "0
o
8
1
E <"0
o

< 10 <
-. Dsin/ the /ra*hical method8 add the vectors head<to<tail to determine the resultant +
>
of +
A
and +
1
. Dse a ruler and *rotractor to dra$ the vectors to scale and ,e sure to
s*ecify the scale you are usin/. ?for e4am*le 1# E 3 cm@. .nter the data in data ta,le
1. ?&ee +i/. 2.@

+i/. 1 +i/. 2
$ATA AN$ CALCULATI!NS Table 1# ("CT!R A$$ITI!N
A 1
+A
?#@
+1
?#@
+>
?/ra*hical method@
?#@
7
C,!ect 7ei/ht
?#@
J f J
+rictional +orce
?#@
F 10
o
< 10
o
F 30
o
< 30
o
F "0
o
< "0
o
For Example : +
A
E m
A
I
/ E ? KKKKKKKK :/@ G ?0.-0 m;s
2
@ E KKKKKKKKKKKK #
I #ote that m
A
includes the mass of the mass han/er.
At Equilibrium: + E +
>
F ?<7@ F +rictional +orce E 0
J +rictional +orce J E J f J E J +
>
< 7 J

< 11 <
0
o
1-0
o
C,!ect
7
?'oad@

1
+
A
+
1
+
>

B. Ain! "orce# o" i""erent ma!nitue# an irection#.
1. 1alance the $ei/ht of the metal cu,e8 78 $ith +
A
and +
1
of different ma/nitudes and
different an/les
A
and
1
on the force ta,le. &ee +i/. 3a.

2. )alculate the resultant of +
A
and +
1
usin/ the com*onents method. &ee +i/. 3, $hich
sho$s the com*onents of +
A
.

+i/. 3a +i/. 3,
$ATA AN$ CALCULATI!NS Table #
A
E KKKKKKKKKKKKKK
1
E KKKKKKKKKKKKKK
("CT!R A$$IT!N
+
A
E KKKKKKKKKKKKKK +
1
E KKKKKKKKKKKKKK
Vector 4<)om*onent
?#@
y<)om*onent
?#@
+A +4A E +yA E
+1 +41 E +y1 E
+> +4 E +4A F +41 E +y E +yA F +y1 E
+
A4
E +
A
cos
A
+
14
E +
1
cos
1
+
Ay
E +
A
sin
A
+
1y
E +
1
sin
1
+
>
E
2
y
2
4
+ + + L tan E +
y
; +
4
E tan
<1
?+
y
; +
4
@
1. +
>
E KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK at KKKKKKKKKKKK De/rees ?from F 4<a4is@
2. 7ei/ht of 'oad ?Metal )u,e@ E KKKKKKKKKKK # at 1-0
o
?from F 4<a4is@
< 12 <
A
0
o
1-0
o
7

A
+
A
+
1

1
+
A
+
4A
+
yA
+
+
+
+
+
+
yA
4A
41
y1
1
E#$e%i&ent ,( PRO-ECTILE MOTION
PURP!S"#
The o,!ect of this e4*eriment is to determine the initial velocity of a *ro!ectile from
the ran/e and time<of<fli/ht measurements. Also8 the e2uations of motion $ill ,e used to
*redict the *oint of im*act of a *ro!ectile.
INTR!$UCTI!NA
A *ro!ectile is any o,!ect in motion throu/h s*ace8 $hich no lon/er has a force
*ro*ellin/ it. .4am*les areA thro$n ,alls8 rifle ,ullets8 fallin/ ,om,s and roc:ets ?after the
*ro*ellin/ force is /one@.
6n order to determine the initial velocity of a *ro!ectile fired hori9ontally8 one first
ma:es use of the e2uation y E R/t
2
to calculate t8 the time of fli/htL $here t E
/ ; y 2
.
Then8 from a measurement of the ran/e ?hori9ontal distance@ the initial velocity8 v
o
8 can
,e determined from the e2uation s E v
o
t .
+or a *ro!ectile fired at an an/le8 the ran/e of a *ro!ectile can ,e determined if the
an/le of elevation8 the initial velocity and the initial hei/ht of the *ro!ectile a,ove the
landin/ *oint are :no$n.
SUPPLI"S % "&UIP'"NT#
1allistic *endulum a**aratus 'ar/e card,oard 6nclinometer
lain $hite and car,on *a*er Metric ruler )atch ,o4
&*irit level 7ooden ,oard for inclined *lane S)S clam*
&hort su**ort rod )lam* and rod for inclined *lane lum, ,o,
Cne and t$o meter stic:s
+i/. 18 art A

6nclinometer
+ront
'oc:
PR!C"$UR"#
< 13 <
y
s
v
o
A. $%$&$A' (E')*$&+
1. 1e e4tremely careful not to hit any,ody $ith a *ro!ectile durin/ this e4*eriment.
2. )lam* the /un ?not too ti/htly@ to the ta,le8 usin/ the inclinometer to orient the /un to
fire hori9ontally and ta:e a trial shot. Ta*e a lar/e *iece of card,oard to the floor
centered on the s*ot $here the *ro!ectile landed. Cn to* of the card,oard8 ta*e a
car,on *a*er and a *lain *a*er to record the *oint of im*act. Dse one of the ,o4es
su**lied to catch the *ro!ectile ?,all@.
3. Ta:e si4 shots. Measure the ran/e of each shot accurately. >ecord your values for
the ran/es in the data ta,le.
4. Measure the hei/ht from the floor to the ,ottom of the ,all8 this is y and is the vertical
dis*lacement of the *ro!ectile. Dse a *lum, ,o, to /et the e4act vertical direction.
)alculate the time of fli/ht from this measurementA
t E
/ ; y 2
". )alculate the ran/e
s
and the avera/e initial velocity. v
o
E
t ; s
.
$ATA F!R PART A( PRO-ECTILE MOTION
Data and )alculations Ta,leA 6nitial Velocity8 v
o
Trial
yI
?m@
Avera/e y
?m@
sII
?m@
s
?m@
1
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK
2
3
4
"
(
I 3 si/. fi/s. II 4 si/. fi/s.
Par) A Cal*+la),ons#
< 14 <
Time of +li/ht
t E
/ ; y 2
6nitial Velocity
v
o
E
t ; s
.
Avera/e 6nitial Velocity8 v
o
KKKKKKKKKKKK 1allistic Gun H KKKKKKKKKKKK
B. P,E-$*&$)% )F &.E ,A%/E
1. )lam* the s*rin/ /un to a ,oard at an ar,itrary an/le of ,et$een 10
o
and 20
o
.
Measure this an/le *recisely $ith an inclinometer.
2. Measure the hei/ht of fall8 y ?E y
f
< y
i
@.
3. )alculate the e4*ected ran/e. +ire the *ro!ectile and measure the ran/e. +ire the
*ro!ectile five more times and determine an avera/e measured ran/e.
4. )alculate the *ercent difference ,et$een the measured and calculated ran/e.
)om*are the results.

Gun
6nitial
osition
Cf ro!ectile
y
4
v
oy
E v
o
cos
y
T
+inal
osition
Cf ro!ectile
+i/. 28 art 1
v
o4
E v
o
cos
4
v
o

$a)a -or Par) .# An/le of .levation ?@ KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK ?de/rees@
< 1" <
5ei/ht from floor to the ,ottom of ,all8 y KKKKKKKKKKK m
Data and )alculations Ta,leA Measured >an/e
Measured >an/e 4
?m@
Avera/e Measured >an/e
?m@
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK
Par) .. Cal*+la),ons#
Avera/e 6nitial Velocity8 v
o
E KKKKKKKKKK ?+rom *art A@
v
o4
E v
o
cos E KKKKKKKKKK
1.@ y E v
oy
t F /t
2
v
oy
E v
o
sin E KKKKKKKKKK
2.@ /t
2
F v
oy
t < y E 0
3.@ At
2
F 1t F ) E 0 Uuadratic .2uation
A E / E KKKKKKKKKKK ?/ E < 0.-0 m;s
2
@
1 E v
oy
E KKKKKKKKKKK
) E < ?y@ E KKKKKKKKKKK ?y is ne/ative8 therefore ) is *ositive@
&ee +i/. 2
A 2
A) 4
2
1 1
t

=
E KKKKKKKKKK s ?)hoose t such that it is a *ositive num,er@
.4*ected >an/eA
4 E v
o4
t .4*ected ran/e8 4 KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK m
ercent difference in measured and e4*ected ran/e KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK O
E#$e%i&ent "( NE.TON/S SECOND LA.
< 1( <
INTR!$UCTI!N#
The acceleration of an o,!ect is directly *ro*ortional to the resultant force actin/ on
it and inversely *ro*ortional to the mass ,ein/ accelerated. +urthermore8 the direction of
the acceleration is in the direction of the resultant force.
F E ma ?#e$ton3s &econd 'a$@
Dsin/ an air trac:8 the acceleration of masses due to an un,alanced a**lied force
$ill ,e determined8 and com*ared $ith the acceleration calculated from the e2uation of
motion for a uniformly accelerated o,!ect.
+rom #e$ton3s 2
nd
la$A
+ E ?m
1
F m
2
@a
m
2
/ E ?m
1
F m
2
@a
&olvin/ for aA
2 1
2
m m
/ m
a
+
=
+rom the e2uation of motionA
s E v
o
t F Rat
2
. 7ith v
o
E 08
2
t
s 2
a = .

