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Exam study guide to Pre-18th c. Literature

General information
This exam covers an enormous time span within which are some of the great names of
English literature (haucer! "ha#espeare! $ilton! %onne! &acon to 'egin with(. )e
feel that all students of English language and literature should 'e aware of the main
historical events and something of the great literature that was written in these earlier
periods.
Study aids
To assist students to prepare for the exam and read a'out the 'ac#ground we have
given*
1. + short historical note and a survey of the literature of each period!
,. -eading suggestions (in the reading list at the end( from the following anthologies of
English literature*
The Oxford Anthology of English Literature (mar#ed .x(
The Norton Anthology of English Literature (mar#ed /t(
.f course any other comprehensive anthology will do.
+m'itious students may also use other sources (prefaces! studies! internet! notes! etc.(
0or extra historical 'ac#ground consult relevant chapters in
%avid %aiches, A Critical History of English Literature! vols 1!,.
Taking the exam
)hen students come to the exam they should 'ring with them a well presented list of
what they have read and underline those things they found most interesting! or
rewarding or to which they have given special study
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1
The Beginnings of English
Old and Middle English (7
th
c. 1! c."
12"T.-2+L /.TE
#oman $ithdra$al to %orman &on'uest of 1())
&ritain was a province of the -oman Empire for nearly 344 years. 2t was named
Britannia after the &ritons! the original eltic-spea#ing inha'itants. %uring the 5
th
c
+% the -omans were forced to withdraw their legions to meet the pressure on other
parts of the Empire. &ut much of -oman civili6ation remained.
1istorical 'rea#s are never a'solute. urrents of old and new long continue to
flow one a'ove the other and to affect each other. This should 'e remem'ered in all
su'se7uent sections of this guide
Even during the time they were part of the -oman Empire the islands of &ritain
were under attac# 'y the )est 8ermanic tri'es of the *ngles and Saxons and later!
during the 5
th
and 9
th
cc! as the -omans withdrew these tri'es gradually 'egan
increasingly to settle in &ritain pushing the native &elts to the north and west ("cotland!
2reland! )ales! ornwall(. The country then 'ecame #nown as +ngleland or England.
&y the 8
th
c +nglo-"axon #ingdoms covered the whole of what is today England (except
the far western tip of ornwall(.
2n the :
th
and 14
th
cc new con7uerors came to the islands ; the +ikings or
/orsemen from "candinavia. They settled in the north and in East +nglia and were in
constant conflict with the "axon #ingdoms of the richer south and south-west
&y the 14
th
century England was more or less divided into two parts! the northern parts
under %anelaw and the south under "axon rule (the "axon names are still found in the
county names of Essex < East "axons and "ussex < "outh "axons while the novels of
Thomas 1ardy were set in what was once )essex < )est "axons(.
.ne great name of the "axon cultural heritage that is always remem'ered is that
of *lfred the Great who was =ing of the )est "axons and an outstanding military
leader against the %anes. 1e was important in the history of culture and literature for the
revival of learning which he organi6ed in what is now the south of England mostly
'ased on the translation of legal and philosophical 'oo#s pu'lished in Latin. +n
important 'oo# that he also included was the >enera'le &ede?s history of the early days
of the hristian church in England Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum, @
th
c. There
was an important centre of hristianity! and thus of learning! in the extreme northeast of
England. &ede was a scholar and historian in one of these northern monasteries and had
the reputation of Aa wise! learned and hum'le manB
2ndeed hristianity first reached England through the monastery on 1oly 2sland
off the east coast of /orthum'erland from which the 'eautiful Lindisfarne 8ospels
come and which was sac#ed 'y the >i#ings! a cultural monument still much visited.
+lfred also had early accounts of exploration to the )hite "ea and the &altic written
down and largely 'ased on information he received direct from the explorers! thus
showing his interest in current affairs not only culture.
$any popular legends tell of the exploits of +lfred. 2t is very li#ely due to him
that in the :
th
c. the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was compiled from 'oo#s in various
monasteries (then of course the only centres of literacy( recording events in the early
days of "axon settlement.
+lfred was succeeded 'y a son worthy of him! 'ut after his son?s death the
)essex royal line 'ecame wea#er. -eal power passed to the %anes and an +nglo-
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%anish line gained ascendancy over the wea# +nglo-"axon #ings. + %anish #ing of the
time #nown for his wisdom and statesmanship was =ing anute (round his name too
li#e that of +lfred the 8reat popular legends have grown up! particularly famous 'eing
that when he proved to his courtiers that no man is stronger than the natural elements 'y
sitting on the seashore and 'idding the tide not to come in! which of course it did(. The
last "axon #ing was #nown for his saintliness (after his death he was canonised( as
AEdward the onfessor?.
L2TE-+TC-E +"".2+TE% )2T1 T12" E+-L2E- PE-2.%
The +nglo-"axon invaders 'rought with them a tradition of oral poetry 'ut literacy
(and therefore writing( was mainly restricted to the hurch and so it is natural that most
.ld English written literature deals with religious su'Dects written on parchment often
with great s#ill and 'eauty. 8ermanic poetry continued to 'e performed orally in
alliterati,e ,erse and was at times used to descri'e current events. The attle of
runa!urgh cele'rates an English victory over the %anes and the attle of "aldon
cele'rates a >i#ing victory.
The oldest and most famous of the ancient heroic poems is eo#ulf! which was
composed 'etween the 8
th
and the 14
th
c. (scholars differ in their opinions( 'ut was not
written down until the end of the 14c.
