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Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS........................................................................................ 1
ATOMIC STRUCTURE......................................................................................... 4
Insulators:........................................................................................................................................................6
SEMI-CONDUCTORS........................................................................................... 6
PN junction Diode:......................................................................................................................................... 7
N type ......................................................................................................................................................7
P type N............................................................................................................................................. 7
ELECTRIC CURRENT.......................................................................................... 7
Effects of Current:..........................................................................................................................................8
Current Direction:.......................................................................................................................................... 8
DC-Direct Current........................................................................................................................................8
AC-Alternating Current................................................................................................................................8
ELECTRIC CHARGE............................................................................................ 8
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE................................................................................ 9
Temperature:................................................................................................................................................ 10
Resistors:....................................................................................................................................................... 12
Types ........................................................................................................................................................12
Classification..............................................................................................................................................12
Color Code.................................................................................................................................................12
Symbols......................................................................................................................................................12
Resistors in Series...................................................................................................................................... 13
Resistors in Parallel....................................................................................................................................13
ELECTRICAL CALCULATIONS......................................................................... 14
Ohm’s Law:................................................................................................................................................... 14
Electrical Energy:......................................................................................................................................... 14
DC CIRCUITS..................................................................................................... 14
Parallel:..........................................................................................................................................................15
MEASURING....................................................................................................... 15
Permanent Magnet Moving-Coil Instrument (PMMC):.......................................................................... 16
Current:......................................................................................................................................................... 16
Inside a Ammeter....................................................................................................................................... 17
Voltage:..........................................................................................................................................................17
Inside a Voltmeter......................................................................................................................................18
Resistance:..................................................................................................................................................... 18
Inside a Ohmmeter..................................................................................................................................... 19
Converting:....................................................................................................................................................24
Mechanical to Electrical............................................................................................................................ 24
Thermal to Electrical..................................................................................................................................24
Nuclear to Electrical.................................................................................................................................. 24
Solar to Electrical [Solar cells (semiconductor devices)].......................................................................... 24
Chemical to Electrical (Batteries).............................................................................................................. 24
BATTERIES........................................................................................................ 25
Cell Capacity and Other Factors:............................................................................................................... 25
Capacity..................................................................................................................................................... 25
Discharge Rate........................................................................................................................................... 25
Temperature............................................................................................................................................... 25
Density (Specific Gravity)......................................................................................................................... 25
Final Voltage..............................................................................................................................................25
Standard Discharge Rates.......................................................................................................................... 25
Ampere-Hour Efficiency............................................................................................................................26
The Electromotive Force Series ..............................................................................................................26
Available Cells...........................................................................................................................................26
Battery Connection:..................................................................................................................................... 26
One Cell..................................................................................................................................................... 26
Lead-Acid cells:.............................................................................................................................................27
Cell Construction....................................................................................................................................... 27
Fuel Cells:...................................................................................................................................................... 28
MAGNETISM....................................................................................................... 29
Electromagnets:............................................................................................................................................ 30
Magnetic Fields .........................................................................................................................................30
Hysteresis Loop:............................................................................................................................................31
Magnetic Units:.............................................................................................................................................32
Magnetomotive Force (M.M.F)................................................................................................................. 32
Magnetising Force......................................................................................................................................33
Flux Density............................................................................................................................................... 33
Reluctance..................................................................................................................................................33
Magnitude of a Generated E.M.F.............................................................................................................. 33
Permeability............................................................................................................................................... 33
Pull of an Electromagnet............................................................................................................................34
INDUCTANCE..................................................................................................... 36
Inductance:....................................................................................................................................................36
Potential Difference................................................................................................................................... 37
Energy From Inductance............................................................................................................................ 37
Impedance (Z):.............................................................................................................................................. 37
Reactance................................................................................................................................................... 37
Inductors:...................................................................................................................................................... 38
Types ........................................................................................................................................................38
Classification..............................................................................................................................................38
Symbol....................................................................................................................................................... 39
Inductors in Series......................................................................................................................................39
Inductors in Parallel................................................................................................................................... 39
CAPACITANCE................................................................................................... 40
Capacitance:..................................................................................................................................................40
Reactance:..................................................................................................................................................... 41
Capacitors:.................................................................................................................................................... 42
Types .........................................................................................................................................................42
Specifications............................................................................................................................................. 42
Deriving Values......................................................................................................................................... 43
Symbols......................................................................................................................................................43
Capacitors in Series....................................................................................................................................44
Capacitors in Parallel................................................................................................................................. 44
RESONANCE...................................................................................................... 45
AC CIRCUITS..................................................................................................... 46
Series:.............................................................................................................................................................47
Parallel:..........................................................................................................................................................47
AC POWER......................................................................................................... 48
Power Triangle:............................................................................................................................................ 49
The Resultant Power (Apparent Power) is made up of Two Components................................................ 49
True Power.................................................................................................................................................49
Reactive Power ......................................................................................................................................... 49
Power Factor.............................................................................................................................................. 49
Atomic Structure
All materials are made from molecules which are combinations of elements or
element themselves.