m
1
m
2

a

7 E m
2
/
SUPPLI"S % "&UIP'"NT#
Air trac: and accessories " M 10</ram slotted masses .lectronic ,alance
Thread and scissors "</ram mass holder

m
1

hoto/ate H1
hoto/ate H2
m
2

+i/. 1. .4*erimental &etu*
PR!C"$UR"#
< 17 <
1. 'evel the air trac: ,y ad!ustin/ the levelin/ feet and ,alancin/ /lider at the center of
the air trac:. Turn air su**ly off $hen this is accom*lished. Do not lean on the air
trac: or the ta,le ?use another ta,le for $ritin/@ durin/ the e4*eriment.
2. Determine the /lider3s mass m
1
on a ,alance and convert this measurement to
:ilo/rams.
3. lace *hoto/ate H1 at the *osition 4
1
E -0 cm and *hoto/ate H2 at the *osition 4
2
E
1"0 cm.
4. lace a "</ram mass holder at the end of the thread runnin/ over the *ulley. Add a "<
/ram mass onto the mass holder8 so no$8 m
2
E 10.0 /rams E 0.0100 :/.
". &et the *hoto/ate sto* cloc: to the S*ulseS mode. and *ush the SresetS ,utton. &et
the resolution scale to 1ms. &et the VmemoryW s$itch to the VonW *osition. Ma:e sure
the air is flo$in/ steadily ,efore you let /o of the /lider.
(. Turn on the air su**ly. Delicately hold the /lider as close to the li/ht ,eam of /ate H 1
as *ossi,le ?!ust ,efore the '.D on to* of the /ate li/hts u*@. Then release /lider ?do
not *ush or *ertu,e the /lider@ and record the dis*layed time.
7. >eset the sto* cloc: and re*eat the *rocedure t$o more times. Avera/e the three
values and record in the data ta,le.
-. Add a "</ram mass onto the mass holder. >e*eat ste*s H" and H(. ?>emem,er that
m
2
e2uals the mass of the holder *lus the mass on the holder8 so the total mass for
this ste* is 1" /.@
0. >e*eat ste* H- for m
2
E 20 /rams ?includin/ han/er@. and m
2
E 2" /rams ?includin/
han/er@.
10. )alculate the acceleration of the masses ,y usin/ the e2uation of motionA
s E v
o
t F at
2
8 s E J 4
2
< 4
1
J
$ith v
o
E 08 s E at
2
a E
11. )om*are this calculated acceleration $ith the value calculated usin/ #e$ton3s la$ +
E ma.
+
net
E 7 E m
2
/
+
net
E ?m
1
F m
2
@a
2 1
m m
+
a
+
=

2 1
2
m m
/ m
+
=

m
1
m
2

7
$ATA# NE.TON/S SECOND LA.
< 1- <
Data and )alculations Ta,leA
m
1
?:/@
m
2
?:/@
0.0100 0.01"0 0.0200 0.02"0
sI
?m@
Time8 Trial 1
?s@
Time8 Trial 2
?s@
Time8 Trial 3
?s@
Avera/e Time
?s@
Acceleration fromA a
:
E 2s;t
2
?m;s
2
@
+orce fromA + E m
2
/
?#@
Accelerated massA m
1
F m
2
?:/@
Acceleration from #e$ton%s
2
nd
'a$A a
#
E +;?m
1
F m
2
@
?m;s
2
@
O difference E
#
# :
a
a a
G
100O
I Measure carefully each time.
E#$e%i&ent 0( CENTRIPETAL FORCE 1
THISTLE TUBE METHOD
INTR!$UCTI!N#
6n this e4*eriment $e $ill study the motion of an o,!ect travellin/ in a circular *ath.
A small o,!ect of :no$n mass $ill ,e rotated in a circular *ath. The centri*etal force $ill
,e determined directly and then calculated from measurements of the radius and the
velocity. The follo$in/ relation $ill ,e verifiedA
< 10 <
+
c
E
r
mv
2
SUPPLI"S % "&UIP'"NT#
Thistle tu,e &trin/ M scissors H " >u,,er sto**er
Mas:in/ ta*e>ed felt mar:er 5oo:ed masses8 "0/8 100/ M 200/
&to* cloc: Meter stic: .lectronic ,alance
PR!C"$UR"#
1. Determine the mass of a sto**er. Tie a 1." m len/th of strin/ to the sto**er8 then
thread it throu/h the thistle tu,e. Tie a 0.1"0 :/ mass to the other end of the strin/.
The $ei/ht of this mass creates the tension in the strin/ that *rovides the centri*etal
force on the sto**er.
2. To hel* you maintain the radial
distance8 use a dot of red in: as a
mar:er at the to* ed/e of contact
$ith the thistle tu,e.
3. Dsin/ the sto* cloc:8 measure the
total time for 2" revolutions for t$o
different values of radial distance.
Try values close to 0."00 m and
0.7"0 m. The time for one
revolution is the total time divided
,y 2".
4. Maintain a steady hori9ontal s$in/.
r
>evolvin/ mass8 m
Thistle Tu,e
Mar:
?Actual )entri*etal +orce E M/@
5an/in/ mass8 M
". The velocity is /iven ,y the e2uationA
v E E
$here r is the radius of the circular *ath and T is the time for one revolution.
(. >e*eat the a,ove *rocedure for a 0.200<:/ mass attached to the strin/.
7. 7hat factors contri,ute to error in this e4*erimentX
$ATA# CENTRIPETAL FORCE
Data and )alculations Ta,le 1A
Mass of &to**er8 m ?:/@
>adius8 r ?m@
I I
< 20 <
Time for 2" >evolutions ?s@
Time for 1 >evolution8 T ?s@
Velocity8 v E 2r;T ?m;s@
Velocity
2
E v
2
?m;s@
2
A. .4*erimental +
c
E mv
2
;r ?#@
5an/in/ Mass8 M ?:/@ 0.1"0 0.200
1. )entri*etal +orce from +
c
E M/ ?#@
ercent error
of centri*etal force A relative to 1
IA**ro4imately 0."00 m
O error E ?A Q 1@ ; A G 100 O
Data and )alculations Ta,le 2A
Mass of &to**er8 m ?:/@
>adius8 r ?m@
II II
< 21 <
Time for 2" >evolutions ?s@
Time for 1 >evolution8 T ?s@
Velocity8 v E 2r;T ?m;s@
Velocity
2
E v
2
?m;s@
2
A. .4*erimental +
c
E mv
2
;r ?#@
5an/in/ Mass8 M ?:/@ 0.1"0 0.200
1. )entri*etal +orce from +
c
E M/ ?#@
ercent error
of centri*etal force A relative to 1
IIA**ro4imately 0.7"0 m
E#$e%i&ent 2( THE COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
PURP!S"#
The o,!ect of this e4*eriment is to demonstrate some of the *rinci*les of dry friction
and to determine the coefficients of :inetic and static friction for $ood<on<$ood surfaces.
< 22 <
INTR!$UCTI!N#
6n this e4*eriment8 $e $ill investi/ate some of the *rinci*les of friction8 such asA
1. The coefficient of static friction8
#
8 is usually /reater than the coefficient of :inetic
friction8
0
. 2.The frictional force8 f8 is *ro*ortional to the normal force8 +
#
. 3. +riction
al$ays acts in a direction o**osite to the motion of an o,!ect.
SUPPLI"S % "&UIP'"NT#
+riction ,oard +riction 1loc: Meter stic:
&trin/ M scissors 6nclinometer Metric ruler
.lectronic ,alance Mas:in/ ta*e)lam* M rod for inclined *lane
&lotted masses &*irit level )lam*<on *ulley
PR!C"$UR"#
A. *)EFF$*$E%& )F 1&A&$* F,$*&$)%
7e $ill determine the coefficient of static friction ,y tiltin/ the ,oard at an an/le. At
the *oint $here the an/le is !ust enou/h to cause the ,loc: to sli* ?overcome friction@8 $e
haveA

f
y
m/ sin

4
+
#

m/ cos
m/ sin
+i/.1A .4*erimental setu* for art A
$ith associated forces sho$n

s
E f ; +
#
+
4
E 0A f F ?<m/ sin) E 0
f E m/ sin
+
y
E 0A +
#
F ?<m/ cos) E 0
+
#
E m/ cos

s
E

cos m/
sin m/


s
E tan

1. lace the ,loc: at the to* of the inclined ,oard. .4*erimentally determine the an/le at
$hich the ,loc: !ust ,rea:s loose and starts slidin/ do$n the incline8 usin/ an
inclinometer.
2. >e*eat ste* 1<A five times and calculate an avera/e value for the an/le 8 and then
calculate the coefficient of static friction
s
E tan/ent .
$a)a For Par) A#
< 23 <
Data and )alculations Ta,le 1A )oefficient of &tatic +riction.