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The %orman .egacy
Middle English /oetry
12"T.-2+L /.TE
/orman con7uest to )ars of the -oses mar#ing the end of medieval period
The date 1()) is perhaps the most famous and widely remem'ered date in English
history. This was the year when )illiam %u#e of /ormandy claimed the throne of
England saying that Edward the onfessor (the last "axon #ing( had proclaimed him
heir. 1e invaded and met the English army led 'y the powerful +nglo-%anish #ing
1arold 8odwin who 'y this time virtually ruled the whole of England. The ensuing
&attle of 1astings was won 'y the /ormans! largely 'ecause of their strategic use of the
long 'ow and high level of military training that had not 'een seen since -oman times!
also to the fact that 8odwin?s army was exhausted 'y earlier 'attles and 'ecause
8odwin was himself #illed in 'attle. (The place on the shores of "ussex where the
'attle too# place is now a cultural memorial! and the scene from the 'attle where
8odwin was pierced in the eye and #illed 'y a /orman arrow is one of the famous
ta'leaux in $adame Tussauds(.
The coming of the /ormans was of deep and lasting significance for the English
language and the development of English culture and literature. This was a gradual
process since among the educated classes Latin (in ecclesiastical life( and /orman
0rench (in feudal life( were the languages in use among the higher classes! 'ut .ld
English! the language that too# shape among the 8ermanic settlers in England
continued to 'e used 'y the maDority of ordinary fol# ; though it was gradually
modified to 'ecome what is #nown as $iddle English.
"ome nota'le historical events of the 1,
th
; 1E
th
century are generally! though
s#etchily! #nown 'y most educated people*
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2n the reign of 1enry 22 (grandson of )illiam the on7ueror(* the first seeds of
English &ommon .a$ were sown. ommon Law is still 'asic to the &ritish (though
not the "cottish( legal system and to most of the countries that were once part of the
&ritish Empire(. 1enry 22?s reign ended with the murder of Thomas &ec#et in
anter'ury athedral! a conse7uence of the #ing?s attempt (though he did not order the
murder( to 'ring the church authorities under royal authority. This cele'rated in
literature not only 'y haucer?s Canter!ury Tales 'ut 'y one of the 'est #nown plays of
the ,4th c. 'y T.". Eliot (1888-1:95(
-ichard the Lionheart (end 1,
th
c( was famous for his courage! character and
military valour through Europe and was the dominating personality of the Third
rusade. 2n England his 'rother Fohn succeeded him and was deeply unpopular among
the no'les who forced him to sign Magna Carta (later #nown as the Great Charter of
the li'erties of England! 1,15(! which reduced the power of the #ing and sought to
remedy the excessive 'urden of feudalism especially in taxes levied 'y the #ing. 2t is
nowadays thought of as the first document of civil li'erties.
The medieval period! during which the #ings of /orman descent reigned! was
mar#ed 'y almost constant warfare 'etween England and 0rance 'ecause the western
parts of 0rance were still claimed 'y the #ings of England as part of their /orman
heritage. (The context of one of "ha#espeare?s great history plays! Henry $ with its
dramatic &attle of +gincourt section is 'ased on the rival claims 'etween England and
0rance(. 2t was also mar#ed 'y constant power struggles 'etween the =ing and the
&arons (hence the importance of "agna Carta(.
The $iddle +ges ended with the )ars of the -oses a long struggle 'etween the
1ouse of Gor# (white rose( and the 1ouse of Lancaster (red rose( 'oth of whom had
claims on the English throne. The wars 'egan in 1E55 in the reign of 1enry >2 and
ended with the defeat and death of -ichard 222 (at the &attle of &osworth in 1E85 also
the su'Dect of one of "ha#espeare?s great history plays(. The wars were ended 'y the
marriage of Eli6a'eth of Gor# to 1enry Tudor (of the 1ouse of Lancaster( thus uniting
the two houses. 1enry Tudor ascended to the throne of England in 1E85 as 1enry >22
and founded the 1ouse of Tudor.
P.ET" +/% P.ET-G

Geoffrey &haucer (13E3-1E44( is the most famous poet of the late $iddle +ges! and
The Canterbury Tales his most famous poem. The text as we have it today pro'a'ly
dates from 1384! Dust over three hundred years from the /orman on7uest. %uring this
period the 'asically 8ermanic language had come under the influence of 0rench to
evolve into what we #now as $iddle English. There were however great differences
'etween the regional dialects of London! the )est country! and the /orth (many of
which persist today(. haucer and some other writers too# the English of London!
which had 'egun to 'ecome the dominant dialect! and their writings were the 'eginning
of modern "tandard English. This is the reason that The Canter!ury Tales are regarded
as the first English poem! at a time when most HimportantB wor#s were written in Latin
or 0rench. 2t was haucerIs last and greatest wor#! 'ut 'efore it he had written a
considera'le amount of earlier poetry much of which was under 0rench or 2talian
influence.
The Canter!ury Tales came at the end of an eventful and in some cases
politically responsi'le career. 2n the /ormanIs wars against the 0rench haucer was
ta#en prisonerJ he was ransomed and then married into the great family of the %u#e of
Lancaster! #nown as Fohn of 8aunt! a famous soldier and politician. 2n his service he
carried out political wor# in 0rance and 2taly (where he may have met &occaccio and
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Petrarch! and certainly met writers in 2talian cultural circles(. 1e played an important
part in London political and administrative life! including the 'uilding of )estminster
+''ey and was controller of customs in the Port of London.
+ll his great experience of men and women and of social and practical life
haucer pac#ed into his last poem. 2t is this understanding of contemporary people and
of the life! language and experience of many different characters! classes! professions
and occupations that ma#es The Canter!ury Tales such rich reading.

The two other poems famous from this period are Sir Gawain and the Green
Knight and Piers Plowman%
The first is a story from the *rthurian cycle and the protagonists are from the
#nightly world of chivalry of which many scenes are vividly descri'ed (the hristmas
'an7uet at +rthur?s court at which the huge 8reen man and horse arrive with the
#night?s ama6ing challengeJ the hunting scenes later in the poemJ the scenes of moral
choice which "ir 8awain faces at the end
The $ision of &iers &lo#man is in the form of a dream in which the narrator has
a vision of a H0ield full of 0ol#B! these are the people of fourteenth-century England.