Elements are formed from electrons that have electrically charged particles.
The ionisation of these particles in an electric circuit can produce heat, magnetism,
chemical change and effect the normal function of human and animal physiology.
Proton (+ ve)
Nucleus
Atom Neutron (No Change)
Electrons (– ve)
Nucleus
Electrons
Conductors:
Fewer electrons in valance shell, the better the conductor.
Easily become free electrons.
Metallic Bonding.
Materials
Copper
Gold
Aluminum
Silver Free
Electrons
Platinum
Iron
Insulators:
More electrons in the valance shall, the better the insulator.
Iomc Bonding (Ion combination).
Materials
Rubber
Mica
Cotton
Oil
Plastic No Free Electrons
Glass
Semi-Conductors
Four electrons in the Valence shell.
Generates Co-valent bonding with four adjacent atoms.
Materials
Silicon (Si)
To produce N type and P type semi-conductor materials, the pure silicon water is
injected with impurities.
Materials
Arsenic (5 Valence) Silicon
Aluminum (3 Valence)
Silicon Arsenic
1 Free Electron
PN junction Diode:
+
N type
Negative (free electrons) P + Electron
Donor atoms introduced. Current
P flow Electron
P type N
Positive (short of free electrons)
Accepton atom introduced.
Electric Current
UNIT: Amperes (A) or (I)
Flow of electrons.
1A 6.24 1018 Electrons
Formula: I= q
Effects of Current:
Physiological
Chemical
Mechanical
Nuclear
Thermal
Solar
Current Direction:
DC-Direct Current
Electron Flow: from negative (excess of electron) to positive (depleted in electrons).
Conventional current flow: from positive (charge potential) to negative (charge
potential).
+ Positive
Electron Flow Negative
+
AC-Alternating Current
A Active
N Neutral
I
A N t
Electric Charge
UNIT: Volts (V)
Current direction depends upon the applied EMF or voltage.
Represent an electrical pressure.
Current flow in a closed electrical circuit.
Formula: PD = JR
C
PD = Potential difference (V)
JR = Energy Released (J)
C = Charge (C)
E.g.
Electrical Resistance
UNIT: Ohm ()
Formula: R = .l
a
R = Resistance ()
=Resistivity (.m)
l = Length (m)
Temperature:
PTC: Positive Temperature Coefficient (Resistance increases with temperature)
NTC: Negative Temperature Coefficient (Resistance decrease with temperature)
The follow graph is the resistance of copper due to temperature, the graph is not
completely linear shown by the broken line.
The linear graph passes through –234.5C.
If another temperature is known one can use similar triangles to calculate any
other temperature and therefore calculate resistance.
R ()
T (C)
-234.5C
Formula: Rt = R0 (1 + t)
Rt = Resistance at Temperature t°C ()
R0 = Resistance at a particular temperature ()
= Temperature Coefficient of Resistance
t = Temperature (°C)
Resistors:
Types
Fixed
Variable
Light
Voltage
Classification
Value Ohm -
Tolerance Percentage - %
Power rating Watt - W
Color Code
Significant Figures Multiplier Tolerance
Name Colour 1 Band 2nd Band 3rd Band
st
4th Band 5th Band
Black 0 0 0 1
Brown 1 1 1 10 1%
Red 2 2 2 100 2%
Orange 3 3 3 1000
Yellow 4 4 4 10000
Green 5 5 5 100000 0.5%
Blue 6 6 6 1000000 0.25%
Violet 7 7 7 10000000 0.1%
Grey 8 8 8
White 9 9 9
Gold 0.1 5%
Silver 0.01 10%
None 20%
Symbols
Fixed Resistor Light Dependent Resistors Potentiometers
(LDR)
Trimpot Resistor
Formula: RT = R1 + R2...