m/ sin
f
y

4
+
#


m/ cos
m/ sin
f
s
E
s
+
#

s
E
#
f
s
E

cos m/
sin m/
E tan
Trial Avera/e tan E s
1
2
3
4
"
Avera/e value of coefficient of static frictionA
s
E KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK
B. *)EFF$*$E%& )F 2$%E&$* F,$*&$)%
The coefficient of :inetic friction $ill ,e determined ,y ma:in/ use of the fact that
the frictional force is *ro*ortional to the normal force8 f E :+# .

m
2

+ ?A**lied +orce@ E m
2
/
f
+
#

m/ ? E 7@
T
T
+i/. 2. .4*erimental setu* for art 1
$ith associated forces sho$n.
1. Determine the mass of the friction ,loc: and record its mass on the data sheet.
2. 'evel the friction ,oard on the ta,le. )lam* a *ulley on one end. Tie a strin/ and
mass han/er to the ,loc:. lace slotted masses on the han/er until the ,loc: starts
movin/ $ith con#tant 3elocit4 once /iven a sli/ht *ush. The force *ullin/ on the ,loc:
is the a**lied force to overcome :inetic friction and is e2ual and o**osite to the :inetic
friction force. Mar: the *lace on the ,oard $ith a *iece of ta*e $here you start the
,loc: in order to start the ,loc: at the same *lace each time.
< 24 <
3. >e*eat ste* 2<1 four more times8 each time addin/ 100 additional /rams to the to* of
the ,loc:.
4. lot a /ra*h of the ma/nitude of the force of friction8 J f J8 on the y<a4is vs. normal force
on the 4<a4is. The slo*e of the /ra*h can ,e used to calculate the coefficient of :inetic
friction.

f
+
#

f
+
#

Descri*tive Title
?#e$tons@
?#e$tons@
&lo*e E
#
+
f

E :
+i/. 3A &am*le /ra*h
$a)a For Par) .#
Data and )alculations Ta,le 2A )oefficient of Yinetic +riction.

T
m2/
f
T
m1
At constant velocity8
+4 E 0
f F T E 0
+y E 0
T Q m2/ E 0
Trial 1 2 3 4 "
Total &lidin/ Mass
m1 ?:/@
#ormal +orce
+# E m1/ ?#@
5an/in/ Mass m2 ?:/@
A**lied +orce m2/ #@
Ma/nitude of
+rictional +orce ?#@
Value of coefficient of :inetic friction from /ra*h8
:
E KKKKKKKKKKKKK
E#$e%i&ent 3( THE CONSER*ATION OF
MECHANICAL ENER)Y
INTR!$UCTI!N#

Thou/h conservation of ener/y is one of the most *o$erful la$s of *hysics8 it is not
an easy *rinci*le to verify. 6f a ,oulder is rollin/ do$n a hill8 for e4am*le8 it is constantly
< 2" <
convertin/ /ravitational *otential ener/y into :inetic ener/y ?linear and rotational@8 and into
heat ener/y due to the friction ,et$een it and the hillside. 6t also loses ener/y as it stri:es
other o,!ects alon/ the $ay8 im*artin/ to them a certain *ortion of its :inetic ener/y.
Measurin/ all these ener/y chan/es is no sim*le tas:.
This :ind of difficulty e4ists throu/hout *hysics8 and *hysicists meet this *ro,lem ,y
creatin/ sim*lified situations in $hich they can focus on a *articular as*ect of the *ro,lem.
6n this e4*eriment you $ill e4amine the transformation of ener/y that occurs as an air trac:
/lider moves do$n an inclined trac:. &ince there are no o,!ects to interfere $ith the
motion and there is minimal friction ,et$een the trac: and /lider8 the loss in /ravitational
*otential ener/y as the /lider moves do$n the trac: should ,e very nearly e2ual to the
/ain in :inetic ener/y. 6n the form of an e2uation8 $e haveA
Y. E ?m/h@ E m/h
$here Y. is the chan/e in :inetic ener/y of the /lider8 Y. E Rmv
2
2
Q Rmv
1
2
and
?m/h@ is the chan/e in its /ravitational *otential ener/y ?m is the mass of the /lider8 / is
the acceleration of /ravity8 and h is the chan/e in the vertical *osition of the /lider@.
SUPPLI"S % "&UIP'"NT#
Air Trac: M accessory :it Meter stic: .lectronic ,alance
2 &him ,loc:s8 a,out 1 cm thic: Vernier cali*er hoto/ate timer
Accessory *hoto/ate timer Glider Air su**ly
hoto/ate timer transformer
PR!C"$UR" A
A>T AA
1. 'evel the air trac: as accurately as *ossi,le ,y settin/ the /lider at the middle of the
trac: and ad!ustin/ the levelin/ scre$s until there is no movement of the /lider. Cnce
leveled8 do not lean on the ta,le or *ush do$n on the /lider.
2. Measure D8 the distance ,et$een the air trac: su**ort le/s. >ecord the distance
a,ove ta,le A to the nearest millimeter.
3. lace a ,loc: of :no$n thic:ness8 58 under the su**ort le/ of the trac:. +or /reater
accuracy8 the thic:ness of the ,loc: should ,e measured $ith a vernier cali*er.
>ecord the thic:ness of the ,loc: a,ove ta,le A to the nearest tenth of a millimeter.
4. &et u* a *hoto/ate timer and an accessory *hoto/ate as sho$n in the fi/ure ,elo$.
< 2( <

'
5
d
D
+i/. 1A .2ui*ment &etu*.
". Measure and record d8 the distance the /lider moves on the air trac: from $here it
first tri//ers the first *hoto/ate8 to $here it tri//ers the second *hoto/ate. Nou can
tell $here the *hoto/ates are tri//ered ,y $atchin/ the '.D on to* of each
*hoto/ate. 7hen the '.D li/hts u*8 the *hoto/ate has ,een tri//ered. As al$ays
$hen measurin/ $ith a metric ruler8 your measurement should ,e to the nearest
millimeter.
(. Measure and record '8 the len/th of the /lider. ?The ,est techni2ue is to move the
/lider slo$ly throu/h one of the *hoto/ates8 and measure the distance it travels from
$here the '.D first li/hts u* to $here it !ust /oes off.@
7. Measure and record m8 the mass of the /lider.
-. &et the *hoto/ate timer to GAT. mode8 leave the memory function in the SoffS
*osition8 and *ress the >.&.T ,utton.
0. 5old the /lider steady near the end of the air trac:8 then release it8 ?don3t *ush@8 so it
/lides freely throu/h the *hoto/ates. >ecord t
1
the time durin/ $hich the /lider
,loc:s the first *hoto/ate and t
2
the time durin/ $hich it ,loc:s the second *hoto/ate.
#otice that t
2
E t
total
< t
1
. ?hoto/ate timer first dis*lays t
1
8 then t
total
E t
1
F t
2
8 and
does not dis*lay t
2
,y itself.@
10. >e*eat the measurement four times and record your data in ta,le A. Nou need not
release the /lider from the same *oint on the air trac: for each trial8 ,ut it must ,e
/lidin/ freely and smoothly ?minimum $o,,le@ as it *asses throu/h the *hoto/ate.
A>T 1A
1. >e*eat *rocedure A $ith a ,loc: of /reater thic:ness8 5 3. >ecord data in Ta,le 1.
CALCULATI!NS#
< 27 <
1. )alculate 8 the an/le of incline for the air trac:8 usin/ the e2uation E sin
<1
?h;d@.
&ince sin E h;d E 5;D8 you can calculate h E d ?5;D@8 $hich is the distance throu/h
$hich the /lider dro*s vertically in *assin/ ,et$een the t$o *hoto/ates.
2. +or each set of time measurementsA
a. Divide ' ,y t
1
and t
2
to determine v
1
and v
2
8 the velocity of the /lider as it *assed
throu/h each *hoto/ate.
,. Dse the e2uation Y. E Rmv
2
to calculate the :inetic ener/y of the /lider as it
*assed throu/h each *hoto/ate.
c. )alculate the chan/e in :inetic ener/y8 Y. E Y.
2
< Y.
1
.