The %reamer descri'es the church and churchmen with savage and indignant satire.
They have failed the ordinary fol# and so too have the wealthy who will not help the
poor in their suffering. Piers Plowman! after whom the poem is named! does not appear
until the third and fourth sections. 1e offers himself as guide to the people who must
first help him plough half an acre
HThis episode is a 'rilliant allegory of how people in an ideal community should wor#
together for the common good! 'ut how actual society 'rea#s down! especially in times
of plenty. The only effective enforcer of social order is not the #night! who represents
the ruling class! 'ut 1unger! a grim figure that graphically portrays the ravages of
famine during the fourteenth centuryB (Norton 2! p. 318(
0
#enaissance and #eformation 1!th 1)th cc
12"T.-2+L /.TE
The Tudors (1enry >22! 1enry >222! Edward >2! $ary and Eli6a'eth 2(! now provided
England with a strong government that allowed it to 'ecome one of the leading powers
in Europe and develop an important literature in the English language.
1enry >22 has 'een said to 'e the 'est 'usinessman that ever sat on the English
throne. +s new wealth 'egan to flow in from the /ew )orld and +sia with su'se7uent
changes in trade and commerce which 'ecame concentrated in the ports of )estern
Europe (wea#ening the eastern $editerranean ports( it was a good thing to have an
administrator and 'usinessman at the head of the realm and he provided the prosperous
'ac#ground against which his son 1enry >222 and grand-daughter Eli6a'eth 2 were a'le
to 'uild their independent courses. %iscovery of the riches of the new world was 'asic
to the development of -enaissance England.
E7ually important for the history of England at this time was the -eformation
the great religious movement of the 19
th
c. which 'egan with a call for the reform of the
doctrines and practices of the atholic hurch and ended with the esta'lishment of
various reformed and Protestant churches.
2n England it resulted in the founding of the hurch of England (or +nglican
hurch( during the reign of 1enry >222. This coincided with the #ing?s personal desires
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'ut also with those of the governing class that surrounded him the powerful mem'ers of
which were mainly Protestant. (0or those that need to 'e reminded Protestantism was
introduced in England in the reign of 1enry >222! it was strengthened 'y his son Edward
>2! who died while still a 'oy. 1enry?s daughter $ary! daughter of the atholic
=atherine of +ragon! returned the church to atholicism 'ut she only reigned for @
years. 0inally her sister Eli6a'eth! daughter of +nne &oleyn and 'ac#ed 'y the
protestant no'les and placement! returned 'ac# to the +nglican hurch(. .f course the
entire population of &ritain did not turn away from atholicism with the coming of the
-eformation. &ut the atholics lost many political! legal and educational rights which
were not returned to them until the 1:
th
c $any families! especially in the north of
England! parts of "cotland and almost the whole of 2reland continued in the Aold faith?.
+nother factor underpinning that new spirit of independence! which was the hallmar#
of the -enaissance in England was its near supremacy at sea! culminating in the defeat
of the "panish +rmada. The defeat of the +rmada is a legendary memory of English
history and 'efore it! at Til'ury doc#s in east London! Eli6a'eth 2 made one of her
greatest speeches to the English troops. (The +rmada was 'eaten party 'y the English
sailors? s#illed use of their small manoeuvrea'le ships and more decisively 'y divine
intervention in the form of a terri'le storm that swept many of the huge "panish
galleons up the east coast as far as "cotland 'efore they even got to England. 2n a more
superstitious age this was seen to 'e a sign that Eli6a'eth had 8od?s favour.(
The English humanists
0or various reasons the humanist writers are not afforded such an important place in
studies of English literature as they are in roatian literature 'ut there is one name that
must 'e mentioned*
Thomas More (1E@@-1535( the author of to!ia, a great name in English
social! cultural! legal and political history ; a'out whom the classic film A "an for all
Seasons was made and who for his moral convictions and his personal courage was
'eheaded 'y 1enry >222 after years of imprisonment in the Tower of London for his
refusal to recognise the legitimacy of 1enry?s divorce from Kueen =atherine of +ragon
in order to marry +nne &oleyn. +lthough written in Latin 'to(ia in English
translation! is considered one of the first great prose wor#s of English literature.
".TL+/%
Events in "cotland too# a different course. +fter the defeat of the English armies in
"cottish uprisings of the thirteenth century -o'ert the &ruce was reluctantly 'y the
English! recogni6ed as =ing of the "cots (13,8(. 1e was succeeded 'y his son %avid! a
child of 8! who too# as his adviser his nephew -o'ert the 1igh "teward who 'ecame
=ing -o'ert 22 when %avid died. The name A"teward? came to 'e spelled "tuart and
with -o'ert 22 the "tuart dynasty came to the throne of "cotland and of course later!
with the accession of Fames 2! to the throne of England.
The coming of the -eformation also had a different course in "cotland ; for it
came as alvinism! one of the most extreme forms of Protestantism. 2ts original and
most fiery propagator was Fohn =nox (mid 19
th
c(. .utside religion =nox was also
famous for his advocacy of a national system of education ranging from a school in
every parish to the foundation of three universities. 2t is often considered that from his
time onwards the "cottish educational system (ta#en as a whole( has 'een superior to
the English!
P.ET" +/% P.ET-G
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2n poetry it was the sonneteers who led the way ;1yatt2 Surrey and Sydney ("ir
Thomas )yatt 1543-15E,! "ir Philip "ydney 155E-1589 and the Earl of "urrey 151@-
15E@(. The first sonnets to 'e pu'lished came out in Tottel)s "iscellany pu'lished 155@
it is of some interest to note that the first pu'lished collection of %u'rovni# sonnets was
in 154@! exactly fifty years 'efore the pu'lication of Tottel)s "iscellany.