RT = Total Resistance
R1 = 1st Resistor
R2 = 2nd Resistor
... = Etc
Resistors in Parallel
Electrical Calculations
Ohm’s Law:
Relationship between voltage, current and resistance
Formula: E = I.R
E = Potential Difference (V)
I = Current (A)
R = Resistance ()
Electrical Energy:
Formula: W = P.t
W = Work (J)
P = Power (W)
t = Time (s)
DC Circuits
Series:
RT = R1 + R2
V1 = I.R1
V2 = I.R2
VT = I.RT
VT (V1 + V2) = 0
Parallel:
RT = R1.R2
R1 + R2
VT = V1 = V2
V1 = I1.R1
V2 = I2.R2
VT = I.RT
I = I1 + I2
Measuring
Current:
Use an ammeter.
Connect in series with the circuit at the appropriate location.
Inside a Ammeter
Formula: Rs = Im.rm
I – Im
Rs = Shunt resistor ()
Im = PMMC current for F.S.D (A)
rm = PMMC resistance ()
I = Ammeter current for F.S.D ()
A low resistance shunt resistor causes most of the circuit current to be bypassed
around the low-current PMMC. The PMMC measures a portion of the total current
and indicates total current on is scale.
Voltage:
Use a voltmeter.
Connect in a Parallel position with the component.
Inside a Voltmeter
Formula: R = V – rm
Im
R = Multiplier resistor ()
V = Voltage (V)
rm = PMMC resistance ()
Im = PMMC current for F.S.D (A)
Resistance:
Use a ohmmeter.
Switch the circuit off and isolate the resistance concerned.
Inside a Ohmmeter
Formula: RT = Rx + R1 + rm
RT = Total resistance ()
Rx = Resistor being tested ()
R1 = Variable resistor ()
Rm = PMMC resistance ()
Formula: Rx = Vx
I Iv
Rx = Resistor ()
Vx = Voltmeter reading (V)
I = Ammeter reading (A)
Iv = Voltmeter current (A)
A Better Arrangement
Formula: Rx = Vx
Ix
Rx = Resistor ()
Vx = Voltmeter reading VA (V)
Ix = Ammeter reading (A)
V
+ Vm
Vm Vp-p
Formula: Vm = 2 .VRMS
VRMS = RMS voltage (V)
Vm = Maximum voltage (V)
Triangular Sawtooth
Square Pulses
or
Noise
Converting:
Mechanical to Electrical
Power generation -Car electrical system
-Hydro electrical system
-Thermal power station
Piezo electric -Pressure on a crystal (Quartz) produces an EMF
-Transducer (sensors) for pressure, acceleration, force, weight
Thermal to Electrical
Thermal electric -Thermocouples (The difference between two junctions of a metal
produces an EMF)
Nuclear to Electrical
Reaction high-energy particles Heat steam water Turbine Electrical Alternator
Batteries
Cell Capacity and Other Factors:
Capacity
Its ability to deliver energy—is usually expressed in ampere-hours, or simply the
product of the discharge in amperes over a number of hours.
This value has little significance unless it is qualified by the many factors which
influence a cell’s capacity: the main ones’ being the discharge rate, temperature,
specific gravity and final voltage.
Discharge Rate
The higher the discharge in amperes, the less will be the capacity in ampere-hours.
There are two main factors causing this:
Lack of immediate diffusion of the electrolyte.
Increase in voltage drop within the cell which reduces the available voltage to
supply the load on tile cell.
Temperature
Many chemical actions are accelerated at higher temperatures.
The internal resistance of the cell and the viscosity of the electrolyte are often
reduced with increasing temperature.
These factors combine to give an increased capacity at higher temperatures and a
decreased one at lower temperatures.
Final Voltage
This term is used to designate the minimum useful and accepted voltage at various
rates of discharge.