D

d
5 h


D E distance ,et$een
su**orts
d E distance ,et$een
*hoto/ates
5 E ,loc: thic:ness ?distance
air trac: le/ raised@
+i/. 2A .levations
d. )alculate the avera/e value of Y. E Y.
2
< Y.
1
8 and calculate m/h. +ind the
*ercent difference ,et$een them. A small value of this *ercent difference is
e4*ected from the la$ of conservation of ener/y.
$ATA SH""T# CONSER*ATION OF MECHANICAL ENER)Y
< 2- <
art AA D E KKKKKKKKKKKK 5 E KKKKKKKKKKKK ' E KKKKKKKKKKKK d EKKKKKKKKKKKK
h E KKKKKKKKKKKK E KKKKKKKKKKKK m EKKKKKKKKKKKK
Data and )alculations Ta,le A
Trial 1 2 3 4 "
t
1
?s@
t
1
?s@
v
1
?m;s@
v
2
?m;s@
Y.
1
?=@
Y.
2
?=@
Y.
2
< Y.
1
?=@
Avera/e Y. E KKKKKKKKKKKK m/h E KKKKKKKKKKKK O difference E KKKKKKKKKKKK
A>T 1A D E KKKKKKKKKKKK 5 E KKKKKKKKKKKK ' E KKKKKKKKKKKK d EKKKKKKKKKKKK
h E KKKKKKKKKKKK E KKKKKKKKKKKK m EKKKKKKKKKKKK
Data and )alculations Ta,le 1A
Trial 1 2 3 4 "
t
1
?s@
t
1
?s@
v
1
?m;s@
v
2
?m;s@
Y.
1
?=@
Y.
2
?=@
Y.
2
< Y.
1
?=@
Avera/e Y. E KKKKKKKKKKKK m/h E KKKKKKKKKKKK O difference E KKKKKKKKKKKK
< 20 <
E#$e%i&ent 4( THE BALLISTIC PENDULUM
6n this e4*eriment $e $ill determine the initial velocity of a *ro!ectile ,y usin/ the
*rinci*les of the conservation of momentum and the conservation of ener/y.
INTR!$UCTI!N A
A device called a ,allistic *endulum $ill ,e used in this e4*eriment to determine the
initial velocity of a *ro!ectile. The device consists of a s*rin/ /un that *ro*els a metal ,all
of mass m into a *endulum ,o, of mass M. This *endulum<,all com,ination then s$in/s
u* onto a rac: $ith a velocity v !ust after im*act. The chan/e in hei/ht h throu/h $hich it
rises de*ends directly on the initial velocity v
o
of the ,all.
6n order to derive an e4*ression for the initial velocity v
o
of the *ro!ectile8 $e can
ma:e use of the la$ of conservation of linear momentum8 e4*ressed asA

mv
o

1efore 6m*act
Momentum 1efore 6m*act E Momentum After 6m*act
mv
o
E ?m F M@ V
v
o
E

+
m
M m
V .2.
1
The second *art of the *rocess involves the *endulum<,all com,ination emer/in/
$ith initial velocity v8 then risin/ from h
1
to h
2
. The conservation of ener/y for this *art can
,e e4*ressed asA

?mFM@V
6mmediately
After 6m*act
Y.
1
F .
1
?at h
1
@ E Y.
2
F .
2
?at h
2
@
0
Y.
1
< Y.
2
E .
2
< .
1
L since v
2
E 0
R?m F M@V
2
E ?m F M@/h
2
< ?m F M@/h
1
R?m F M@V
2
E ?m F M@/h
Rv
2
E /h

h
Y. E 0
At >est
. E ?mFM@/h
h1
h2
< 30 <
&o
V E
h / 2
.2. 2
&u,stitutin/ the e4*ression for V from .2. 2 into the momentum .2. 18 $e haveA
v
o
E

+
m
M m
h / 2 .2. 3
SUPPLI"S % "&UIP'"NT#
1allistic *endulum a**aratus >uler )<clam*
.lectronic ,alance &*irit level
PR!C"$UR" A
1. 'evel the a**aratus on the la, ta,le usin/ a s*irit level. Nou may need to shim the
a**aratus. 'i/htly clam* the a**aratus to the ta,le usin/ a )<clam*. Cnce leveled
and clam*ed8 do not lean on the ta,le or other$ise distur, the level of the a**aratus.
2. Determine the *osition ?h
i
@ of the center of mass of the stationary *endulum relative to
the ,ase *late. The center of mass is indicated ,y the *ointed *ro!ection on the side of
the *endulum.
3. Determine the mass of the ,all and record it on the data sheet.
4. +ire the /un si4 times8 each time recordin/ the num,er of the notch in $hich the
*endulum comes to rest.
". )alculate the avera/e notch num,er. lace the *endulum at this avera/e *osition and
determine the hei/ht ?h
f
@ from the ,ase *late to the *endulum center of mass.
)alculate h E h
f
< h
i
.
(. )alculate the velocity of the ,all and *endulum !ust after im*act. V E
h / 2
.
7. )alculate the initial velocity of the ,allA v
o
E

+
m
M m
V.
-. )alculate the ener/y loss in =oules. The :inetic ener/y ,efore im*act is Rmv
o
2
8 and
immediately after im*act the :inetic ener/y is R?mFM@V
2
. 7hat *ercent of the ori/inal
:inetic ener/y $as SlostS to non<conservative $or:X 7here did this ener/y /oX
$ATA SH""T# BALLISTIC PENDULUM
< 31 <
1allistic *endulum num,er KKKKKKKKKKKKKK ?&ee la,el on e2ui*ment@
Mass of endulum KKKKKKKKKKKKKK ?&ee la,el on e2ui*ment@
Mass of 1all KKKKKKKKKKKKKK :/
Data Ta,le 1A endulum 5ei/ht Measurements
Trial #otch H Trial #otch H Trial #otch H
1 3 "
2 4 (
Avera/e #otch
H
h
i
E hei/ht of *endulum $hen han/in/ freely KKKKKKKKKKKKKK m
h
f
E hei/ht of *endulum at avera/e notch num,er KKKKKKKKKKKKKK m
h E h
f
< h
i
KKKKKKKKKKKKKK m
6nitial velocity of ,allA v
o
E

+
m
M m
h / 2 ?.2. 3@ KKKKKKKKKKKK m;s
v
o
from .4*eriment "8 ro!ectile Motion KKKKKKKKKKKK m;s
O difference ,et$een the t$o v
o
KKKKKKKKKKKK
Velocity of *endulum M ,all after im*act8 V E
h / 2
?.2. 2@ KKKKKKKKKKKK m;s
Momentum ,efore collisionA mv
o
E KKKKKKKKKKKK :/<m;s

Momentum after collisionA ?mFM@V E KKKKKKKKKKKK :/<m;s
6s momentum conserved in this inelastic collisionX KKKKKKKKKKKK
Y.i ,efore collisionA Rmv
o
2
E KKKKKKKKKKKK =
Y.f after collisionA R?m F M@V
2
E KKKKKKKKKKKK =
6s :inetic ener/y conserved in this inelastic collisionX KKKKKKKKKKKK
.ner/y lossA 7
nc
E Y. F .
7
nc
E (Y.f Q Y.i@ F (.f < .i@
7
nc
E (Y.f Q Y.i@ F (m F M@/h KKKKKKKKKKKK =
O ener/y lossA
2
o
mv @ 2 ; 1 ?
nc
7
G 100O E KKKKKKKKKKKK O
E#$e%i&ent '!( TOR5UE AND CENTER OF MASS
< 32 <
PURP!S" A
The o,!ect of this e4*eriment is to use the method of ,alancin/ tor2ues to
determine the center of mass of a non<homo/eneous meter stic:8 and to determine the
un:no$n mass of an o,!ect.
INTR!$UCTI!N A
6f a ri/id o,!ect is in rotational e2uili,rium8 the net tor2ue actin/ on it8 a,out an a4is8
is 9ero. This e2uili,rium condition can ,e stated asA
E 0
$here E +d8 + is the a**lied force8 and d is lever arm. The lever arm is the distance from
the a4is of rotation ?the fulcrum@ to the *oint $here the do$n$ard force is a**lied. The
*lus si/n ZF[ corres*onds to a counter<cloc:$ise tor2ue and the ne/ative si/n Z<[
corres*onds to a cloc:$ise tor2ue.
The center of mass8 denoted here ,y )M8 is the *oint at $hich the mass of the
o,!ect can ,e considered to ,e concentrated. The *osition 4 of the )M of a non<
homo/eneous meter stic: can ,e determined ,y ,alancin/ the tor2ue of the stic: on one
side of the fulcrum $ith the tor2ue of a :no$n mass on the other side of the fulcrum.
5avin/ esta,lished the *osition of the )M and :no$in/ the mass of the stic:8 the
same *rocedure can ,e used to determine the un:no$n mass of another o,!ect.
SUPPLI"S % "&UIP'"NT#
7ei/hted meter stic: Ynife ed/e clam* &cissors Metal cu,e
.lectronic ,alance Ynife<ed/e stand 5oo:ed masses 'i/ht strin/
PR!C"$UR" A
A. ).#T.> C+ MA&& C+ A #C#<D#6+C>M M.T.> &T6)Y
1. >ecord the mass of the non<uniform meter stic: m
1
indicated on the electronic
,alance.
2. &et u* the a**aratus as sho$n in +i/. 18 ma:in/ sure that the fulcrum is at the
mid*oint of the stic:. &lide m
2
in alon/ the stic: until the stic: is in e2uili,rium.
>ecord m
2
and d
2
. 1e sure to include the mass of the strin/ in the mass of m
2
.
3. Dse .2. 1 to estimate the lever arm8 d
1
8 the distance of the meter stic: )M from
fulcrum. Then calculate 48 the *osition of the meter stic:%s )M relative to the
$ei/hted end of the stic:. This e2uation is o,tained from the e2uili,rium conditionA
< 33 <

counter<cloc:$ise
F
cloc:$ise
E +
1
d
1
< +
2
d
2
E 0
+
1
d
1
E +
2
d
2
d
1
E
1
2
+
+
d
2
E
/ m
/ m
1
2
d
2
d
1
E
/ m
/ m
1
2
d
2
E distance of )M from fulcrum .2. 1
4 E *osition of )M from $ei/hted end
E fulcrum *osition minus d
1