+part from Shakes/eare (159E-1919( the most important poet was Edmund
S/enser (155,-15::(. 2t was he who first formed the modern English language for
poetry. 1is most famous long wor# was The "aerie #ueen (which is not a'out fairies
'ut in a'stract does signify the glory of Kueen Eli6a'eth and her time(. 1e wrote it in
what is #nown as the S(enserian stan*a +eight iam'ic lines each with 5 feet and a final
line of 8 feetJ the rhyme scheme goes a ' a ' ' c ' c c(. 2t is the use of this stan6a of his
own devising that gives The ,aaerie -ueen its melodic poetic form and rhythm.
"penser also wrote a sonnet se7uence! Amoretti and a num'er of other long and short
poems such as E/ithalamion a poem in cele'ration of marriage and 3rothalamion
(cele'rating a dou'le marriage( which have remained anthology poems
$ost of Shakes/eare4s poetry is in his plays 'ut he wrote a se7uence of 15E sonnets-
which are among the greatest in the language and have never ceased to 'e read and
7uoted. ("ee note in reading list.(
%-+$+ +/% %-+$+T2"T"
Popular theatre from haucer to "ha#espeare
Everywhere in Europe early drama grew out of the dramati6ation of the hristian
festivals of hristmas and Easter. These early dramati6ations were #nown as Miracle
/lays. +t first they were acted in the churches 'y churchmen 'ut little 'y little they
moved to the streets! 'egan to 'e acted 'y laymen and came to 'e called Mystery /lays.
The name comes from the 0rench word mestier +m.tier/ or trade! and they were mostly
acted 'y people of various trade-guilds. $any English towns had them and four
complete cycles exist* Gor#! hester! )a#efield and /-town (town?s name un#nown(.
They dealt with &i'le scenes 'ut introduced characters and events which 'elong to the
realm of drama. They continued to 'e popular from the 13
th
to the late 19
th
c. even
today they are often locally produced. The last and most widely popular of plays
similar to the a'ove is E,eryman (early 19 c.( which has had a revival in the ,oth c.
E0eryman is #nown as a morality play. These developed alongside the mystery plays
'ut were composed individually and not in cycles and! as the name suggests. Everyman
is summoned 'y death and in his last hours discovers that his friends =indred!
0ellowship! ousin and 8oods will not go with him into the other world. .nly 8ood
%eeds! a'out whom he has thought little 'efore! provides him with support. E0eryman
has retained a place in literature until this day 'y the simplicity and force of its style.
"ometimes even today modern versions are performed
The &o(ularity of the theatre
The theatre was open to all* the whole town was attracted to it and enthusiastic a'out it.
2t was truly national in that people of all classes and #inds went. Plays were acted in
halls and in inn yards and more intellectual plays were acted in the universities ; the
first pu'lic theatre in London was 'uilt in 15@9 and 'y the end of the century there were
some eight of them 'oth north and south of the Thames. This! in a city that was then
estimated to have ,44!444 inha'itants is a lot (one of these theatres was the famous
8lo'e Theatre where most of "ha#espeare?s plays were performed and where he
himself acted. The 8lo'e was destroyed 'y fire in 1913 during a performance of Henry
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$111 'ut was reconstructed on its original site in the 1:@4s ; not far from the famous
Du'ilee wheel called the Eye of London. "ha#espeare is again performed there.
&ecause the theatre was so popular there were many playwrights most of whose wor# is
lost. +t first "ha#espeare was Dust one of many! indeed he started off as an actor! 'ut he
was 7uic#ly recognised as something different and as soon as he started to 'e successful
he was seen as a dangerous rival even to the good dramatists. + well-#nown attac# on
him was made 'y a then famous playwright! -o'ert 8reene in which he warned his
fellow dramatists that
there is an upstart crowe 'eautified with our feathers that with his tyger?s
heart wrapt in a players hide supposes he is as well a'le to 'om'ast out a
'lan# verse as the rest of youJ and 'eing an a'solute 2ohannes fac totum
is in his own conceit the only "ha#e-scene in the countrie.
"ha#espeare was then ,8 years old and this was his first mention in print.
"ha#espeare is too 'ig for us to do more than mention him here. 1e is the
su'Dect of a special course.
+n important contemporary was &hristo/her Marlo$e (159E-15:3( among his
many plays are Tam!urlaine the Great the cruelty and violence of which are e7ual to
any contemporary films &etter #nown is $arlowe?s The Tragical History of 3octor
,austus (194E( very loosely written in 'lan# verse and prose ; 2t is from this play that
the well #nown line concerning 1elen of Troy comes B)as this the face that launched a
thousand shipsLB ,austus also contains some of the finest dramatic scenes and 'lan#
verse outside "ha#espeare even though his later plays seem partly improvised. ("ee
reading suggestions.(
1is other famous contemporary was Ben 5onson (15@,-193@(. "ha#espeare
acted in one of Fonson?s first plays E0ery "an in his Humour. Fonson was one of the
leading cultural figures of his day and presided over one of the first literary circles in
London which met at the $ermaid Tavern 'eside the Thames. "everal of the names
mentioned in this guide were mem'ers of the circle! including "ha#espeare. Fonson
wrote many famous plays one of them 'eing $ol(one or the ,ox (1945(. The main
characters are given the names of animals >olpone (the fox(! $osca (the fly( >olpone
(the vulture( or'accio (the row( orvino (the raven( which are supposed to indicate
their roles and nature as >olpone tries to tric# them that he will die and leave a lot of
money and they all try to ingratiate themselves with him in order to inherit his fortune.
+ll! including >olpone! come to a 'ad end.
%-+$+ -E+%2/8"
%rama was written to 'e experienced on the stage! not to 'e read and thus it is difficult
to give reading suggestions here. The &ritish ouncil has "ha#espeare productions on
video of all "ha#espeare plays. "tudents who have access to video players are strongly
advised to 'orrow from the ouncil ; especially recent productions.