Available Cells
Cell Positive Negative Electrolyte Volts/Cell Type
Electrode Electrode
Deniell Copper Zinc Sulphuric Acid 1.1 Wet Secondary
Lead-Acid Lead Lead Sulphuric Acid 2 Wet Secondary
Peroxide
Nickel-Iron Nickel Iron Potassium 1.2 Wet Secondary
Oxide Hydroxide
Carbon-Zinc Carbon Zinc Ammonium And Zinc 1.5 Dry Primary
Chloride
Zinc- Manganes Zinc Potassium 1.5 Dry Primary or
Alkaline e Dioxide Hydroxide Secondary
Manganese
Dioxide
Mercury Zinc Mercuric Potassium 1.3 Dry Primary
Oxide Hydroxide
Nickel- Nickel Cadmium Potassium 1.25 Dry Secondary
Cadmium Hydroxide Hydroxide
Battery Connection:
Batteries in parallel arrangement amps increases
Batteries in series arrangement volts increases
One Cell
Voltage Resistance
Lead-Acid cells:
The main advantage of this type of cell is its ability to deliver large amounts of power
for short periods.
Variations in plate construction allow for individual specialised uses.
This weakens the plate frames and consequently they have to be strengthened by
making them out of an alloy. In turn this can lead to reduced cell life.
Cell Construction
In the fully charged condition the active material of the positive plate is lead
peroxide, and the negative plate is spongy lead.
The discharging action converts the plates to lead sulphate and water is produced,
so diluting the electrolyte.
The active materials have no rigid mechanical form or strength, and it is necessary
to mount them in a frame or grid. These are then known as pasted plates and are the
most common form of construction.
The method is adaptable to both positive and negative plates. The grid usually has
antimony added to the lead for rigidity and extra mechanical strength.
Nickel-Alkaline Cells:
In the nickel-alkaline cells there are two major types, although they are known under
various brand names. One has nickel-iron based electrodes and the other has nickel-
cadmium based electrodes.
Each type has similar basic construction and an operating voltage of 1.2 V. There
are minor differences in construction to suit such specific purposes as engine
starting, standby power supplies and emergency lighting.
Cell Construction
Both electrodes are usually made of a powdered material held in pockets
manufactured within a pressed steel frame.
The active positive material is nickel hydroxide.
The negative plate material is powdered iron for the iron based cell and calmium
converting to cadmium hydroxide for the cadmium-based cell.
The cell case is often a steel pressing, but for some purposes may be made of plastic.
The electrolyte is mainly potassium hydroxide (caustic soda) dissolved in water, but
may have some additives to lower the internal resistance of the cell.
The cell itself often contains several plates of each polarity as in the lead-acid cell.
The separation between plates is often by round pins instead of fiat separators.
Where a steel cell container is used it must be insulated from the plates as well as
from other cells.
Nickel-Alkaline Cells
Can be left discharged without harm
Can be overcharged without harm
Approximately 20 year life expectancy compared with 3 years for the lead-acid cell
Less weight
More rugged and substantial construction – better able to withstand mechical and
electrical abuse
Electrolyte less subject to freezing in cold weather
Fuel Cells:
If the load is replaced by a D.C. supply oxygen collects at the anode and hydrogen at
the cathode.
When the load is replaced the cell generates a current flow until the gases have
recombined to form water.
The special electrodes of platinum black do not undergo a chemical change but
merely act as catalysts.
Reversible Gas Cell +
Oxygen (O) Hydrogen (H)
Water (H2O)
OH() (+)H
Another version of the fuel cell consists of two chambers and two porous electrodes
separated by an electrolyte.
Hydrogen supplied to the upper chamber diffuses through electrode A and reacts
with the electrolyte, forming positive ions and free electrons.
The ions migrate through the electrolyte to electrode B where they combine with
oxygen and electrons, which have passed through the external load, forming water.
Gives more energy per unit mass than a storage battery and in addition water is
produced as a useful by-product.
Each kilowatt-hour of energy produces approximately half a litre of water.
Hydrogen
Electrode A
Electrolyte
Electrode B +
Oxygen
Water
An advanced fuel cell of the type being developed today is capable of delivering 50 A
at approximately 0.6 V for many hours.