+ulcrum at mid*oint of stic:
4 d
1

m
2

cloc:$ise

is a ne/ative tor2ue
+
1
E m
1
/
d
2

+
2
E m
2
/
counter<cloc:$ise

is a *ositive tor2ue
E +
1
d
1
F ?+
2
d
2
@ E 0
+i/. 1
4. Move the fulcrum ".0 cm a$ay from the mid*oint8 to$ard the $ei/hted end of the
stic: as sho$n in +i/. 2. &lide m
2
to esta,lish e2uili,rium. >ecord m
1
and m
2
and
the ne$ value of d
2
8 the lever arm measured from the ne$ fulcrum *osition. Dse
.2. 1 to calculate the ne$ value of d
1
from the fulcrum *osition to o,tain your
second estimate of 4. The *osition of the )M of the stic: is 4.

Mid*oint of stic:
4 d
1

m
2

+
1
E m
1
/
d
2

+
2
E m
2
/
+ulcrum

+i/. 2
". To o,tain your third estimate of 48 remove m
2
and ,alance the stic: on a :nife ed/e
clam*. The meter stic: is ,alanced ,ecause its )M is restin/ on the :nife<ed/e
clam* $hich is at the fulcrum of the system. >ecord 48 the *osition of the )M from
the $ei/hted end of the stic:.
1. D.T.>M6#AT6C# C+ A# D#Y#C7# MA&&
< 34 <
1. 5avin/ calculated the *osition of the center of mass on the *revious *a/e8 set u*
the a**aratus as sho$n in +i/. 1 ,y movin/ the fulcrum ,ac: to the mid*oint of the
stic:. m
2
8 a metal cu,e8 $ill ,e the un:no$n mass.
2. Dsin/ a strin/8 han/ the un:no$n mass on the stic: and slide it alon/ the stic: to
,alance.
3. >ecord the ne$ value of d
2
. Dse .2. 2 to o,tain your estimate of the un:no$n
mass8 m
2
.
E 0 8 so +
1
d
1
F ?+
2
d
2
@ E 0 and +
2
E
2
1
d
+
d
1
8 /ivin/

m
2
/ E
2
1
d
/ m
d
1
.

m
2
E
2
1
d
m
d
1
.2. 2
4. 7ei/h the metal cu,e on the electronic ,alance and find the *ercent difference
,et$een the t$o measurements of m
2
.
). MD'T6'.<TC>UD. &N&T.MA +6#D6#G T5. MA&& C+ A M.TA' )D1.
?Dse the same m
2
as in art 1@
1. The e2uili,rium condition can ,e used even $hen there are several tor2ues
involved. &et u* the a**aratus as sho$n ,elo$A

+ulcrum at mid*oint of stic:
4 d
1

m
3

d
3

+
3

m
4
m
2

+
2
+
2
+
1

d
2

d
4

+i/. 3
2. Dse .2. 3 to o,tain another estimate of the un:no$n mass m
2
.
E 0 8 so +
1
d
1
F +
2
d
2
+
3
d
3
< +
4
d
4
E 0 /ivin/

+
2
E
2
1 1 4 4 3 3
d
d + d + d + +
m
2
E
2
1 1 4 4 3 3
d
d m d m d m +
.2. 3
3. +ind the *ercent difference ,et$een this measurement and the value o,tained
directly from the electronic ,alance.
$ATA SH""T# TOR5UE AND CENTER OF )RA*ITY
Data Ta,le AA Determination of the )enter of Gravity
< 3" <
+ulcrum osition m
1
?stic:@
?:/@
m
2
?:/@
d
1
?m@
d
2
?m@
4
?m@
At mid*oint
?&te*s 1 Q 3@ +i/. 1
I
At ".0 cm from mid*oint
?&te* 4@ +i/. 2
At )M
?&te* "@
Data Ta,le 1A Dn:no$n Mass m
2
m
1
?stic:@
?:/@
d
1
?m@
d
2
?m@
m
2
?from .2.
2@
?:/@
E 0
?&te*s 1<3@ +i/. 1
I
Dn:no$n mass
from $ei/hin/
?&te* 4@
ercent Difference KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK
Data Ta,le )A Multi*le Tor2ue &ystem. ?Dn:no$n mass m
2
8 same mass as in art 1.@
m
1
?:/@
d
1
?m@
m
3
?:/@
d
3
?m@
m
4
?:/@
d
4
?m@
d
2
?m@
m
2
?from
.2. 3@
?:/@
+i/. 3
E 0
I
ercent Difference KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK
E#$e%i&ent ''( ARCHIMEDES/ PRINCIPLE
< 3( <
PURP!S"#

Archimedes3 rinci*le $ill ,e used to determineA a@ the density of a symmetrically<
sha*ed o,!ectL ,@ the density of an irre/ularly<sha*ed o,!ectL and c@ the s*ecific /ravity of
a li2uid.
INTR!$UCTI!N#
Archimedes3 rinci*le states that an o,!ect that is su,mer/ed in a fluid is ,uoyed u*
,y a force that is e2ual in ma/nitude to the $ei/ht of the fluid dis*laced ,y the o,!ect. This
force is called the ,uoyant force8 or the ,uoyancy. The ,uoyant force can ,e determined
e4*erimentally $ith the follo$in/ setu*A

'a, =ac:
a*er )li*
1eam 1alance

1eam 1alance
T
1

1
m
a

m
m/
m/
T
2

+i/. 1 +i/. 2
T
1
E 7
o
?7ei/ht of o,!ect in air@ T
2
E 7
a$
?A**arent $ei/ht of o,!ect in $ater@
7
o
E m
o
/ T
2
E 7
o
+
1
7
a$
E 7
o
+
1

Therefore +
1
E 7
o
7
a$
?.2. 1@
Accordin/ to Archimedes3 *rinci*le8 the ,uoyant force8

+
1
E 7
$

or +
1
E m
$
/

&ince m$
E

$
V
$
then +
1
E
$
V
$
/ 8 and the volume of $ater dis*laced
,y the immersed o,!ect can ,e e4*ressed as
V
$
E +
1
;
$
/ ?.2. 2@
/e0 )o s01bols#
1
o
2 1ass o- ob3e*) 4,n a,r5 6 W o2 7e,g8) o- ob3e*) ,n a,r (
o
2 9ol+1e o- ob3e*)
1
a7
2 a::aren) 1ass o- ob3e*) ,n 7a)er 4-l+,;5 Wa7 2 a::aren) 7e,g8) o- ob3e*) ,n 7a)er
1
7
2 1ass o- 7a)er ;,s:la*e; W
7
2 7e,g8) o- 7a)er ;,s:la*e;

7
2 ;ens,)0 o- 7a)er 2 1<<< =g>1
? (7 2 9ol+1e o- 7a)er ;,s:la*e;
T5. D.#&6TN C+ A# C1=.)T
< 37 <
7hen an o,!ect is totally su,mer/ed in $ater ?a fluid@ 8 the volume of $ater
dis*laced is e2ual to the volume of the o,!ect.
?Volume of su,mer/ed o,!ect@ V
o
E V
$
?Volume of $ater dis*laced@ ?.2. 3@
&ince the volume of an o,!ect is V
o
E m
o
;

o 8 and volume of the fluid dis*laced is

V
$
E +
1
;
$
/.8 then ?.2. 3@ ,ecomes

m
o
;
o
E +
1
;
$
/
Density of the o,!ect can ,e e4*ressed as

o
E
1
o
+
/ m

$
?.2. 4@
The ,uoyant force +1 can ,e determined from the a**arent $ei/ht loss8 +1 E ?7
o
< 7
a$
@. 6t
can also ,e determined from the $ei/ht of the $ater dis*laced.
SUPPLI"S % "&UIP'"NT#
Dou,le *an ,alance1"0<ml ,ea:er 'a, !ac:
(00<ml ,ea:er 2"0<ml /raduated cylinder >oc: sam*le
Dn:no$n fluid Vernier cali*er 5ydrometer
&hort su**ort rod Ta,le clam* Cverflo$ can
&trin/ M scissors &mall *a*er cli*s Metal cu,e
PR!C"$UR"#
A. -E%1$&+ )F A 5E&A' *6BE
1. Measure the len/th of one side of the metal cu,e. )alculate the volume of the cu,e V
o
.
2. &us*end the cu,e from a ,eam ,alance mounted on a su**ort rod as in +i/ure 1 and
determine its mass8 m
o
.
3. 6mmerse the sus*ended cu,e in a ,ea:er of $ater as in +i/ure 2. Determine the
a**arent mass of the cu,e in $ater8 m
a$
.
4. Determine the ,uoyant force ?+
1
E 7
o
7
a$
@ in ne$tons. ?.2. 1@
". Determine the density of the cu,e from
o
E
1
o
+
7