P-."E +/% P-."E )-2TE-"
+s we have already said 'to(ia may 'e considered one of the first great pieces of prose
in English literature and translations are often included in anthologies such as /orton
(%t 543(.
.ne of the great prose writers of the 1@
th
century was 6rancis Bacon (1591-
19,9(. )hereas writers of poetry focussed on the self &acon focussed on the world!
and was concerned with practical morality and political life and! in his longer wor#s
with the theory of #nowledge and scientific experiment (i.e. empirical #nowledge(. 1e
was important to the intellectual and cultural history of the early 1@
th
century. %uring
the reign of Eli6a'eth and the early part of the reign of her successor Fames 2 he moved
in government and legal circles. &ut he was accused of ta#ing 'ri'es! (19,1( which he
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admitted and said that everyone did it and it did not affect his Dudgement. 1e only spent
a few days in the Tower 'ut it was the end of his pu'lic life and he devoted himself to
writing and scientific o'servation.
2nto his famous essays he poured his experience of $an in the social and
political world calling them essays Aivil and $oral?. 1is sentences! especially the
opening ones seem li#e aphorisms H)hat is truthL?! H1e that has a wife and children has
given hostages to fortuneB H"tudies serve for delight! for ornament and for a'ility.B 1is
tone was one of cool o'Dectivity and not of moral Dudgement..
T1E E/8L2"1 &2&LE
2t was important for Protestants that the &i'le! as the word of 8od! should 'e a'le to 'e
read 'y anyone who was literate! and not only mediated through priests and mon#s in
church. This meant that it must 'e availa'le in the vernacular language! and had to 'e
translated.
Translation of the &i'le into English went through several phases (as it did in all
the Protestant countries of )estern Europe(. The first translation of the /ew Testament
into English was made 'y )illiam Tyndale in 15,5 it was printed on the ontinent and
was smuggled into England. Tyndale was arrested for heresy! strangled and 'urned at
the sta#e. &ut his translation! as extended 'y $iles overdale! is important 'ecause it
later formed the 'asis of what is #nown as the +uthori6ed >ersion or =ing Fames?
&i'le. This was the official translation that in 1911 was Happointed to 'e read in
churchesB in the reign of Fames 2 (and which continued to 'e read there until 1:E@
when a modern translation was made(.
Thus for nearly three and a half centuries not only did the English hear the &i'le
read in church in the rich and fine prose of the age of "ha#espeare and Thomas $ore!
'ut good Protestants had a copy to read at home also. This importance of the &i'le and
of &i'le reading was true not only of the +nglican hurch 'ut of all the /on-
onformist and independent churches that 'egan at the time of the -eformation or
developed (li#e $ethodism( later. 2t is not therefore surprisingly that the language!
rhythms! imagery and whole 7uotations from the &i'le have had a great impact on
English usage! and may 'e heard even today 7uite outside any religious context.
7
The 17
th
century
The early "tuarts 1943-19E:
Fames 2 , harles 2
The ommonwealth! 19E:-1994
.liver romwell
The -estoration 1994
The late "tuarts 1994-1988
harles 22! Fames 22
The &loodless -evolution 1988
)illiam and $ary
12"T.-2+L /.TE
Eli6a'eth 2 died without heir. The next in line to the throne was Fames "tuart who was
Fames >2 of "cotland. .n Eli6a'eth?s death in 1943 he 'ecame Fames 2 of England. 1e
was the son of the tragic and 'eautiful $ary Kueen of "cots whose grandmother had
- 14 -
'een the sister of 1enry >222 (Eli6a'eth had reluctantly had $ary 'eheaded as her rival
claimant to the English throne(.
Fames? reign was #nown as the Faco'ean period (Fames<Faco'(. 1e came to
England as a foreigner #nowing nothing of her laws! and he (li#e all the "tuart #ings of
which there were four( 'elieved in what was #nown as the %ivine -ight of =ings? (i.e.
their right to govern(.
&ut the England that he came to had evolved a different system from that which
he wished to practice. 2n England a form of sym'iosis 'etween =ing! Lords and
ommons was in the process of developing! an alien notion to Fames and his 'rother
harles 2 who followed him. Their 'elief in the supremacy of royal power 'rought
them into direct conflict with the 1ouse of ommons.
The struggle 'etween =ing and Parliament 'ecame even more intense with the
succession of harles 2 in 19,5. 0lash point was reached concerning (as so often in
political struggles( taxation. &oth Fames and harles thought this should 'e the
prerogative of the #ing. The ommons 'y this time considered that the right to decide
on taxation (i.e. the redistri'ution of the nation?s wealth( was the prerogative of
parliament.
2n 19E, harles 2 attempted to enter parliament to arrest five of the mem'ers
who most openly opposed royal power. The mem'ers had 'een warned and escaped to
Doin the leaders of the civil war which now 'egan 'etween =ing and Parliament.
+t first the -oyalists seemed to 'e winning. &ut the "cots! as fellow protestants!
marched in to help parliament and also on the parliamentary side a strong military and
political leader arose in the person of Oli,er &rom$ell. 1e was a small landowner
from East +nglia and trained an invinci'le 'ody of troops #nown as the -oundheads
('ecause they wore short cropped hair 7uite unli#e the flowing 1@
th
century loc#s of the
no'ility( and also as the 2ronsides. These troops! with the aid of the "cottish
Pres'yterians and the leadership of romwell! turned the tide of the war against the
-oyalists.
The parliamentary armies were also #nown as Puritans 'ecause of the strong
'elief of their leaders that the reformation of 'oth church and society had not gone far
enough with the creation of the hurch of England. They wanted a more radical
reorgani6ation of church and state.
romwell com'ined high military s#ill with an outstanding position in
parliament. 1e remodelled the parliamentary army into what was called the /ew $odel
+rmy the leaders of which were not no'lemen 'ut men who had risen in the field (i.e.
during the fighting( and had nothing to spur them on 'ut their military record and
protestant 6eal.
