Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
=
|
is minimized
}
Here, t represents the time that has passed since the last
meeting of node p
0
with p
1
and
0 1 ( ) p R t p|
is the expected
residual time for node p
0
to meet with node p
1
given that they
have not met in the last t time units.
0 1 ( ) p R t p|
can be
computed with parameters of distribution representing the
intermeeting time between p
0
and p
1
. Assume that node g
observed n intermeeting times with node h in its past. Let
1 2
( ), ( ),... ( )
n
g g g
h h h t t t
denote these values. Then:
g R(ht) |
= 1
( )
( )
n
g
i
g
i
i
f h
h t
=
|{t > }|
where
( )
g
i
f h =
( ) ( )
i i
g g
h t i f h t
0 Otherwi se
t t >
Each node forms the aforementioned network model and
collects the standard and uncertain intermeeting times of other
nodes between each other through epidemic link state protocol
International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology (IJETT) Volume 4 Issue 9- Sep 2013
ISSN: 2231-5381 http://www.ijettjournal.org Page 3897
as in [10]. However, once the weights are known, it is not as
easy to nd USPs as it is to nd SPs. Consider Figure 5
where the USP(A, E) follows path 2 and USP(A, D) follows
(A, B, D). This situation is likely to happen in a DTN, if
D(E|B) D(E|C) is satised. Running Dijkstras or
Bellman-ford algorithmon the current graph structure cannot
detect such cases and concludes that USP(A, E) is ( A, B, D,
E).
Given a DLN graph G =(V, E), we obtain a new graph
G =(V, E) where:
V _ V V and E _ V V where
' {( ) (m) } ' {( , ) }
' ( ,
)
)
b u b
b u
V b N and E a c m u
where w c
c b if b i
c otherwise
a
a
= | e = | =
) =
t( | =
t(
Note that the edges in E
b
(in G) are made directional in G and
the edges in E
u
between the same pair of nodes are separated
in E. For example, for a path A,B,C,D in G, an edge like
(CD,DA) in G cannot be chosen because of the edge settings
in the graph. Hence, only the correct values will be added to
the path calculation. To solve the USP problemhowever, we
add one vertex for source S (apart from its permutations) and
one vertex for destination node D. We also add outgoing
edges fromS to each vertex (i
S
) e V with weight R
S
(i|t).
Furthermore, for the destination node, D, we add only
incoming edges fromeach vertex i
j
e V with weight
i
(D|j).
In Figure 4, we show a sample transformation of a clique
of four nodes to the new graph structure. In the initial graph,
all mobile nodes A to D meet with each other, and we set the
source node to A and destination node to D (we did not show
the directional edges in the original graph for brevity). The
focus of this paper is an improvement of the current design of
the Straight Path (SP) based DLN Thrashing algorithms.
Therefore we leave the elaborate discussion of some other
issues in SP based Thrashing (complexity, scalability and
Thrashing type selection) to the original studies [7] [10].
We believe that in current DLNs, wireless devices have
enough storage and processing power not to be unduly taxed
with such an increase. Moreover, to lessen the burden of
collecting and storing link weights, an asynchronous and
distributed version of the Bellman-Ford algorithmcan be used,
as described in [17]. In G, |V | =O (|V|
2
) and |E| =O (|V
3
|)
=|E|
3/2
. Therefore Dijkstras algorithmwill run in O (|V
3
|)
(with Fibonacci heaps) while computing standard Straight
paths (where edge costs are standard intermeeting times) takes
O (|V|
2
).
Fig 4: Graph Transformation to solve USP with 4 Nodes where A is the
source and D the destination node.
IV. REPLICATIONS
In this section, we describe the details of our simulations
through which we compare the proposed Uncertain Straight
Path Thrashing (USPT) algorithmwith standard Straight Path
Thrashing (SPR). For a simulation run, we generated 5000
messages froma randomsource node to a randomdestination
node at each t seconds. In Roller Net, since the duration of
experiment is short, we set t =1s, but for Cambridge data set,
we set t =1min.
We assume that the nodes have enough buffer space to
store every message they receive, the bandwidth is high and
the contact durations of nodes are long enough to allow the
exchange of all messages between nodes. These assumptions
are reasonable in todays technology and are also used
commonly in previous studies [18]. Moreover, we compare all
algorithms in the same conditions, and a change in the current
assumptions is expected to affect the performance of themin
the same manner. We ran each simulation 10 times with
different seeds but the same set of messages and collected
statistics after each run. The results plotted in Figures 7 and 8
show the average of results obtained in all runs.
The graph can be seen also as the representation of the
capacity-delay region achievable in the two cases. Note that
this region shows some performance limitations of the DLN
considered in the experiment; this is coherent with previous
work [15] and due to the fact that time schedule for public
transportation is inherently designed to reduce contacts among
the buses. Figure 5 shows the delivery rates achieved in USPT
and DPR algorithms with respect to time (i.e. TTL of
messages) in RollerNet traces [18]. Clearly, USPT algorithm
delivers more messages than DPR algorithm. Moreover, it
achieves lower average delivery Disruption than SPR
algorithm.
Fig 5: Message delivery ratio vs. time in RollerNet traces.
These results show that the uncertain intermeeting time
represents link cost better than the standard intermeeting time.