$
. ?.2. 4@
B. -E%1$&+ )F A% $,,E/6'A,'+71.APE- ,)*2
< 3- <
1. &us*end a roc: from the ,eam ,alance and determine its mass8 m
o
in :ilo/rams.
2. 6mmerse the sus*ended roc: in a ,ea:er of $ater as in +i/ure 2.
3. Determine the a**arent mass of the roc: immersed in the fluid8 m
a$
in :ilo/rams.
4. Determine the ,uoyant force8 +
1
E 7
o
7
a$
8 in ne$tons ?#@. ?.2. 1@
". Determine the density of the roc: from
o
E
1
o
+
/ m

$
. ?.2. 4@
( Determine the mass of a 1"0<ml ,ea:er m
,
E KKKKKKKKKKKKKKK :/.
7. lace the dis*lacement can on a level surface near the ed/e of a sin:. +ill it $ith
$ater8 and let the e4cess drain off into the sin:.
-. &lo$ly lo$er the roc: into the $ater8 allo$in/ the dis*laced $ater to flo$ into the small
,ea:er. 7ei/h the ,ea:er $ith dis*laced $ater. m
,F$
E KKKKKKKKKKKKKKK :/.
0. Determine the mass of the $ater dis*laced8? m
$
E m
,F$
Q m
,@
.KKKKKKKKKK:/
10. Determine the $ei/ht of $ater dis*laced8 7$E m$/ E KKKKKKKKKKKK#. This is e2ual
in ma/nitude to the ,uoyant force +18 accordin/ to Archimedes *rinci*le.

11 .Determine the density of the roc: ,y a**lyin/ ?.2.4@8
o
E
1
o
+
/ m

$
. KKKKKKKKK:/;m
3
*. 1PE*$F$* /,A($&+ )F A% 6%2%)8% '$96$- .
1 7ith the same cu,e used in art A8 determine the ,uoyant force8 +
1 ?fluid@
on the metal
cu,e ,y immersin/ it in an un:no$n fluid.
+
1 ?fluid@
E 7
o
7
af
. 7
o
E $ei/ht of o,!ect in air.
+
1 ?fluid@
E m
o
/ m
af
/ 7
af
E a**arent $ei/ht of o,!ect in fluid.
2. )alculate the density of the fluid usin/ e2uation ?"@.
6n 7aterA
o
E
1
$ o
+
/ m
E
@ $ater ? 1
$ o
+
7
6n +luidA
o
E
1
f o
+
/ m
E
@ fluid ? 1
f o
+
7
Therefore8
@ fluid ? 1
f o
+
7
E


1
$ o
+
7
8 and

f
E
@ $ater ? 1
$ @ fluid ? 1
+
+

.2. "@
$here
o
E density of metal cu,e in air8
$
E density of $ater and
f
E density of +luid
3. )alculate the s*ecific /ravity8 &.G. E
$
f

.
4. +ill a tall measurin/ cylinder $ith the Vun:no$nW fluid. Dse a hydrometer to measure
the s*ecific /ravity of the fluid.
$ATA SH""T# ARCHIMEDES/ PRINCIPLE
A. Metal )u,e
< 30 <
Mass of cu,e mo E KKKKKKKKKK :/
?i@ A**arent mass of cu,e in $ater m
a$
E KKKKKKKKKK :/
1uoyancy +
1
E m
o
/ m
a$
/ +
1
E KKKKKKKKKK #
Density of cu,e
o
E
1
o
+
7

E KKKKKKKKKK :/; m
3
?ii@ 'en/th of side ' E KKKKKKKKKK m
Volume of cu,e V E KKKKKKKKKK m
3
Density of cu,e
o
E
o
o
V
m

E KKKKKKKKKK :/ ; m
3
?iii@ Density ?:no$n@

E KKKKKKKKKK :/ ; m
3
1. >oc:
Mass of roc: m
o
E KKKKKKKKKK :/
?i@ A**arent mass of roc: in $ater m
a$
E KKKKKKKKKK :/
1uoyancy +
1
E m
o
/ m
a$
/ +
1
E KKKKKKKKKK #
Density of roc:
o
E
1
o
+
7

EKKKKKKKKKK:/; m
3
?ii@ Mass of $ater dis*laced m
$
E KKKKKKKKKK :/
7ei/ht of $ater dis*laced 7$ E m$/ E +1 E KKKKKKKKKK #

Density of roc:
o
E
1
o
+
7

EKKKKKKKKKK :/; m
3
). &*ecific Gravity
Mass of cu,e ?from *art A@ mo E KKKKKKKKKK :/
A**arent mass of cu,e in fluid m
af
E KKKKKKKKKK :/
1uoyancy +
1?fluid@
E m
o
/ m
af
/ +
1
E KKKKKKKKKK #
Density of fluid
f
E
@ $ater ? 1
@ fluid ? 1
+
+

$
EKKKKKKKKKK:/; m
3
&*ecific /ravity
f
;
$
E KKKKKKKKKK
&*ecific /ravity measured $ith hydrometer E KKKKKKKKKK
E#$e%i&ent '( T HE COEFFICIENT OF
LINEAR EXPANSION
< 40 <
PURP!S" A

The *ur*ose of this e4*eriment is to measure the coefficient of linear e4*ansion for
various metals and to com*are the results $ith the :no$n values.
INTR!$UCTI!N A
6n most cases8 $hen materials are heated or cooled8 they under/o e4*ansion or
contraction res*ectively. +rom the stand*oint of materials science8 this *rocess must ,e
ta:en into account $hen desi/nin/ structures that are su,!ected to tem*erature variations.
Cther$ise8 tensile or com*ressive stresses mi/ht develo* $hich could destroy the
structure.
The linear ?one<dimensional@ coefficient of e4*ansion is defined as the fractional
increase in len/th divided ,y the tem*erature chan/e. This coefficient is desi/nated ,y
the Gree: letter al*ha ?@8 and is found to ,e almost constant over a $ide ran/e in
tem*erature. 6n e2uation form8 the definition of isA
E
T '
'
o

$here ' is the chan/e in len/th8 '

o
is the ori/inal len/th8 and T is the tem*erature
chan/e in de/rees )elsius.
6n this e4*eriment8 the value of the linear coefficient of e4*ansion of several rods of
common metals $ill ,e determined. The len/th of the rod is measured at room
tem*erature8 then steam is *assed over the rod $ith the resultin/ tem*erature increase
causin/ it to e4*and. The amount of e4*ansion is measured $ith a dial indicator. The
coefficient is then determined usin/ the data /athered.
SUPPLI"S % "&UIP'"NT#
'inear e4*ansion a**aratus Dial indicator
Aluminum8 co**er and steel rods .lectric steam /enerator
0 < 100
o
) Thermometer Glycerine
Meter stic:
PR!C"$UR" A
1. Measure and record the initial len/th of the rod '
o
8 to the nearest millimeter. Determine
and record the am,ient tem*erature ?room tem*erature@.
2. &et u* the a**aratus as sho$n in +i/ure 1. The steam !ac:et for the rod has an
o*enin/ for steam8 thermometer8 and rod ends8 and an outlet for the condensed steam.
+ill the steam /enerator a,out 2;3 full of $ater and turn on the /enerator8 ,ut do not
connect the /enerator to the e4*ansion a**aratus as yet. 6nsert the rod in the
a**aratus until it !ust ma:es contact $ith the dial indicator *ro,e and is in firm contact
$ith the scre$ at the other end.
< 41 <

&team inlet tu,e
Thermometer
>od
Dial indicator
&team
Generator
&team outlet tu,e
To sin:
+i/. 1. 'inear .4*ansion A**aratus $ith Associated .2ui*ment
3. Ma:e sure that the dial indicator is firmly scre$ed onto its holder and that the
/raduated rin/ is ti/htened do$n. &ee +i/. 2. >ecord the initial readin/ of the dial
indicator8 to the nearest 0.01 mm ?E 0.00001m@.