2n 19E8 the "cots (whose #ing harles also was( captured harles and handed
him over to the English and in 19E: harles was executed at the Tower of London.
This was an act of regicide that shoc#ed all Europe where #ings were still considered to
'e sacrosanct.
7
&ommon$ealth 1)7891))(

The ivil )ar in England was a mixture of a political! social and religious war.
The ommonwealth! which was proclaimed in 19E:! 'y no means had full support
throughout the country. )inston hurchill in his History of the English S(ea4ing
&eo(les wrote HThe Puritans triumphed. 2n the main the middle class! 'eing more solid
for Parliament! had 'eaten the aristocracy! the gentry were divided. The new money-
power of the ity had 'eaten the old loyalties. The townsfol# had mastered the
countryside. . . .n the whole this was how it layB (22! ,48(.
- 11 -
+s hurchill was aware this was a simplification 'ut it was largely true as was
seen at the -estoration. .ne of hurchill?s points is worth a moment more thought in
the context of understanding English life and literature! and that is the notion of Hthe
gentryB. 0rom this time until the 'eginning of the ,4
th
century the gentry held an
important place in English life. They were not mem'ers of the aristocracy 'ut were
well-off people living all over the land in the towns and counties. They usually played
an important life in their local community! they often owned considera'le estates and
were then #nown as the landed gentry. Their num'er was greatly increased at the time
of the ommonwealth as a great deal of land was ta#en from aristocratic families and
important atholics and given to those who had supported Parliament. They also
increased as the centuries went 'y and as social position 'y wealth 'ecame almost as
important as social position 'y 'irth.
The ommonwealth was another complicated period of English history which
we cannot even summari6e here. >arious political and social groups with varied agenda
struggled for supremacy. 2n 1953 .liver romwell was declared Lord Protector and
remained so until his death 1858. Two famous names in English literature are
associated with the Puritan and li'eral stream in the ommonwealth ; 5ohn Milton
(1948-19@E( and 5ohn Bunyan (19,8-1988(.
$ilton not only wrote the poems for which he is famous 'ut he wrote one of the
first pamphlets calling for the freedom of the press (Areo(agitica, Norton Anthology p
1841-1811/ and another supporting the institution of divorce for incompati'ility to save
the world much unhappiness. 1e was Latin "ecretary to the ommonwealth parliament
and as such wrote in Latin for the European pu'lic a pamphlet supporting the execution
of the #ing. 2ndeed had he not gone 'lind it is almost certain he would have 'een
executed li#e the other regicides and in that case his later poetry! including &aradise
Lost, would never have 'een written.
Fohn &unyan was a devout protestant and his famous &ilgrim)s &rogress, was
written when he was in prison for his faith. &ilgrim)s &rogress! was for the next 3
centuries read in all literate families in England and one of the few 'oo#s once allowed
to 'e read 'y children on "undays in many families down to the 1:
th
c. 2t has given
many pictorial images to the language such as H>anity 0airB! HThe "lough of %espondB!
HThe >alley of 1umiliationB! through all of which hristian passes on his way to the
elestial ity. The language is a mixture of rich &i'le imagery (the only 'oo# &unyan
had ever read( and simple yet 'eautiful prose.
The #estoration 1994
+fter the death of romwell (1958( a large section of the leaders of political life
decided that a monarchy was more in their interests than a ommonwealth that seemed
to 'e 'ecoming more and more radical and dictatorial. This more right wing faction
organi6ed the restoration of the monarchy which too# place in 1994. The son of harles
2! harles 22 who had 'een 'rought up in the 0rench court (his mother was a mem'er of
the 0rench royal family(! was thus called to the throne of England! and the period 'egan
#nown as the -estoration.
P.ET" +/% P.ET-G
The greatest poet of the period 'ridging the ommonwealth and the -estoration periods
was 5ohn Milton (1948-19@E(. Earlier poems such as HL?+llegroB (a poem to mirth
and Doy( and H2l Penseroso H(a poem cele'rating thoughtfulness and study(! his sonnet
H.n the Late $assacre in PiedmontB and the pastoral elegy HLycidasB were written
'efore the -estoration. &aradise Lost and the powerful epic Samson Agonistes were
- 1, -
written after it when he was already 'lind. 1e wrote a famous sonnet H)hen 2 consider
how my light is spentB on his 'lindness.
.ne of his most famous short poems is HLycidas (%t 1@:4! Ox p. @51ff(. 2n it
$ilton mourns the death 'y drowning of a friend who he felt would have 'een the #ind
of poet and clergyman the country and the church needed. ("ee especially lines 113-
1,:(. -emem'er when $ilton tal#s a'out shepherds and the sheep-fold (where the
sheep are #ept safe( they stand for priests and the church ;The well #nown lines the
Hhungry sheep who loo# on and are not fedB refers to ordinary people who are failed 'y
their church.
&aradise Lost
The following note on &aradise Lost is ta#en partly The Oxford Anthology (Literature
of -enaissance England! pp. @58-@94! partly from The Norton Anthology, >ol 2, pp.
1@@1! 1815 ff(.
The setting of $ilton?s great epic poem encompasses 1eaven and 1ell! haos
and the planet Earth. 2t features 'attles among immortal spirits and voyages through
space! yet two important protagonists are a human couple in a garden. 2t is ultimately
a'out the human condition on 'oth pu'lic and personal level.
&ut it is also a'out #nowing and choosing! and a'out free will. The central
characters ; "atan! &eel6e'u'! +'diel! +dam and Eve ; are confronted with hard
choices and sometimes devious temptations! $ilton?s readers too are continually
challenged to choose and to reconsider their most 'asic assumptions a'out freedom!
heroism! wor#! pleasure language! nature and love. The great themes of &aradise Lost
were intimately lin#ed to the political 7uestions at sta#e in the English -evolution and
-estoration though the connections are 'y no means simple or straightforward. This is
a poem in which "atan leads a revolution against an a'solute monarch and in which
7uestions of tyranny! servitude and li'erty are de'ated in a parliament in 1ell. $ilton?s
readers are therefore challenged to rethin# these pro'lems and li#e +'deil de'ating with
"atan ('oo#s 5 and 9( to ma#e crucial distinctions.