Magnetism
Electromagnets:
Magnetic Fields
The further away the flux the weaker it is
Opposite conductors repel
Like conductors attract
Right-Hand Thumb
Grasp the conductor in the right hand, with the thumb pointing in the direction of current
flow. The fingers point in the direction in which the magnetic force is acting
Hysteresis Loop:
Magnetic Units:
Magnetomotive Force (M.M.F)
Field strength
Magnetising Force
Formula: H = I.N
l
H = Magnetising force (A.t.m-1)
I = Current (A)
N = Number of turns in the coil (t)
l = length of magnetic circuit (m)
Flux Density
Equivalent to Current
Formula: = B.A
= Webers group of 108 lines of force (Wb)
B = Flux density (Wb.m-2 or T)
A = Area (m2)
Reluctance
Equivalent to Resistance & Ohm’s law for magnets
Formula: Rm = Fm
Rm = Reluctance (A.t.Wb-1)
I = Current (A)
N = Number of turns in the coil (t)
= Webers group of 108 lines of force (Wb)
Formula: V = B.l.v
V = E.M.F (V)
B = Flux density (T)
l = Length (m)
v = Velocity of conductor (m.s-1)
Permeability
Formula: = r.o
= Permeability
r = Relative permeability
Formula: = B
H
= Permeability
B = Flux Density (T)
H = Magnetising force (A.t.m-1)
Pull of an Electromagnet
Formula: F = B2.A
2.o
F = Force (N)
B = Flux density (T)
A = Area (m2)
o = Permeability of free space = 4 10-7
Armature (Rm 3)
Reluctance
Like Resistors
Formula: Rm T = Rm 1 + Rm 2 + Rm 3 + Rm 4
Rm T = Total reluctance (A.t.Wb-1)
Rm 1 = Yoke reluctance (A.t.Wb-1)
Rm 2 = Air gap reluctance (A.t.Wb-1)
Rm 3 = Armature reluctance (A.t.Wb-1)
Rm 4 = Air gap reluctance (A.t.Wb-1)
Flux
Flux is like current so it is Common to all the reluctance’s
M.M.F
Sum of M.M.F drops (voltage drops)
Formula: I.NT = I.N1 + I.N2 + I.N3 + I.N4
I.NT = M.M.F supply (Coil) (A.t)
I.N1 = M.M.F drop of Rm 1 (A.t)
I.N2 = M.M.F drop of Rm 2 (A.t)
I.N3 = M.M.F drop of Rm 3 (A.t)
I.N4 = M.M.F drop of Rm 4 (A.t)
M.M.F
1 T 2
Reluctance
Like Resistors
Formula: 1 1 1
Rm T = Rm 1 + Rm 2
Rm T = Total reluctance (A.t.Wb-1)
Rm 1 = 1st reluctance (A.t.Wb-1)
Rm 2 = 2nd reluctance (A.t.Wb-1)
Flux
Flux is like current so:
Formula: T = 1 + 2
T = Total flux (Wb)
1 = Rm 1 flux (Wb)
2 = Rm 2 flux (Wb)
M.M.F
Sum of m.m.f drops (voltage drops)
Formula: I.NT = I.N1 = I.N2
I.NT = M.M.F supply (Coil) (A.t)
I.N1 = M.M.F drop of Rm 1 (A.t)
I.N2 = M.M.F drop of Rm 2 (A.t)
Inductance
Inductance:
A moving magnetic field causes a current to flow in a coil & a current flowing in a
inductor causes a magnetic field.
A moving magnetic field induces an E.M.F in the conductor.
Formula: L = N.
I
L = Inductance (H)
N = Number of conductors
= Flux linkage (Wb)
I = Current (A)
Potential Difference
Formula: V = L.I
t
V = P.D. (V)
L = Inductance (H)
t = Time (s)
I = Current (A)
Impedance (Z):
Total resistance of an inductor.
Applies only to A.C. circuits.
Vector Sum of reactance (Out of phase with resistance by 90) and resistance
within the inductor.
Reactance
Led’s Resistance by 90.