4
3
0.01 mm
0
1 cm;div
10
1 mm;div
&ecure mova,le rin/ firmly
1
0
0
-
7
(
2
"
0
1 2
-0
(0
40
20
30
"0
00
70
*er div.
+i/. 2 Dial 6ndicator ?Micrometer Gau/e@
>.AD6#G T5. D6A' 6#D6)ATC>A
.4am*leA
The /au/e to the left
indicates 0.07 mm
The /au/e ,elo$ indicates
0.14 mm

0
1
4
0
1 2
3
0
10
20
4. 7hen the /enerator is /eneratin/ steam ,ris:ly8 connect the steam tu,e to the inlet on
the a**aratus. 7arnin/\ 1e careful not to scald yourself.
". Allo$ the steam to $arm u* the rod to a constant ma4imum tem*erature8 T
ma4
. 7hen
the rod sto*s e4*andin/8 record the final readin/ of the dial indicator.
)alculate T E ?T
ma4
T
am,ient
@.
(. )alculate the chan/e in len/th8 ' E +inal readin/ < 6nitial readin/.
7. )alculate the coefficient of e4*ansion and record it on the data sheet. )om*are your
values $ith the :no$n values of the coefficient of linear e4*ansion ,y calculatin/ the
*ercent difference.
-. >e*eat the a,ove *rocedure for t$o other rods. 1e careful not to ,urn yourself on the
hot metal. 7hen finished8 dry the e2ui*ment thorou/hly.
< 42 <
$ATA SH""T# COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR EXPANSION
Am,ient Tem*erature KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK
o
)
Data and )alculations Ta,leA
Ty*e of >od Aluminum )o**er &teel
'
o
?m@
6nitial >eadin/ of Dial 6ndicator ?m@
+inal >eadin/ of Dial 6ndicator ?m@
T
ma4
?
o
)@
T ?
o
)@
' ?m@
?
o
)
<1
@
Yno$n ?
o
)
<1
@ 2.4 G 10
<"
1.7 G 10
<"
1.1 G 10
<"
ercent difference
< 43 <
E#$e%i&ent '+( THE HEAT OF FUSION OF ICE
PURP!S"#

The value of the latent heat of fusion for $ater $ill ,e determined ,y the method of
calorimetry.
INTR!$UCTI!N#
7hen a su,stance such as $ater under/oes a chan/e of state from the solid *hase
to the li2uid *hase8 not all of the heat ener/y that is added to the system is reflected in a
chan/e of tem*erature of the su,stance. &ome ener/y is needed to ,rea: the ,onds
,et$een the molecules of the su,stance and this ener/y is called the latent heat of fusion
of the su,stance.
6n today3s e4*eriment the latent heat of fusion $ill ,e determined ,y the method of
mi4tures and ,y a**lyin/ the *rinci*le that the heat lost is e2ual to the heat /ained
?conservation of ener/y@.
6n this e4*eriment8 an ice cu,e is *laced into a measured amount of $armed $ater
and is left to melt8 coolin/ the $ater in the *rocess. 1y notin/ the tem*eratures ,efore
and after meltin/8 the heat of fusion is then calculated as follo$sA
.EA& /A$%E-:
,y ice cu,e E ?heat needed to melt the ice@ F ?heat for $armin/ the melted ice@
U
i
E m
i
'
f
F m
i
c
$
?T
f
< 0
o
)@
.EA& ')1&:
,y $ater E ?mass of $ater@ G ?1.00 cal ; /
.o
)@ G ?tem*erature chan/e@
U
$
E m
$
c
$
?T
o
< T
f
@ c
$
E &*ecific heat of $ater.
,y calorimeter E ?mass of calorimeter@ G ?0.22 cal ; /
.o
)@ G ?tem*erature chan/e@
U
c
E m
c
c
c
?T
o
< T
f
@ c
c
E &*ecific heat of calorimeter.
*)%1E,(A&$)% )F E%E,/+:
5eat Gained E 5eat 'ost
U
i
E U
$
F U
c
.2. ?1@
m
i
'
f
F m
i
c
$
?T
f
< 0
o
)@ E m
$
c
$
?T
o
< T
f
@ F m
c
c
c
?T
o
< T
f
@
m
i
'
f
E m
$
c
$
?T
o
< T
f
@ F m
c
c
c
?T
o
< T
f
@ < m
i
c
$
?T
f
< 0
o
)@ .2. ?2@
< 44 <
'
f
E
i
o
f $ i f o c c f o $ $
m
@ ) 0 T ? c m @ T T ? c m @ T T ? c m +
.2. ?3@
SUPPLI"S % "&UIP'"NT#
Dou,le<$alled calorimeter 6ce cu,es &team Generator
Thermometer .lectronic ,alance 1ea:er
+orce*s;Ton/s
PR!C"$UR"#
1. Determine the mass of the *lastic collar. &li* the collar ,ac: on the inner cu*.
2. Determine the mass of the inner cu*8 stirrer and *lastic collar of the calorimeter.
3. +ill the inner cu* of the calorimeter to a,out 2;3 full $ith $arm $ater at a,out 40
o.
4. >e<determine the mass of the inner cu*8 stirrer8 collar8 and $ater. )alculate the mass
of $ater in the cu*.
". lace the cu*8 stirrer8 collar8 and $ater into the outer calorimeter !ac:et and record the
e4act tem*erature !ust ,efore the ice cu,e is *laced in the $ater.
(. 7i*e any e4cess $ater from an ice cu,e and *lace it carefully into the calorimeter cu*.
7. &tir the contents occasionally $hile constantly o,servin/ the ice cu,e. As soon as the
ice cu,e is com*letely melted8 record the tem*erature. This tem*erature is T
f
.
-. >e<determine the mass of the cu*8 stirrer8 collar8 and contents. The mass of the ice
cu,e can no$ ,e calculated.
0. )om*ute the heat of fusion of ice and com*are this to the acce*ted value ,y
calculatin/ the *ercent error.
10. >e*eat the e4*eriment. )omment on the re*roduci,ility of the results.
< 4" <
$ATA# THE HEAT OF FUSION OF ICE
Data and )alculations Ta,leA
Trial 1 2
Mass of inner cu*8collar and
stirrer of calorimeter ?/@
Mass of inner cu*8 collar8
stirrer and $ater ?/@
Mass of $ater ?/@
6nitial tem*erature
of $ater ?
o
)@
+inal tem*erature
of contents ?
o
)@
Mass of inner cu*8 collar
stirrer and contents ?/@
Mass of ice cu,e ?/@
5.AT
'C&TA
,y $ater ?cal@
,y calorimeter ?cal@
5.AT
GA6#.DA
,y ice cu,e ?cal@
5eat of fusion ?cal;/ram@
Yno$n value of
5eat of fusion ?cal;/ram@
70.7 cal;/ram 70.7 cal;/ram
O error
< 4( <
E#$e%i&ent ',( STANDIN) .A*ES ON STRIN)S
PURP!S"#
6n this e4*eriment $e $ill study the relationshi* ,et$een tension in a stretched
strin/ and the $avelen/th and fre2uency of the standin/ $aves *roduced in it.
INTR!$UCTI!N#
&tandin/ $aves are *roduced ,y the interference ,et$een t$o travelin/ $aves $ith
the same $avelen/th8 velocity8 fre2uency and am*litude travelin/ in o**osite directions.
The e2uation for the velocity of *ro*a/ation of transverse $aves on a stretched strin/ isA

=
T
v
. ?.2. 1@
$here T is the tension in the strin/ and is the linear density ?the mass *er unit len/th of
the strin/@. The velocity of *ro*a/ation v8 the fre2uency of vi,ration f8 and the $avelen/th
are related this $ayA
v E f ] ?.2. 2@
A stretched strin/ has many modes of vi,ration. 6t may vi,rate as a sin/le se/ment8
in $hich case its len/th is half of a $avelen/th. 6t may vi,rate in t$o se/ments $ith a node
?9ero dis*lacement@ at the center as $ell as at each endL then the $avelen/th is e2ual to
the len/th of the strin/. The $avelen/ths of the many modes of vi,ration are /iven ,y the
relationA
2
n
'