2s the "atan who hurtles into view in &oo# 2 with his awesome energy and
defiance and incredi'le fortitude and a'ove all his magnificent rhetoric the true hero of
the poemL "helley and &la#e already thought so (H $ilton is of the %evil?s Party
without #nowing itB said )illiam &la#e(. &ut "atan?s version of heroism must 'e
compared with that of the loyal +'deil and of the "on of $an. There are always
various choices.
$ilton?s +dam and Eve are not conventional epic heroes 'ut nor are they
conventional +dam and Eve. Their state of innocence is not childli#e! tran7uil and free
of sexual desire. 2nstead the first couple enDoy sex! experience passion and tension!
ma#e mista#es of Dudgement and grow in #nowledge. Their relationship reflects gender
hierarchy 'ut $ilton?s readers may 'e surprised 'y the fullness and complexity of Eve?s
character and the centrality of her role! not only in the fall 'ut in the promised
restoration.
)e expect in epics the grand style! and $ilton?s style engulfs us from the outset
with its energy and power! as those rushing enDam'ed! (running on from one line to
another( 'lan#-verse lines propel us along with only a few pauses for line endings or
grammar (there is only one full-stop in the first twenty-six lines(. The elevated diction
and complex syntax and patterning ma#e magnificent music that includes high political
rhetoric (&#s 1!,(! the evocation of sensuousness of the description of Eden! the
delicacy of Eve?s love lyric to +dam (&# E(! the relatively plain speech of 8od (&# 3(
and the speech rhythms of +dam and Eve?s marital 7uarrel (&# :(. $ilton?s choice of
'lan# verse instead of the fashiona'le heroic couplet was li#e so many other things in
his life partly a 7uestion of politics. 1e associated HThe trou'lesome and modern
'ondage of rhymingB (i.e. heroic couplets as in %ryden and Pope( with restoration
- 13 -
monarchy and repression of dissidents and presented his use of 'lan# verse as a
recovery of Hancient li'ertyB.
The poet who is most closely associated with the -estoration period if 5ohn
:ryden (1931-1@44(. 1is first maDor poem was written on the %eath of romwell and
his next two poems cele'rated the return of the #ing. 1e was later made poet laureate
and appointed historiographer to the royal house! $ost of his poetry is concerned with
politics 'ut he was also trou'led 'y the religious pro'lems of his day
T1E "T+8E +/% PL+G)-281T"
The Protestants (the extreme wing of which were the Puritans( closed all theatres and
places of entertainment in 19E, and so for nearly twenty years the country had 'een
without drama.
"ha#espeare and &en Fonson continued to 'e produced 'ut the climate of -estoration
drama differed from that of the -enaissance. 2t was more exclusively connected with
the court and court circles and was witty! 'awdy (sexually indecent(! cynical and amoral
The plays were mainly in prose with poetry only in the romantic moments and the plots
were complex! dou'le even triple with marital (mis('ehavior was a fre7uent theme. 2t
later developed into the comedy of manners of the 18
th
c. which reached a wittier and
dramatically more interesting level.
.
P-."E +/% P-."E )-2TE-"
Politically! socially and in prose writings the -estoration was more a prelude to the 18
th
century than it was the last period of the -enaissance. The spirit of science had already
'egun to affect society and the world of letters. +n important milestone in this respect is
mar#ed 'y the date 1993 when the -oyal "ociety was founded (original name the -oyal
"ociety of London for the 2mproving of /atural =nowledge(. 2t had the patronage of
the #ing. .ne of its founder mem'ers was 0rancis &acon and it was a remar#a'le group
of churchmen! scholars! poets! no'lemen and private gentlemen who met wee#ly to see
experiments conducted or to hear a scientific report. 2n writing they demanded of all
their mem'ers a Hclose! na#ed! natural way of spea#ing! positive expressions! clear
senses! a native easinessB and the use of a natural Hspeech-'ased proseB. This has 'een
the 'asis of good written English ever since! only to 'e transgressed 'y writers of
special gifts.
+mong the great prose writers of the early 1@
th
c. 0rancis &acon and Fohn
&unyan have already 'een mentioned. E7ually famous 'oth in his time and historically
was Thomas ;o<<es (1588-19@:( whose masterwor# of English political theory was
Le0iathan$ To 7uote from /orton (p. 158@( 1o''es was a thoroughgoing materialist
and held that Heverything in the world! including 8od and the human mind! is composed
only of matterJ spirit does not exist. +ll #nowledge is gained through sensory
impressions! which (li#e mind itself( are nothing 'ut matter in motion* and what we call
self is simply a tissue of sensory impressions! ; clear and immediate in the presence of
the o'Dects that evo#e them! vague and less vivid in their a'sence. +n iron
determination of cause and effect governs everything in the universe! including human
action. 1uman 'eings! thought 1o''es! see# self-preservation as a primary goal! and
see# power as a means to secure that goalM.
Samuel 3e/ys (1933-1@43( (pronounced HpeepsB( has always 'een a fondly
remem'ered name in England prose of this time. 1e wrote a famous %iary 1994-199:
&e(ys) 3iary% 1e wrote it in shorthand and code! and so felt free to 'e completely fran#
in recording the doings of his day 'oth pu'lic and private. 2t was not deciphered until
the 1:
th
c. when he enDoyed a new period of fame and it is now seen as a rich document
of social history. +mong many other things it contains the 'est description of the great
fire of London of 1999
- 1E -
The no,el as a literary form 'elongs to the 18
th
c! with the appearance of
5onathan S$ift?s 8ulli0er)s Tra0els (1@,9( and :aniel :efoe?s 5o!inson Crusoe
+1@1:( 'ut it is of some interest that the first woman prose writer 'elongs to the 1@
th
c.