BSS manages to reduce the total requested time of receiving
5000 frames by almost 80% in the worst case. In Space
environments, where LTP red transmission is used in place
of TCP, BSS achieves better results only in cases where the
error rate of the channel is above 10%. Furthermore, based on
a different set of experiments that due to lack of space we
cannot present here, we note another interesting property of
BSS: it manages to reduce the total number of out-of-order
received packets in comparison with the normal ION
configuration using LTP alone.
Therefore, in USPT, more effective paths with similar
average hop counts are selected to route messages.
Consequently, higher delivery rates with lower end-to-end
Disruptions are achieved. In SPR and USPT algorithms here,
we used source-Thrashing and let the messages follow the
paths which are decided at the source nodes [20].
International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology (IJETT) Volume 4 Issue 9- Sep 2013
ISSN: 2231-5381 http://www.ijettjournal.org Page 3898
V. CONCLUSION
In this paper, we introduced a new metric called Uncertain
intermeeting time inspired by the results of the recent studies
showing that nodes intermeeting times are not memory less
and that motion patterns of mobile nodes are frequently
repetitive. Then, we looked at the effects of this metric on
Straight path based Thrashing in DLNs. For this purpose, we
updated the Straight path based Thrashing algorithms using
uncertain intermeeting times and proposed to route the
messages over Uncertain Straight paths.
Finally, we ran simulations to evaluate the proposed
algorithmand demonstrated the superiority of USPT protocol
over the existing Straight path thrashing algorithms. For this,
we plan to use probabilistic context free grammars (PCFG)
and utilize the construction algorithmpresented in [26]. Such
a model will be able to hold history information concisely, and
provide further generalizations for unseen data.
VI. REFERENCES
[1] Delay tolerant networking research group,
http://www.dtnrg.org.
[2] T. Spyropoulos, K. Psounis,C. S. Raghavendra, Efcient
routing in inter- mittently connected mobile networks: The
single-copy case, IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking,
vol. 16, no. 1, Feb. 2008.
[3] J. Burgess, B. Gallagher, D. Jensen, and B. N. Levine,
MaxProp: Routing for Vehicle-Based Disruption- Tolerant
Networks, In Proc. IEEE Infocom, April 2006.
[4] A. Vahdat and D. Becker, Epidemic routing for partially
connected ad hoc networks, Duke University, Tech. Rep.
CS-200006, 2000.
[5] T. Spyropoulos, K. Psounis,C. S. Raghavendra, Efcient
routing in inter- mittently connected mobile networks: The
multi-copy case, IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking,
2008.
[6] Y. Wang, S. Jain, M. Martonosi, and K. Fall, Erasure
coding based routing for opportunistic networks, in
Proceedings of ACM SIGCOMM workshop on Delay
Tolerant Networking (WDTN), 2005.
[7] S. Jain, K. Fall, and R. Patra, Routing in a delay tolerant
network, in Proceedings of ACM SIGCOMM, Aug. 2004.
[8] T. Spyropoulos, K. Psounis,C. S. Raghavendra, Spray and
Wait: An Efcient Routing Scheme for Intermittently
Connected Mobile Networks, ACM SIGCOMM Workshop,
2005.
[9] A. Lindgren, A. Doria, and O. Schelen, Probabilistic
routing in in- termittently connected networks,
SIGMOBILE Mobile Computing and Communication
Review, vol. 7, no. 3, 2003.
[10] E. P. C. Jones, L. Li, and P. A. S. Ward, Practical routing
in delay tolerant networks, in Proceedings of ACM
SIGCOMM workshop on Delay Tolerant Networking
(WDTN), 2005.
[11].Internet Research Task Force Delay Tolerant Networking
Research Group, http://www.dtnrg.org/,
http://www.irtf.org/charters/dtnrg.html
[12]. Farrell, S., Cahill, V., Geraghty, D., Humphreys, I.,
McDonald, P.: When TCP Breaks: De- lay and Disruption
Tolerant Networking. IEEE Internet Computing, 7278
(2006)
[13] T. Spyropoulos, K. Psounis, and C. Raghavendra, Spray
and Focus: Efficient Mobility-Assisted Routing for
Heterogeneous and Correlated Mobility, In Proceedings of
IEEE PerCom, 2007.
[14] E. Daly and M. Haahr, Social network analysis for
routing in disconnected Disruption-Lenient manets, In
Proceedings of ACM MobiHoc, 2007.
[15] P. Hui, J. Crowcroft, and E. Yoneki, BUBBLE Rap:
Social Based Forwarding in Disruption Lenient Networks,
In Proc. of ACM MobiHoc, 2008.
[16] A European Union funded project in Situated and
Autonomic Communications, www.haggleproject.org.
[17] D. Bertsekas, and R. Gallager, Data networks (2nd ed.),
1992.
[18] C. Liu and J. Wu, An Optimal Probabilistically
Forwarding Protocol in Disruption Lenient Networks, in
Proceedings of MobiHoc, 2009.
[19] J. Leguay, A. Lindgren, J . Scott, T. Friedman, J.
Crowcroft and P. Hui, CRAWDAD data set upmc/content
(v. 2006-11-17), downloaded from
http://crawdad.cs.dartmouth.edu/upmc/content, 2006.
[20] Y. Wang, P. Zhang, T. Liu, C. Sadler and M. Martonosi,
http://crawdad.cs.dartmouth.edu/princeton/zebranet,
CRAWDAD data set princeton/zebranet (v. 2007-02-14),
2007.