= 8
so8
n
' 2
= ?.2. 3@
$here ' is the len/th of the strin/8 is the $avelen/th8 and n is an inte/er called the
harmonic num,er8 indicatin/ the num,er of se/ments.
SUPPLI"S % "&UIP'"NT#
.lectric tunin/ for: "< rheostat Thic: strin/
&tro,osco*e >uler Thin strin/
.lectronic ,alance Meter stic: &lotted masses
o$er su**ly for tunin/ for: 'eads M connectors Ta,le clam*
>od *ulley "0</ram mass han/er &cissors
"</ram mass han/er (<inch S)S )lam*
< 47 <
PR!C"$UR"#
1. )ut off a *iece of the strin/ a,out 2 meters lon/ and determine its len/th8 mass and
linear density.
2. )lam* the a**aratus to one end of your ta,le and clam* the *ulley to the other end8 as
sho$n in +i/ure 1. Ynot the strin/ to one end of the tunin/ for: and :not the other end
to the mass han/er. &us*end the strin/ over the *ulley8 and ad!ust the *ulley until the
strin/ is hori9ontal. 7rite do$n the mass of the han/er.
3. )onnect the for: to the rheostat8 as your source of current as sho$n in +i/ure 18 $ith
the ta* on to* of the rheostat set very close to the *ositive end. Dse no more than a (
V settin/. &et the for: into vi,ration ,y ad!ustin/ the contact *oint scre$ a,ove and to
the left of the t$o terminals of the tunin/ for: a**aratus. The rheostat may need to ,e
ad!usted to create noticea,le ,ut not violent vi,rations.
4. Measure the fre2uency of the tunin/ for: usin/ a stro,osco*e. &tart $ith the hi/hest
stro,e fre2uency *ossi,le and lo$er it until one stationary ima/e of the tunin/ for: is
o,tained. 7hen lo$erin/ the fre2uency of the stro,e8 also o,serve that a stationary
ima/e is o,tained $hen the stro,e fre2uency is R8 ^8 _8 etc.8 times that of the tunin/
for:. Divide the num,er that a**ears on the stro,osco*e ,y (0 to /et the fre2uency of
the tunin/ for: in cycles *er second ?5ert9@.
". Vary the tension of the strin/ ,y addin/ masses to the han/er until the strin/ vi,rates in
five se/ments $ith ma4imum am*litude. Measure the len/th of one se/ment from a
*oint vertically over the center of the *ulley $heel to a node ?9ero am*litude@. The
$avelen/th $ill ,e t$ice the len/th of one se/ment. >ecord in the data ta,le the added
mass in :ilo/rams. Then record the total mass ?added mass *lus the mass han/er@ in
the data ta,le. >ecord the resultin/ tension T E m/ in #e$tons.
(. >e*eat the *rocedure for 48 3 and 2 se/ments ,y addin/ more mass to the *ulley.
7. )om*are the e4*erimental velocity ?v E f@ $ith the theoretical velocity ?
= ; T v
@ ,y
com*utin/ the *ercent difference.

&trin/
ulley
F <
'
( V 1attery
)har/er
+i/. 1A &tandin/ 7aves on &trin/s A**aratus
< 4- <
LABORATORY REPORT( STANDIN) .A*ES ON STRIN)S
'en/th of strin/ KKKKKKKKKKK m
Mass of strin/ KKKKKKKKKKK :/
E 'inear Density of &trin/ KKKKKKKKKK :/ ; m
Mass of han/er KKKKKKKKKKK :/
f E +re2uency of vi,ratin/ tunin/ for: KKKKKKKKKK 59
#um,er of
&e/ments
" 4 3 2
'en/th of one
se/ment ?m@
7avelen/th ?m@
Velocity from
v E f ?m;s@
Added mass ?:/@
Total mass ?:/@
Tension T ?#@
Velocity from
v E ; T ?m;s@
O difference
< 40 <
E#$e%i&ent '"( THE SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR
PURP!S"#

The s*eed of sound in air $ill ,e determined ,y means of an ad!usta,le air column
resonance tu,e8 driven ,y a :no$n fre2uency.
INTR!$UCTI!N#
7hen a tunin/ for: is set into vi,ration over the o*en end of a tu,e $hich is closed
at the other end8 a series of com*ressions and rarefactions occur $ithin the len/th of the
tu,e. 6f the len/th of the tu,e is such that an odd num,er of 2uarter $avelen/ths !ust fit
into the tu,e8 a condition :no$n as resonance occurs and the sound heard emanatin/ from
the tu,e is /reatly enhanced.
7hen resonance occurs8 the /as *articles !ust outside the mouth of the o*en tu,e
are oscillatin/ u* and do$n $ith their ma4imum am*litude. This location is called the
dis*lacement antinode8 and is sym,oli9ed in +i/ure 1 ,y curved lines sho$in/ a ma4imum
dis*lacement from the center of the column ?althou/h the actual dis*lacement is vertical8
not hori9ontal@. There must ,e a dis*lacement node at the ,ottom of the air column8 as the
$ater *revents the /as *articles from oscillatin/ u* and do$n.
&ince resonance occurs at odd multi*les of 2uarter $avelen/ths8 one is a,le to
determine the $avelen/th8 8 ,y notin/ the len/th of the tu,e at $hich resonance occurs.
ThusA

'
1

'
2

'
3

'
1
E ?1;4@ '
2
E ?3;4@ '
3
E ?";4@

+i/. 1.
+rom the a,ove e2uations8 the $avelen/th ?@ can ,e calculated asA
E ?'
3
< '
1
@ ?.2. 1@
E 2?'
2
< '
1
@ ?.2. 2@
< "0 <
Cnce the $avelen/th is determined8 the s*eed can ,e calculated from the
relationshi*A
&*eed E 7avelen/th G +re2uency
or8
v E f. ?.2. 3@
The theoretical s*eed of sound in meters *er second is /iven ,y the relationA
v E 331." F 0.(07 T. ?.2. 4@
$here 331." m;s is the s*eed of sound at 0
C
) in meters *er second and T is the
tem*erature in )elsius de/rees.
SUPPLI"S % "&UIP'"NT#
>esonance a**aratus Thermometer"12 59 tunin/ for: 1ea:er
4-0 59 tunin/ for: Tur:ey ,aster >u,,er mallet
PR!C"$UR"#
1. Ad!ust the $ater level in the tu,e ,y raisin/ the reservoir until the $ater level is a,out
10 cm from the to* of the tu,e. &ee +i/ure 2.
+i/. 2.
2. &tri:e the for: $ith the ru,,er mallet and hold it ?hori9ontally@ close to the to* of the
tu,e8 $ith the *ron/s vi,ratin/ vertically. 'o$er the reservoir until the first resonance is
heard. >ecord this *osition as '
1
.
3. Determine the len/ths for the other t$o resonance *ositions as in ste* 2.
4. Ta:e the avera/e of three readin/s at each resonance *osition for calculatin/ the
s*eed of sound in air. )om*are this to the theoretical value.

". >e*eat the *rocedure for another for: of a different fre2uency.
< "1 <
$ATA# THE SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR
Data for tunin/ for: of fre2uency "12 59
Avera/es
'
1
E KKKKKKKKK m8 KKKKKKKKK m8 KKKKKKKKK m '
1
E KKKKKKKKK
'
2
E KKKKKKKKK m8 KKKKKKKKK m8 KKKKKKKKK m '
2
E KKKKKKKKK
'
3
E KKKKKKKKK m8 KKKKKKKKK m8 KKKKKKKKK m '
3
E KKKKKKKKK
E '
3
< '
1
E KKKKKKKKKKKK m
Avera/e KKKKKKKKKKKK
E 2 ?'
2
< '
1
@ E KKKKKKKKKK m
.4*erimental value for the s*eed of sound8 v E f E KKKKKKKKKKK m;s
Theoretical value for the s*eed of sound E KKKKKKKKKKK m;s ?.2. 4@
O .rror E KKKKKKKKKKK
Data for tunin/ for: of fre2uency 4-0 59
Avera/es
'
1
E KKKKKKKKK m8 KKKKKKKKK m8 KKKKKKKKK m '
1
E KKKKKKKKK
'
2
E KKKKKKKKK m8 KKKKKKKKK m8 KKKKKKKKK m '
2
E KKKKKKKKK
E 2 ?'
2
< '
1
@ E KKKKKKKKKK m
.4*erimental value for the s*eed of sound E KKKKKKKKKKKKKKK m;s
Theoretical value for the s*eed of sound E KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK m;s ?.2. 4@
O .rror E KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK
< "2 <
Ph6si7s 0 L89o%8to%6 Assign&ent
art 6.
Vie$ the video *roduced ,y the =et ro*ulsion 'a,oratory8 #A&A &*ace A/ency8
asadena )alifornia. The se/ments that $ill ,e sho$n areA
a@ &*ace +li/ht C*erations +acility
,@ Ma/ellanA .4*loration of Venus
c@ Trac:in/ and Data Ac2uisition
d@ '.A. The Movie
e@ Miranda The Movie
f@ .arth The Movie
/@ Mars The Movie
7rite one or t$o sentences on each se/ment. Ma:e sure that your re*ort is neat and
le/i,le.
art 66. .GT>A )>.D6T
+ind an article in a *eriodical or ,oo: ?not an enc4clopeia @ that is related to
satellites8 s*ace craft or s*ace technolo/y. Nou may $ant to consider usin/ the
cumulative inde4 in the li,rary. The follo$in/ are some e4am*les of the ty*e of literature
that you may consider8 ,ut are certainly not limited toA
#ational Geo/ra*hic
Discover Ma/a9ine
o*ular &cience
hysics Today
Time Ma/a9ine
#e$s$ee:
D& #e$s >e*ort
#e$s*a*ers
&cientific American
&cience Di/est
Various te4t,oo:s
1oo:s
.tc.
7rite a summary of the article. The len/th of this summary should ,e a,out one
*a/e of neatly and le/i,ly hand<$ritten te4t or half *a/e of ty*e<$ritten te4t.
Attach the article ?a Gero4 co*y is o:ay@ to your re*ort.
This assi/nment can earn u* to 10 *oints e4tra credit de*endin/ on the 2uality of
the $or:.
< 2 <