*/hra Behn (19E4L-198E( wrote a num'er of wor#s of prose fiction of which
Oroono4o or the History of the 5oyal Sla0e (6788/ is the 'est #nown. ("ee %orton p.
,199 ff for note on &ehn and extract from Oroono4o.( $irginia 9oolf in her A 5oom of
One)s O#n (1:,8( acclaimed +phra &ehn as the first English woman to earn her living
'y writing Hwith all the ple'eian virtues of humour! vitality and courageB.
02/+L 12"T.-2+L /.TE
The Bloodless #e,olution2 $hich assured the su/remacy of /arliament and
3rotestantism
The -estoration period 'egan with the recall to the throne of harles 22 (who was
childless( and ended with the expulsion of his 'rother Fames 22.
+gain a mixture of religion! politics! money and position were decisive. harles
22! whatever his private 'eliefs may have 'een! was pu'licly Protestant and supported
the Protestant ause in the land. &ut his 'rother who 'ecame Fames 22 was almost
openly atholic. Fames?s wife however came from one of the leading protestant
families and they had two children $ary and +nne (each in their turn to 'ecome Kueens
of England(. &ut after the 'irth of +nne Fames?s wife died following which Fames! who
was 'y now #ing! married a 0rench princess (who was of course atholic(. 2t was
popularly supposed that his new wife was too old to have a child! 'ut this was not the
case. They had a son who now 'ecame heir to the throne! and would 'e a atholic.
Fames?s daughter! $ary had married a %utch prince )illiam of .range! who
was an important statesman and military leader of )estern Europe. )hen a son was
'orn to Fames 22 those representing Protestant power in &ritain 'egan to negotiate with
)illiam of .range to offer the throne of England Dointly to him and his wife. 1e
agreed. The atholic ause in England was seen to have 'een defeated and Fames in
disguise and considera'le danger secretly left England for 0rance! where his wife and
'a'y had already ta#en refuge.
)illiam and $ary succeeded to the throne in 1988. This is #nown as the
H&loodless -evolutionB or the H8lorious -evolutionB. The date 1)== is often ta#en as
the 'eginning of the history of modern &ritain. 2t was also the 'eginning of a new
period in cultural life and literature.
- 15 -
#E*:>%G .>ST for 3#E91=
T;
.>TE#*T?#E
*nglo9Saxon
8eneral information a'out &eowulf %t ,:-31! Ox ,4-,,
The coming of &eowulf - lines %t 18:-,@8! Ox 1:3-,84
&eowulf slays 8rendel - lines %t 99,-835! Ox 999-81E
The 9anderer (a moving poem of the private and personal world(Npages %t ::-14,!
Ox pages 141-14E
Middle English
+ll students should have some general #nowledge of the importance of &haucer to
English literature Ox- pp. 11: ; 1,@! %t ; pp. ,14-,15.
They should also read the following from the
Canterbury Tales* H8eneral PrologueB ; %t lines 1 19,! Ox lines 1- 19,! plus one tale
according to choice (suggestions are HThe )ife of &ath?s TaleB! HThe Pardoner?s
TaleB! HThe $iller?s TaleB! HThe /un?s Priest?s TaleB(
The #enaissance
Poetry
0rom any good anthology you may select
Three or more poems 'y 1yatt and Surrey
Edmund S/enser /ote on The ,aerie -ueen '( 67: ;67<, also Canto 1! stan6as 1-@!
which introduce the -ed ross =night! his lady and their accompanying dwarf.
"onnet se7uences were an important form in -enaissance literature. 0or a consideration
of sonnet se7uences in England! especially "ha#espeare?s see %orton p. 14,8.
-ead four or more Sonnets 'y Shakes/eare (listed 'y first line and num'er( - select as
you li4e=
"hall 2 compare thee to a summer?s day (8(
)hen in disgrace with fortune and men?s eyes (,:(
"ince 'rass! nor stone! nor earth nor 'oundless sea (95(
/o longer mourn for me when 2 am dead (@1(
1ow li#e a winter has my a'sence 'een (:8(
Let me not to the marriage of true minds (119(
$y mistress? eyes are nothing li#e the sun (134(
or any other you (ic4 yourself and #ish to tal4 a!out%
%rama
Gou should have general #nowledge a'out "ha#espeare and -enaissance drama
+ good #nowledge and appreciation of three of "ha#espeare?s great plays! a tragedy! a
comedy and a history play (for a history play 1enry > or -ichard 222 are a good choice(
Gour appreciation should include #nowledge of some of the famous speeches and Oor
monologues in the plays you choose! and consideration of character and dramatic force
(to #now the story of the play is not enough(.
"peech in 3r% ,austus 'eginning! H0austus thou hast 'ut one 'rief hour to liveB! Ox p.
3:@.

+ play 'y &hristo/er Marlo$e or Ben 5onson.
- 19 -
Prose
.ne essay 'y Bacon selected from* .f Truth! .f $arriage and "ingle Life! .f 8reat
Place! .f "uperstition! .f "tudies! .f Parents and hildren! .f 2nnovations.
Gou may also 'e interested to ta#e passages from $oore?s 'to(ia andOor from the >ing
2ames i!le and give reasons for your choice
The -estoration
5ohn Milton The extensive note on $ilton in this 8uide.
&aradise Lost! &oo#s 2 and 222
Three poems 'y 5ohn :onne (suggested poems* HThe 8ood $orrowB! HThe %reamB!
HThe +nniversaryB! HThe anoni6ationB! HThe "un -isingB! H8o and catch a falling
starB(
*ndre$ Mar,ell2 HTo 1is oy $istressB! HThe 8ardenB.
&ac#ground reading*
The Oxford Anthology of English Literature
The Norton Anthology of English Literature
%avid %aiches, A Critical History of English Literature! vols 1!,.