Formula: XL = 2..f.L
XL = Reactance ()
f = Frequency (Hz)
L = Inductance (H)
100%
IL
VL
0%
1 2 3 4 5 6
Time constant
Formula: =L
R
= Time constant (s)
L = Inductance (H)
R = Resistance of inductor ()
Inductors:
Types
Fixed
Variable
Classification
Value Henry - H
Symbol
Air-cored Inductor Iron-cored Inductor
Inductors in Series
Formula: LT = L1 + L2 + L3 + …
LT = Total Inductance (H)
L1 = 1st Inductor (H)
L2 = 2nd Inductor (H)
L3 = 3rd Inductor (H)
… = Etc
Inductors in Parallel
1
Formula: LT = 1+ 1+ 1…
L1 L2 L3
LT = Total Inductance (H)
L1 = 1st Inductor (H)
L2 = 2nd Inductor (H)
L3 = 3rd Inductor (H)
… = Etc
Classification
Value Henry - H
Symbols
EMF Equation
Formula: V1 = (4.44).N1.f.max
V1 = Primary voltage (V)
N1 = Number of turns on primary voltage
f = Frequency (Hz)
max = Maximum flux (Wb)
Formula: V2 = (4.44).N2.f.max
V2 = Secondary voltage (V)
N1 = Number of turns on secondary voltage
f = Frequency (Hz)
max = Maximum flux (Wb)
Capacitance
Capacitance:
Formula: C = .A
d
C = Capacitance (F)
= Permittivity of dielectric = 0.r (F/m)
Reactance:
Applies only to A.C. circuits.
Lag’s resistance by 90.
Formula: XC = 1
2..f.C
XC = Reactance ()
f = Frequency (Hz)
C = Capacitance (F)
100%
VC
IC
0%
1 2 3 4 5 6
Time constant
Formula: = R.C
= Time constant (s)
R = Resistor ()
C = Capacitor (F)
Capacitors:
Types
Electrolytic or non-Electrolytic
Fixed
Variable
Specifications
Value Farad - F
Tolerance Percentage - %
Deriving Values
1st Figure (Value) – 2nd Figure (Value) – 3rd Figure (Multiplier) – 4th Figure (Tolerance)
Figure below (Voltage)
Tolerance
M = 20%
K = 10%
J = 5%
C = 0.25pF
Symbols
Trimmer Capacitor
Variable Capacitor
Capacitors in Series
1
Formula: CT = 1+ 1+ 1…
C1 C 2 C3
CT = Total Capacitance (F)
C1 = 1st Capacitor (F)
C2 = 2nd Capacitor (F)
C3 = 3rd Capacitor (F)
… = Etc
Formula: QT = Q1 = Q2 = Q2 = …
QT = Total Charge (C)
Q1 = 1st Charge (C)
Q2 = 2nd Charge (C)
Q3 = 3rd Charge (C)
... = Etc
Capacitors in Parallel
Formula: QT = Q1 + Q2 + Q2 + …
QT = Total Charge (C)
Q1 = 1st Charge (C)
Q2 = 2nd Charge (C)
Q3 = 3rd Charge (C)
... = Etc
Resonance
Resonance occurs when XL = XC
This graph shows where resistance and reactance are equal and therefore resonance
occurs
XL
R R
f
XC
AC Circuits
Ohm’s Law applies to AC (Except angles are accounted for)
Series:
XL Z VL VT
R I VR
R I VR
XC VC VT
Z
Parallel:
XL Z IC IT
R IR VT
XC IL
AC Power
Power Triangle:
The Resultant Power (Apparent Power) is made up of Two Components
Q S
P
Formula: S = V.I or S2 = Q2 + P2
S = Apparent power (V.A)
V = Voltage (V)
I = Current (A)
Q = Reactive power (vars)
P = True power (W)
True Power
Formula: P = V.I.cos
P = True power (W)
V = Voltage (V)
I = Current (A)
= Angle between voltage and current
Reactive Power
Power in a Inductor or Capacitor (Since P = V.I.cos = 0)
Led’s True Power by 90
Formula: Q = V.I.sin
Q = Reactive power (vars)
V = Voltage (V)
I = Current (A)
= Angle between voltage and current
Power Factor
Quantity of True Power
Best with unity pf (To improve pf add capacitance)
Formula: pf = cos
pf = Power factor
= Angle between voltage and current